Power invariance transformation in power

systems
J. Heydeman and W. W. Schongs
Department of Electrical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
E-mail: J.Heydeman@ITS.TUDelft.NL

Abstract Many textbooks describe a balanced three-phase circuit by a single-phase equivalent representation.
Confusion may arise amongst students regarding per-unit values of line-to-line voltages and phase voltages and,
therefore, about the magnitudes of currents and powers. This paper proposes that students must first be taught
symmetrical components based on power invariance transformation. A balanced three-phase circuit is to be
described only in terms of positive sequence components. In the authors’ experience, students understand this
approach better and make fewer errors in per-unit calculation than when they use the single-phase equivalent
representation.

Keywords power invariance transformation; power system analysis; single-phase representation; symmetrical
components and sequence networks

Most electric power systems consist of three-phase networks. Under normal

conditions these networks are balanced three-phase circuits, with balanced line
voltages and currents. Therefore, the power system can be represented by
single-phase equivalent networks.1,2,6 At steady-state operation, voltages and
currents are represented by phasors.
Electrical data of machines, transformers, lines etc. are usually related to
equivalent single-phase network representations and expressed in per units.
For instance, the subtransient reactance of a generator is given in per unit
based on the generator’s nameplate rating of nominal line-to-line voltage and
three-phase power. In general, per-unit value representation makes compu-
tations transparent.
In power systems the terms voltage, current and power stand for r.m.s. line-
to-line voltage, line-current and three-phase power, unless indicated otherwise.
To match this demand to the single-phase equivalent representation, the volt-
ages of the single-phase equivalent representation are expressed in line-to-line
voltages. Due to this relation, the currents in the single-phase equivalent
networks are 앀3 times the line currents in the three-phase system and the
powers in the single-phase equivalent representation are the three-phase powers.
Confusion may arise regarding the relation between per-unit values of line-to-
line voltages and phase-voltages and subsequently confusion about the magni-
tudes of currents and powers.
There is no confusion when the power invariant transformation is applied.
This transformation was introduced in 1937.3 Until now, it has hardly been
used in power system analysis. This paper proposes starting a power system
analysis course with the power invariance transformation of the three-phase
system into symmetrical components and sequence networks. Nowadays stud-
ents are familiar with matrix theory, so they can easily understand this

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Heydeman and Schongs 181

mathematical approach. After transformation, the parameters can be expressed

in per-unit values. For power flows, state estimators of balanced power systems,
etc., only positive components and networks are used. Because of the straight-
forward approach, students will make fewer errors.
To examine unsymmetrical operation of symmetrical three-phase networks,
Fortesque introduced the concept of symmetrical components in 1918.4 Many
textbooks1,2 consider single-phase representation and the method of symmetri-
cal components separately. But single-phase representation and positive
sequence components and networks have the same structure. Fortesque’s trans-
formation is power invariant. The power variant and invariant transformation
differ only by a factor of 앀3.
Increasingly, d.c.-networks are connected to a three-phase network. Applying
the proposed approach, the relationship between the d.c. and three-phase
parameters can be formulated very easily. An example of a d.c. railway network
fed by a three-phase grid has been presented.
This paper is organized as follows. First, we consider the power invariance
transformation and the corresponding per-unit procedure. Next, we resolve a
student’s problem, to illustrate the advantage of using the power invariance
transformation. Then we present the representation of a railway system. The
paper ends with conclusions.

Power invariance approach

The approach will be illustrated for a transposed three-phase overhead line,
depicted in Fig. 1. The representation has been simplified by neglecting the
charging currents. Then I =I∞ and we only consider the series impedance
abc abc
Z and mutual impedance Z . The relations between the phase voltages and
s m
line currents are:

CD CD C DCD
V V∞ Z Z Z I
a a s m m a
V − V∞ = Z Z Z Ω I =V =V∞ =Z ΩI (1)
b b m s m b abc abc abc abc
V V∞ Z Z Z I
c c m m s c

Fig. 1 T hree-phase representation of an overhead line.

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182 Power invariance transformation in power systems

These equations are linear. A change in variables is defined by:

V =AΩV (2)
abc 012
V∞ =AΩV∞ (3)
abc 012
I =AΩI (4)
abc 012
The transformation matrix A, being a 3×3 matrix, is assumed to be nonsingular
and independent of all voltages and currents.
Substituting equations (2), (3) and (4) by (1) yields
AΩV −AΩV∞ =Z ΩAΩI (5)
012 012 abc 012
Premultiplying this expression by A−1, which is the inverse of matrix A, results
in
V −V∞ =A−1ΩZ ΩAΩI =Z ΩI (6)
012 012 abc 012 012 012
This expression gives the volt-ampere equations that result when the variables
in equation (1) are changed into primed variables. Note that the form of the
expression has not been changed. This is natural because a set of linear
equations has been subjected to a linear change of variables.
The complex power flowing into the system is given by
S=VT ΩI* (7)
abc abc
Since both the original (unprimed) and the new (primed) variables describe
the same physical system, the power into the system is also the same, regardless
of the variables used to describe the system. However, unless care is taken in
selecting the new variables, the power will not necessarily be expressible as
S=VT ΩI* (8)
012 012
On the other hand, by restricting the transformation matrices in the proper
way, the power will always be given by an expression of the form of equation
(8). This restriction, called the constraint of power invariance, is easily found
by substituting equations (2) and (4) by equation (7) to obtain:
S=[AΩV ]TΩA*ΩI* =VT ΩATΩA*ΩI* (9)
012 012 012 012
But for equations (7) and (8) to be identical, the transformation matrix must
satisfy the condition
ATΩA*=U=the unit matrix.
A transformation matrix which satisfies this condition is:

C D
1 1 1
1
A= Ω 1 a2 a (10)
√3
1 a a2

where a=ej2p/3 so that 1+a+a2=0.

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Heydeman and Schongs 183

To become familiar with this transformation suppose the balanced voltages

are V , V and V , where V =V %240° and V =V %120°. The symmetrical
a b c b a c a
components of this set of voltages are obtained by

CD C DCD C D
V 1 1 1 V 0
0 1 a
V = Ω 1 a a2 Ω V = √3ΩV (11)
1 √3 b a
V 1 a2 a V 0
2 c
Because of the phase sequence a, b and c, and as the voltages have a phase
shift of 120° with respect to each other, V is called the positive sequence voltage.
1
If the phase sequence is a, c and b, while the phase shifts are still 120°, V =
0
V =0 and V = 앀3ΩV , where V is called the negative sequence voltage.
1 2 a 2
Three equal voltages V , V and V (equal magnitudes, no phase shifts) are
a b c
transformed into V = 앀3ΩV and V =V =0, where V is called the zero
0 a 1 2 0
sequence voltage. The same applies for the currents.
According to equation (6) the impedance matrix is obtained by Z =
012
A−1ΩZ ΩA. When the overhead line is symmetrical by transposition, the
abc
impedance matrix is
Z =diag[Z , Z , Z ],
012 00 11 22
where
Z =Z +2ΩZ and Z =Z =Z −Z
00 s m 11 22 s m
Here Z is the series and Z the mutual impedance of the line. This result can
s m
be presented by three (fictitious) independent single-phase networks, shown
in Fig. 2.
Only a symmetrical three-phase network yields this result. Transformation
of an impedance matrix of a non-symmetrical network yields a new non-
diagonal matrix, which cannot be represented by three independent single-
phase networks. Hence, this transformation makes sense only if the matrix of

Fig. 2 Sequence networks of the transposed overhead line.

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184 Power invariance transformation in power systems

the network is cyclically symmetrical, which means that Z =Z =Z and

ab bc ca
Z =Z =Z .
ba ac cb
Sometimes the elements of Z are difficult to determine. However, the
abc
elements of Z can be measured easily. Applying positive sequence voltages
012
to the system results in V = 앀3ΩV , V ∞ = 앀3ΩV ∞ and I = 앀3ΩI , so that
1 a 1 a 1 a
V −V ∞ V −V ∞
Z = 1 1= a a
11 I I
1 a
Z and Z can be determined in the same manner.
00 22
Under normal conditions all three-phase voltages and currents have positive-
sequence components and all zero- and negative-sequence voltages and currents
are zero. This means that only the positive-sequence network has to be con-
sidered. The magnitudes of the positive-sequence bus voltages correspond to
the magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages, whereas the angles are equal to the
angles of the voltages of phase a. The magnitudes of the line-currents are 앀3
times the magnitudes of the three-phase line currents. The positive-sequence
network corresponds to the three-phase power, as a consequence of the
power-invariance transformation S =V T ΩI* , or under these conditions
012 012 012
S=V ΩI* .
1 1
A limited number of asymmetrical faults can be treated by means of sym-
metrical components and sequence networks. The method of solution does not
differ from Fortesque’s approach.
In power system analysis it is usual to express the quantities as a fraction of
reference quantities, such as rated or full-load values. Because of the power
invariance transformation the base power is a three-phase power and the base
voltages are line-to-line voltages. This agrees with the single-phase represen-
tation based on three-phase power and line-to-line voltages.

A student problem
As mentioned before, students are prone to make errors when solving simple
three-phase problems. Fewer errors will be made by them if the proposed
approach is implemented. We will illustrate by solving the following problem.

Problem
A three-phase round-rotor synchronous generator, rated 10 kV, 50 MVA, has
an armature resistance R of 0.1 per unit and a synchronous reactance X of
d
1.65 per unit. The machine operates on a 10 kV infinite bus and delivers 2 kA
at 0.9 power-factor lagging.
(a) Determine the internal phase voltage E and power angle d of the
i
generator.
( b) Determine the steady-state short-circuit current at the same level of
excitation.

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Heydeman and Schongs 185

Fig. 3 T he positive-sequence network.

Solution
(a) The armature resistance and synchronous reactance relate to the positive
sequence network. Therefore, the system is transformed into symmetrical com-
ponents and sequence networks. The phase sequence of the voltages and
currents in the system is abc. Under these conditions the zero components and
negative-sequence components are zero. Hence only the positive-sequence com-
ponents and network need to be considered. Figure 3 depicts the positive-
sequence network.
If the terminal voltage V is the reference phasor, then
a
V =10/앀3%0° kV and I =2%−25.8° kA.
a a
The positive-sequence voltage V and current I have been obtained by
1 1

CD CD C D C D
V V 0 0
0 a
V =A−1Ω V = √3ΩV = 10%0° kV
1 b a
V V 0 0
2 c
and

CD CD C D C D
I I 0 0
0 a
I =A−1Ω I = √3ΩI = 3.46%−25.8° kA
1 b a
I I 0 0
2 c
The machine parameters are in per unit, based upon the nominal three-phase
power and the nominal positive-sequence voltage, so that proper base power
is 50 MVA and proper base voltage is 앀3Ω10/앀3=10 kV. Then the base
current is 50/10=5 kA. The actual positive-sequence phasors are V =1%0°
1
per unit and I =3.46/5%−25.8°=0.693%−25.8° per unit. The Steinmetz
1
notation of R+ jX is 1.653%86.5° per unit. The internal positive-sequence
d
voltage
E=V +(R+ jX )ΩI =1+1.653Ω%86.5°Ω0.693%−25.8°
1 d 1
=1.85%32.6° per unit.

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186 Power invariance transformation in power systems

In engineering units: E=1.85%32.6°Ω10=18.5%32.6° kV. The internal phase

voltage is obtained by

CD C D C D
E 0 1%32.6°
a 18.5
E =AΩ 18.5%32.6° = Ω 1%−87.4° kV
b √3
E 0 1%152.6°
c
The r.m.s. value of the internal line-to-line voltage is 앀3Ω18.5/앀3=18.5 kV.
( b) The line currents are balanced at a three-phase short circuit. Again,
only the positive sequence components and network have to be considered. At
a three-phase short-circuit V =0, so that
1
I =E/Z=1.85%32.6°/1.653%86.5°=1.12%−54° per unit.
1
I expressed in engineering units is I =1.12%−54°Ω5 kA=5.6%−54° kA.
1 1
The line currents have been obtained by means of back transformation

CD C D C D C D
I 0 1%−54° 1Ω%−54°
a 5.6
I = AΩ 5.6%−54° = Ω 1%−174° =3.23Ω 1Ω%−174° kA
b √3
I 0 1%66° 1Ω%66°
c

Modelling of a railway power system

To show the elegance of the power-invariance approach, we will derive a
network representation of a railway system. In The Netherlands most trains
are powered by direct currents. The d.c. system is supplied by a three-phase
network. Figure 4 depicts a simplified one-line diagram of a railway power
system.
The a.c./d.c. converter station consists of two three-phase 11 kV/1375 kV
transformers and six-phase rectifiers in parallel, so as to result in a 12-pulse
arrangement. To each six-phase rectifier an inductance has been added to
sustain an essential flat-topped load current.

Fig. 4 A simplified one-line diagram of a railway power system.

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Heydeman and Schongs 187

Fig. 5 T he simplified d.c. system.

The load flow under normal conditions has to be calculated. The a.c. power
system can be represented by the sequence networks. Under normal conditions
and if only the 50 Hz harmonics are considered, the currents in the zero
networks and negative-sequence networks are zero. Hence, under these con-
ditions, the positive-sequence network represents the a.c. network.
The rectifiers operate without phase control and are assumed to operate in
mode I. In this mode of operation the commutating angle is less than 60°. The
a.c./d.c. converter station can be represented by a voltage source E and a
d0
resistance R .5 Fig. 5 shows a simplified representation of the d.c. system.
c
The voltages E and E are related to the a.c. voltage at the high voltage
d0 d
terminals of the rectifier transformers and the average direct voltage respect-
ively. The commutating resistance R is found by
c
3
R = ΩX
c p c
where X =vΩL , where L primarily represents the two transformer leakage
c c c
inductances in parallel. R causes a voltage drop due to commutation. It does
c
not, however, represent a real resistance and consumes no power. The losses
in the valves and auxiliaries have been neglected.
E can be expressed into the secondary no-load line voltage by
d0
3Ω √2
E = Ω|n|ΩV
d0 p LL
where |n|=1.375/11, the transformer ratio of the converter transformer.
Power-flow analysis requires joint solution of the d.c. and a.c. system equa-
tions. This solution becomes very transparent when the actual quantities have
been expressed into per-unit quantities. Proper selections of the base voltages
are the nominal voltages and a base power of 10 MVA. Because of the power-
invariance transformation of the a.c. system the PU power (power expressed
in per units) in the sequence networks corresponds to the PU power in the d.c.
network. The base voltage of the d.c. network has been chosen as the
no-load voltage.
Under these conditions the transformer ratios of the converter transformers
are one. The phase shifts of the rectifier transformers are not relevant for the
calculation of the a.c. currents. Hence the phase shift of the converter trans-

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188 Power invariance transformation in power systems

Fig. 6 T he per-unit circuits.

formers can be omitted. The positive sequence network becomes very simple
and has been depicted in Fig. 6.
Because of the proper choice of the base values is |V ∞ |=E∞ and |I∞ |=I∞ ,
1 d0 1 d
where |V ∞ | and |I∞ | are r.m.s. values in per unit. The phase shift Q between V
1 1 1
and I is arccos(E∞ /E∞ ). Now it is very easy to compute the load flow.4 The
1 d d0
voltages and currents in the positive sequence and d.c. circuits of Fig. 6 are
obtained by
I =I∞ ΩI , I =I∞ ΩI , V =V ∞ ΩV and V =V ∞ ΩV
d d bDC 1 1 bAC train train bDC 1 1 bAC
The line voltages and currents can be found by means of
V =AΩV and I =AΩI
abc 012 abc 012
where
V =[0, V , 0]T and I =[0, I , 0]T.
012 1 012 1
This results in V =(1/앀3)ΩV and I =(1/앀3)ΩI , where V is the phase
HVa 1 a 1 HVa
voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the converter transformer. The line-to-
line voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the converter transformer is
V = 앀3ΩV =V .
HVLL HVa 1

Conclusions
The equivalent single-phase circuit corresponds to the positive sequence net-
work. Therefore, it is advantageous to introduce the power invariance trans-
formation first. Under normal operation only the positive components and
sequence network have to be considered.
Fortesque’s power variance transformation and the power invariance trans-
formation differ only by a factor of 앀3.
Power invariance transformation is straightforward. The mathematical
approach makes the implementation of per unit values easy. The load flow
calculation of a PU network consisting of both a.c. and d.c. circuits is simple.

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Heydeman and Schongs 189

References
1 J. J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson, Power System Analysis (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994).
2 B. M. Weedy, Electric Power Systems (John Wiley, New York, 1979).
3 W. V. Lyon, T ransient Analysis of Alternating Current Machinery (John Wiley, New York, 1959).
4 C. L. Fortesque, ‘Method of symmetrical coordinates applied to the solution of polyphase
networks’, 34th Ann. Conv. American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Atlantic City, NJ,
June 28, 1918.
5 K. Prabha, Power System Analysis (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994).
6 D. C. White and H. H. Woodson, Electromechanical Energy Conversion (John Wiley, New
York, 1958).

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