Chapter II

2. Imparting Four Skills: A Review of Literature

2.1. Common Literature:

English has become the language of the plenty. It has been considered the

administrative language uniting all states in India. F.G. French (2005), in his book

‗TEACHING ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE‘ comments as

follows:

By the rapid spread of industrial development, science,

technology, international trade, and by something like an
explosion in the speed and ease of travel and by all the factors
which have broken down frontiers and forced nations into
closer interdependence, English has become a world language.
It is the means of international communication; there is no
other. Indian government takes necessary steps to improve the
teaching and learning of English language (p.81).

According to the new method, more classroom time is allotted for students‘

activity. The students have to actively communicate with one another in the

classroom for a long time. This shift to communicative style from grammar-

translation method brings out the truth that ―a communicative syllabus should both

combine structural, functional, and communicative aspects of the target language‖

(Johnson, 1955. p. 34). A student learns the subjects other than the second language

English so well. Hymes (1971), has painted out that

 35

The concept of performance will take on great importance, in

so far as the study of communicative competence is seen as an
aspect of what from another angle may be called the
ethnography of symbolic forms, the study of the variety of
genres, narration, dance, drama, song, instrumental music,
visual art, that interrelate with speech in the communicative
life of a society and in terms of which the relative importance
and meaning of speech and language must be assessed
(p. 284).

The student now has to broaden the aptitude to think, speak, read, listen and

write for that reason. These four skills compose of various sub-skills. Grabe (1992),

points out the following sub-skills in reading. According to him they are,

1. The perpetual automatic recognition skill;

2. Linguistic skills;

3. Knowledge and skills of discourse structure and organization;

4. Knowledge of the world;

5. Synthetic and critical evaluation skills;

6. Metalinguistic knowledge and skills (pp 50-3).

In these circumstances, every student becomes the designer and builder. He

has to develop his own skills, in learning the skills to achieve mastery in the

particular language, especially in English language. Jang (1999), says ―to teach a

foreign language, teachers should have linguistic knowledge of both an L1 and L2‖

(p. 124). Because of the incorrect and the inconsistent attitudes on the part of tertiary

students, the students continue without basic skills in English. The Official

Language Commission in 1956 suggests that English has to be taught hereafter,

principally as a language of comprehension rather than as a literary language so as to

 36

develop, in the students learning it, a faculty for comprehending writings in the

English language, more especially those relating to the subject matter of their

specialised field of studies. The requirement of knowledge for comprehending

English is mainly a matter of understanding the basic grammar and structure of

language and thereafter, principally a question of widening the vocabulary in the

desired direction.

Listening, like reading comprehension, is usually defined as a receptive skill

comprising both a physical process and an interpretive, analytical process

(Lundsteen, 1979). However, this definition is often expanded to include critical

listening skills (higher-order skills such as analysis and synthesis) and nonverbal

listening (comprehending the meaning of tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures,

and other nonverbal cues.) The expanded definition of listening also emphasizes the

relationship between listening and speaking.

Errors are meant as, by Norrish (1983), ‗a systematic deviation from the

accepted code‘. Norrish (1983. p. 10), says about mistake: ‗One of the differences

between the learner and the native speaker of a language is that the native speaker, if

he does deviate from the norm, can correct himself.‘ Corder (1981), speaks of

‗erroneous sentences‘ and calls them as errors which can be corrected by the speaker.

Norrish (1983. p. 48), says that teachers can provide a model of natural speech,

complete with hesitations, for the student to adapt. Hill (1965), presents a list of

errors committed by the students.

 37

 ‘Both of us had a different opinion about it‘ (confusion of

‗both‘ and ‗each‘)

 ‗It was a far distance to my home‘ (erroneous analogous

extension of the idiom ‗a short distance‘),

 ‗He is an European‘ (confusion over ‗a‘ or ‗an‘),

 ‗The dog has hurt it‘s foot‘ (confusion over the use of the
apostrophe)

 ‗Our place of destination is London‘ (tautologies use of

‗place‘).

Mittins (1970), as Hill pointed out gives a set of mistakes committed by the

students. They are as follows, ‗data is‘, ‗his family are‘, ‗less road accidents‘,

‗neither author or publisher are‘, ‗it was us who‘, ‗these sort of plays‘. Some of the

students will say, ‗The bridge is built on the river‘ instead of saying ‗The bridge is

built across the river‘. Bunton (1989), presents a sentence. ‗She got in ―a taxi and

went to the airport‘ (instead of ‗She got into a taxi and went to the airport). The

above said examples show how the students are ignorant of their mistakes. Mittins

(1970), says,

Teachers of English are sometimes and with some justice

accused of lack of curiosity about the language they teach; an
exploration of the historical by ways of usage controversy can
be recommended as fascinating in itself and as a healthy
corrective of premature certainty (P. 113).

The teachers who work hard in developing the skills of their students in

English should have in mind the advice given by Mittins. In support of this view

Norrish (1983) points out that ―in language, as in many other fields of human
 38

experience, there may be no such thing as correct or incorrect answers to every

question, but rather, more or less appropriate ones‖ (p.39).

2.1. 1. Acquisition of Language:

Researchers have found a very consistent order in the acquisition of first

language structures by children, and this has drawn a great deal of interest from SLA

scholars. Considerable effort has been devoted to testing the "identity hypothesis",

which asserts that first-language and second-language acquisition, conform to the

same patterns. This has not been confirmed, perhaps because second-language

learners' cognitive and affective states are so much more advanced, and perhaps

because it is not true. Orders of acquisition in SLA often resemble those found in

first language acquisition, and may have common neurological causes, but there is no

convincing evidence for this. It is not safe to say that the order of L1 acquisition has

any easy implications for SLA.

Some research suggests that most learners begin their acquisition process

with a "silent period", in which they speak very little if at all. It is said that for some,

this is a period of language shock, in which the learner actively rejects the

incomprehensible input of the new language. However, research has shown that

many "silent" learners are engaging in private speech (sometimes called "self-talk").

While appearing silent, they are rehearsing important survival phrases and lexical

chunks. These memorized phrases are then employed in the subsequent period of

formulaic speech. Whether by choice or compulsion, other learners have no silent

period and pass directly to formulaic speech. This speech, in which a handful of

routines is used to accomplish basic purposes, often shows few departures from L2
 39

morphosyntax. It eventually gives way to a more experimental phase of acquisition,

in which the semantics and grammar of the target language are simplified and the

learners begin to construct a true inter language (Seidner, 1982. pp. 9-10).

2.1.2. Communication:

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to

another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least

two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is

commonly by Schwartz, Gary E.; Simon, William L.; Carmona, Richard.et.al.

(2008), defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or

information by speech, writing, or signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way

communication, communication can be perceived better as a two-way process in

which there is an exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas (energy)

towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information)

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called

"communicology,‖ relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large

body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal

and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is

presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals.

In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-

expanding understanding of how we all communicate.

(http://www.communicology.org/content/definition-communicology)
 40

Another facet of communication in the organization is the process of face-to-

face, interpersonal communication, between individuals. Such communication may

take several forms. Messages may be verbal (that is, expressed in words), or they

may not involve words at all but consist of gestures, facial expressions, and certain

postures ("body language"). Nonverbal messages may even stem from silence

(Richard Arvid Johnson, 1976).

Ideally, the meanings sent are the meanings received. This is most often the

case when the messages concern something that can be verified objectively. For

example, "This piece of pipe fits the threads on the coupling." In this case, the

receiver of the message can check the sender's words by actual trial, if necessary.

However, when the sender's words describe a feeling or an opinion about something

that cannot be checked objectively, meanings can be very unclear. "This work is too

hard" or "Watergate was politically justified" are examples of opinions or feelings

that cannot be verified. Thus they are subject to interpretation and hence to distorted

meanings. The receiver's background of experience and learning may differ enough

from that of the sender to cause significantly different perceptions and evaluations of

the topic under discussion. As we shall see later, such differences form a basic

barrier to communication (Richard Arvid Johnson, 1976).

Nonverbal content always accompanies the verbal content of messages. This

is reasonably clear in the case of face-to-face communication. As Virginia Satir

(1967), has pointed out ―people cannot help but communicate symbolically (for

example, through their clothing or possessions) or through some form of body

language.‖ In messages that are conveyed by the telephone, a messenger, or a letter,

the situation or context in which the message is sent becomes part of its non-verbal
 41

content. For example, if the company has been losing money, and in a letter to the

production division, the front office orders a reorganization of the shipping and

receiving departments, this could be construed to mean that some people were going

to lose their jobs — unless it were made explicitly clear that this would not occur.

A number of variables influence the effectiveness of communication. Some

are found in the environment in which communication takes place, some in the

personalities of the sender and the receiver, and some in the relationship that exists

between sender and receiver. These different variables suggest some of the

difficulties of communicating with understanding between two people. The sender

wants to formulate an idea and communicate it to the receiver. This desire to

communicate may arise from his thoughts or feelings or it may have been triggered

by something in the environment. The communication may also be influenced or

distorted by the relationship between the sender and the receiver, such as status

differences, a staff-line relationship, or a learner-teacher relationship (Virginia Satir,

1967).

The problem in English is for all, ‗no matter what the background of the

learner‘ (Richards, 1971. p.213). English sounds such as /t∫/ and/dž/ and /Θ/ and /d/,

and /∫/ and /Ž/ are confusing sounds both for the native speakers and for the foreign

students. It is further suggested by Richards (1971) that there may be an

inherent difficulty for man of certain phonological, syntactic

or semantic items and structures … Therefore, if a hierarchy of
difficulty is postulated for learners of a given language
background, it must include not only inter language difficulties
but also take into account a possible universal hierarchy of
difficulty (pp. 213-14).
 42

Hatch (1983), speaks of the qualities of a language teacher in this manner. He

remarks on the role of the teacher and his duty. While stressing the need for

conversation the conversation class is something of an enigma in language teaching.

In some language programs it is an opportunity for untrained native speakers to get

students talk for the duration of a class period using whatever resources and

techniques the teacher can think of. In language programs where trained teachers are

available they are left to their own resources. Prator remarks, ―In the teaching

situation it is the methods used, more than any other factor, that determines the

results achieved‖ (p. 17). Crookes and Chaudron (1991. p.46), suggest, "Our

conception of the teacher is someone faced with a great number of decisions to be

made at every moment of classroom instruction."

The finding of the Californian State Department of Education (1984), is true

to the state of Indian students who go to the USA to continue their further study or to

continue their profession there in America. It states that to acquire fluency in

English, students need substantial exposure to English in acquisition-rich

environments. This type of environment can be provided in the home, school, or

community. Educators often underestimate the exposure language minority students

have to English. Several research studies indicate that, regardless of the school

program (submersion, ESL, or bilingual education); many language minority

students in the United States acquire basic interpersonal communicative skills in

English in two to three years.

In India, particularly Indian students are staying behind in English fluency

because the students do not give due recognition to all these media and so they
 43

remain underdeveloped. McLennan (1990, Vol. 1), says that, ―the major barrier (to)

preventing students from using all types of media in English... is the difficulty of the

language used‖ (p. 251). Strevens (1987), identifies cultural barriers in learning

English in terms of a clash of assumptions (in the purpose for which English is

studied, differing attitudes to rational argument, personal comportment, eye contact

rules etc.). This results in miscommunication and to inefficient learning. The teacher

may have certain inhibitions and anxieties which obstruct successful training of

English. The student may not react to certain teaching items. Students are not

exposed to the culture because there is no teacher in colleges from England or

America. Gardner (1985), asserts the above idea and adds,

It is argued that any other subject, such as mathematics,

science, or history, involves the development of knowledge or
skills which are a part of the heritage of the student‘s cultural
community; a second language, on the other hand, is a salient
characteristic of another culture (p. 146).

Now there is a shift from the importance of college English teaching and

learning from reading to listening and speaking. Devine (1986), points out, the

following that are based upon an examination of the research literature and

observations of successful classroom practices:

1. Determining one‘s own purpose of listening

2. Guessing the speaker‘s purpose for talking
3. Following spoken directions
4. Guessing the speaker‘s possible plan of organization
5. Noting transitional words and phrases
6. Using a study guide or outline when provided
7. Recognizing the speaker‘s main points
 44

8. Noting the speaker‘s supporting details and examples

9. Following the sequences of ideas
10. Keeping track of the main points by note taking or mental
recapitulations
11. Distinguishing between new and old, relevant and irrelevant
12. Noting possible speaker bias
13. Noting emotional appeals
14. Distinguishing between fact and opinion statements
15. Predicting possible test questions
16. Recognizing the speaker‘s inferences
17. Drawing conclusions from the talk
18. Asking one‘s own personal questions as the talk proceeds
19. Summarizing the speaker‘s main points after the talk
20. Relating the speaker‘s ideas and information to one‘s life
(p. 33).

Peck (1991. p. 364), remarks‘ ―teachers should individualize ESL instruction

so that they teach in the ways in which students learn.‖ The teacher is ideally a

native or near native speaker of the target language. The teachers ought to put into

practice it throughout the course. Jeong (2001), in his speech comments as follows:

―English teachers should aim, not only to teach English but to exploit the authentic

situations that arise in the classroom for meaningful interaction‖. He further suggests

that through verbal communication teachers will be satisfying the maxim ‗practice

makes perfect‘.

The student has to learn the art of speaking efficiently and at the same time he

or she has to pay attention to others carefully. This is very significant in the way of

developing communication skills. According to Nation, I. (1982), the four learning

goals are as follows:

 45

Language: vocabulary, grammar, phonology.

Ideas: content of subject matter.

Skill: fluency, accuracy, strategies, process skills, speed-

reading, note taking essay writing.

Text: discourse rules, text types (narrative, problem solving,

instructions, inquiry.

To find a solution for this worldwide problem is not an easy job for the

speakers of English in foreign countries. It is now appropriate to look at how English

is used in India at present. It is now firmly accepted that English can no longer be

offered, or received, as a possession of the native speakers which foreign learners

must aspire to. Nor is it any longer true that any and every learner should try to

speak English like a British or an American. Students have, so far, not taken

acquiring fluency in a serious way and if they try with full attentiveness it is very

easy to acquire.

The teacher has to offer practices in the class to enhance the pronunciation

skills but it is realized that in most of the classes the practice bears no productive

result. If a reader can translate print into speech- read it aloud as sentences with

normal intonation patterns- and still fail to grasp the idea or related facts or infer or

draw conclusions, then he has a thinking problem, traceable to many sources, none of

them concerning words. It is important that listening involves a good deal of mental

activity and the students should enable them for such activities. Listening is the most

important requirement for a student who wants to develop all the other skills in

English.
 46

2.2. Teacher as a Model in Speech and Language:

Language socialization can be broadly defined as ―an investigation of how

language both presupposes and creates a new, social relations in cultural context‖

(Rymes, 2008). It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of a

language, as well as how elements of language are socially situated in order to reach

communicative competence. Human experience is culturally relevant, so elements of

language are also culturally relevant (Rymes, 2008). One must carefully consider

semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of

communication (Rymes, 2008). There are several potential problems that come with

language socialization, however. Sometimes people can over-generalize or label

cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern

with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social

actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations

(Rymes, 2008). A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language

and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this

varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language

socialization (Rymes, 2008).

The speech and language of the class teacher can be modeled in addition to

modeling pronunciation and connected speech examples. It is the duty of a teacher

who has to provide sufficient speech and pronunciation in English to model these

aspects for the learners. He can use English speech modeling to make the students

attentive and concentrative in listening. He can provide audio-visual aspect of CDs

and DVDs spoken by the native speakers. Speech and cultural elements can be
 47

illustrated or demonstrated using authentic audio-visual materials such as movie clips

and documentaries, student-produced recordings and TV programs. The following

are the web links for study of English skills as given by Lynch.

 Penguin - www.penguinenglish.com
 Pearson – Longman www.longman.com
 Heinemann - http://www.heinemann.com/
 Oxford University - Press www.oup.com
 Cambridge University Press - www.cup.org
 Heinle and Heinle - http://www.heinle.com/esl_d/
 McGraw – Hill - educational resources http://mcgraw-
ll.co.uk/kingscourt/
 Harvard University – Open Courseware
 http://oedb.org/library/features/236-open-courseware-
collections

2..3. Steps to be taken to Develop Listening:

The teacher may insist on Role-Play activities to practise effective

development in listening between the peer groups while this will tend to be an

interesting pastime activity for students. Listening to group activities is a vital

attraction for the other students and here two purposes are served. In addition to the

development of the listening capacity of the students, the student who presents a talk

develops speaking skills and he remains a model for others to imitate his speaking

ways. Role play will help students listen and respond. Following are the steps to be

taken while doing Role play.

Step 1: One student may be asked to speak and the other may be the
listener. For five minutes the speaker may speak on the topic of his interest.
 48

The listener uses efficient listening and makes proper responses back to the
speaker.

Step 2: After his speech the speaker has to provide feedback for two
minutes to the listening partner on the effective listener skills used.

Step 3: When the speech and the feedback are over the student so far
acted as the listener may take the role of speaker and the former speaker the
role of listener.

This role-play activity will certainly be an attraction for the students as the

participants are from their own peer group and so there will be no anxiety and

hesitation among the students and the success is achieved when this activity is

conducted regularly both in the class rooms in the regular stipulated working hours

or after the regular hours are over.

The demanding ability for students is listening but they have never tried so

far to develop it. The significant thing is that students will become more free learners

if they develop listening skills. They have to develop hearing exactly to develop their

own vocabulary and understand grammar in English. Listening to a foreign language

is a very intensive and demanding activity. It is enormously important that before

listening students are to be motivated to listen. They have to hear language within its

natural environment. Then activities that will arouse students' interest and curiosity

should be introduced. Many of the students are nervous when they listen to a lecture,

speech for the first time. They could not cope up with the speed of their teacher.

Listening is an inactive skill, passive skill and inert not only by the learners

and teachers of English but also some great analysts in English. Instead, it is now
 49

considered an active, lively, vigorous and enthusiastic skill. It expects selection of

listening material and interpreting both from listening an audio play and to a video

play. Many researches on listening have come from the native language and by

researchers of this language. Listening involves active cognitive processing of the

construction of a message from phonic material.

Three stages in the aural reception of a message are distinguished: 1)

listeners must recognize in phonic substance sound patterns in bounded segments

related to phrase structure. At this stage students are dependent on echoic memory,

which is very fleeting; 2) listeners must immediately begin processing, identifying

the groupings detected according to the content of our central information system; 3)

listeners recycle the material they organized through immediate memory, thus

building up an auditory memory which helps to retain the segments listeners are

processing. Another important point is highlighted: much of processing of incoming

information takes place during the pauses in speech (Rivers, 1992).

The students find it very difficult to understand the speech when it is uttered

in English but they feel at ease to listen it in their mother tongue. Researchers

evolved at various reasons for this type of difficulty and problem in English

listening. It is due to the language by memory limits (Cook, p. 69 1996). A student‘s

listening to other than his mother tongue have cognitive deficits with listening that

are not caused by lack of language ability but by difficulties with processing

information in the L2. Teaching listening skills is one of the most difficult tasks for

any English language teacher, because successful listening skills are acquired over

time and with lots of practice. Learning listening skills is frustrating for students
 50

because there are no rules as in grammar teaching. Listening skills are also difficult

to quantify.

Research has demonstrated that adults spend 40-50% of communication time

listening (Gilman & Moody, 1984), but the importance of listening in language

learning has only been recognized relatively recently (Oxford, 1993). Since the role

of listening comprehension in language learning was taken for granted, it merited

little research and pedagogical attention. Although listening played an important role

in audio-lingual methods, students only listened to repeat and develop a better

pronunciation (for speaking). Beginning in the early 70's, work by Asher, Postovsky,

Winitz and, later, Krashen, brought attention to the role of listening as a tool for

understanding and a key factor in facilitating language learning. Listening has

emerged as an important component in the process of second language acquisition

(Feyten, 1991).

The students may feel the sounds other than his mother tongue as merely

series of sounds. They could find very difficult to understand the sound. They

miserably fail to recognize them. The words will confuse them as they are not used

to them or they have so far no familiarity with the words in that language. At the

same time, the students who have got familiarity with those words will certainly

realise them not only as sounds but they carry some message and meaning to the

listeners. Experienced learners are able to break down this chain into separate words

in their heads because they are familiar with the sounds and can create meaningful

words with them.

 51

The students new to English language will feel upset with the tone, intonation

and the pronunciation of each word when they listen to. Listening is perfectly

possible when the student could understand the pronunciation. The major problem

that occurs in learning pronunciation is students‘ great difficulty in hearing

pronunciation features, in intonation tunes or identifying the different patterns of

rising and falling tones (Harmer, 2001).

The effort that one should make to gain a new language is well explained by

Peter Strevens (1990), and he says that ―Gaining a new language necessarily involves

developing four modalities in varying degrees and combinations: listening, reading,

speaking, and writing. Among language teachers, these modalities are known as the

four language skills, or just the four skills‖ (pp. 5-6).

Teachers they may take steps to encourage more careful listening, try a

‗contest‘. In any class presentation, you may announce that five points will be

awarded at the end of the talk for each idea or fact remembered. At the conclusion of

the lecture, allow a few minutes for students to jot down all facts and ideas they can

recall, and then award the points. Afterwards, the group can check to make sure all

recalled material is accurate. The ‗contest‘ serves as an excellent device for

reviewing the content of the lesson. When listening to a foreign language, it is very

hard for the listener to have an immediate response to the information and catch the

meaning if he/she does not possess enough linguistic and other relevant knowledge

of the language. Devine (1986), says:

Listening is best viewed- at least for teaching purposes- as a

composite of separate skills, not as global ability. To help
 52

students become more effective listeners in the classroom (and

outside it), they need to be taught discrete skills, such as
listening for main ideas, listening to follow directions, or
listening to follow a sequence of events. The guidelines
presented here are suggested for the more-or-less immediate
improvement of classroom listening, but teachers need to start
thinking of each separate talk or lecture as one part of an over-
all program for improving study skills in listening.

Jeremy Harmer (2000), puts forth this in the following way:

It is perhaps this relentlessness of the taped material which

accounts for the feeling of panic which many students
experience during listening activities. If they fail to recognize
a word or a phrase they haven‘t understood – and if, therefore,
they sop to think about it – they often miss the next part of the
tape and are soon falling behind in terms of comprehension. It
is especially for this reason that students have to be
encouraged to listen for general understanding first rather than
trying to pick out details immediately. They must get into the
habit of letting the whole tape ‗wash over them on the first
hearing, thus achieving general comprehension before
returning to listen for specific detail.

The teacher must understand the significant outcome that achievement has on

inspiration. They have to assess the ability of the students and then the teacher could

diminish their anxiety. It can be reduced as told by Strevens (1990),

 ― using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation;

 using music; and
 using laughter‖( p.21).
 53

Learning strategies are operations employed by the learner to aid the

acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of information. Learning strategies are specific

actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more

self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situation. Language

learning strategies are tools. They are used because there is a problem to solve, a task

to accomplish, an objective to meet, or a goal to attain. Larry Lynch points out when

he provides tips for English for Foreign Learners. A wide range of CDs and DVDs

exist to provide native speech modeling of different speaking, pronunciation,

national and regional English accents. Multiple varieties of English are commonly

used throughout the world and having examples of these by which learners can be

exposed to the differences in spoken English will be helpful in demonstrating

pronunciation variables. Online, over-the-air and cable radio broadcasts can be

especially effective and are readily available in much of the world. Hymes (1971), in

his work ―On Communicative Competence‖ says,

The concept of performance will take on great importance, in

so far as the study of communicative competence is seen as an
aspect of what from another angle may be called the
ethnography of symbolic forms, the study of the variety of
genres, narration, dance, drama, song, instrumental music,
visual art, that interrelate with speech in the communicative
life of a society and in terms of which the relative importance
and meaning of speech and language must be assessed.

Doff (1988), points out that the role play increases motivation. He adds that

roles such as friends, brothers, sisters, parents, teachers, shopkeepers, police officers,

characters from the textbook and popular television programs will development tools
 54

in the view of Doff. This activity serves two purposes making each and every

participant in the position of attaining both the skills of listening and speaking.

Listeners do not pay attention to everything; they listen selectively, according

to the purpose of the task. This, in turn, determines the type of listening required and

the way in which listeners will approach a task. (Richards, 1990), differentiates

between an interactional and a transactional purpose for communication.

Interactional use of language is socially oriented, existing largely to satisfy the social

needs of the participants; e.g., small talk and casual conversations. Therefore,

interactional listening is highly contextualized and two-way, involving interaction

with a speaker. A transactional use of language, on the other hand, is more message-

oriented and is used primarily to communicate information ; e.g., news broadcasts

and lectures. In contrast with interactional listening, transactional listening requires

accurate comprehension of a message with no opportunity for clarification with a

speaker (one-way listening). Knowing the communicative purpose of a text or

utterance will help the listener determine what to listen for and, therefore, which

processes to activate. As with the advantages of knowing the context, knowing the

purpose for listening also greatly reduces the burden of comprehension since

listeners know that they need to listen for something very specific, instead of trying

to understand every word.

(Mendelsohn, 1998), notes a gap between the interests of listening

researchers and classroom practitioners in that classroom materials do very little to

develop metacognitive knowledge through raising learners' consciousness of

listening processes. It is imperative to teach students how to listen. This shifts the
 55

emphasis of listening practice from product to process and the responsibility of

learning from the teacher to the student, thereby helping students become self-

regulated learners.

Listening is an invisible mental process, making it difficult to describe.

Listeners must discriminate between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical

structures, interpret stress and intention, retain and interpret this within the

immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of the utterance (Wipf, 1984),

(Rost, 2002), defines listening, in its broadest sense, as a process of receiving what

the speaker actually says (receptive orientation); constructing and representing

meaning (constructive orientation); negotiating meaning with the speaker and

responding (collaborative orientation); and, creating meaning through involvement,

imagination and empathy (transformative orientation). Listening is a complex, active

process of interpretation in which listeners matches what they hear with what they

already know. Listening skills are often divided into two groups:

 bottom up listening skills and

 top down listening skills

Bottom up listening skills, or bottom up processing, refers to the decoding

process, the direct decoding of language into meaningful units, from sound waves

through the air, in through our ears and into our brain where meaning is decoded. To

do this, students need to know the code. How the sounds work and how they string

together and how the codes can change in different ways when they're strung

together. And most students have never been taught how English changes when it's

strung together in sentences.

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Top-down processing refers to how we use our world knowledge to attribute

meaning to language input; how our knowledge of social convention helps us

understand meaning. These are the skills that listening teachers should be teaching in

their classes but all too often are not. To offer a quote: "An understanding of the role

of bottom-up and top-down processes in listening is central to any theory of listening

comprehension" (Richards, 1990.50).

Well known SLA (Second Language Acquisition) expert Richard Schmidt,

has put forward a theory called the "Noticing Hypothesis", which states that learners

have to notice something before they can learn it. And as such, we need to help our

students notice language points. Teachers need to teach. "There is support in the

literature for the hypothesis that attention is required for all learning. Learners need

to pay attention to input and pay particular attention to whatever aspect of the input

(phonology, morphology, pragmatics, discourse, etc) that you are concerned to learn"

(Schmidt, 1995).

L2 listening competence is a complex skill that needs to be developed

consciously. It can best be developed with practice when students reflect on the

process of listening without the threat of evaluation. Using listening activities to only

test comprehension leads to anxiety which debilitates the development of

metacognitive strategies. Strategy use positively impacts self-concept, attitudes,

about learning and attribution beliefs about personal control (Borkowski et. al.,

1990). Guiding students through the process of listening not only provides them with

the knowledge by which they can successfully complete a listening task; it also

motivates them and puts them in control of their learning (Vandergrift, 2002).
 57

There are two distinct processes involved in listening comprehension.

Listeners use 'top-down' processes when they use prior knowledge to understand the

meaning of a message. Prior knowledge can be knowledge of the topic, the listening

context, the text-type, the culture or other information stored in long-term memory as

schemata (typical sequences or common situations around which world knowledge is

organized). Listeners use content words and contextual clues to form hypotheses in

an exploratory fashion. On the other hand, listeners also use 'bottom-up' processes

when they use linguistic knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. They

build meaning from lower level sounds to words to grammatical relationships to

lexical meanings in order to arrive at the final message. Listening comprehension is

not either top-down or bottom-up processing, but an interactive, interpretive process

where listeners use both prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge in understanding

messages. The degree to which listeners use the one process or the other will depend

on their knowledge of the language, familiarity with the topic or the purpose for

listening. For example, listening for gist involves primarily top-down processing,

whereas listening for specific information, as in a weather broadcast, involves

primarily bottom-up processing to comprehend all the desired details.

Research from cognitive psychology has shown that listening comprehension

is more than extracting meaning from incoming speech. It is a process of matching

speech with what listeners already know about the topic. Therefore, when listeners

know the context of a text or an utterance, the process is facilitated considerably

because listeners can activate prior knowledge and make the appropriate inferences

essential to comprehending the message (Byrnes, 1984). Therefore, teachers need to

help students organize their thoughts, to activate appropriate background knowledge

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for understanding and to make predictions, to prepare for listening. This significantly

reduces the burden of comprehension for the listener.

Listeners use metacognitive, cognitive and socio-affective strategies to

facilitate comprehension and to make their learning more effective. Metacognitive

strategies are important because they oversee, regulate or direct the language

learning process. Cognitive strategies manipulate the material to be learned or apply

a specific technique to a listening task. Socio-affective strategies describe the

techniques listeners use to collaborate with others, to verify understanding or to

lower anxiety. Research shows that skilled listeners use more metacognitive

strategies than their less-skilled counterparts (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990,

Vandergrift, 1997a).When listeners know how to analyse the requirements of a

listening task; activate the appropriate listening processes required; make appropriate

predictions; monitor their comprehension; and evaluate the success of their approach,

they are using metacognitive knowledge for successful listening comprehension.

This is critical to the development of self-regulated learning (Wenden, 1998).

2.4. Developing Speaking Skills

Speaking is generally considered as one of the major prolific skills. As

pointed out by McDonough and Shaw (1993), ―As a skill which enables us to

produce utterances, when genuinely communicatively, speaking is desire and

purpose driven, in other words we genuinely want to communicate something to

achieve a particular end‖. Since speaking is a dynamic process and one which is

difficult to separate from listening in many ways, Nunan (1989), has mentioned that
 59

‖successful oral communicators should develop ‗conversational listening skill‘ as

well.‖ Several organic and psychological factors can affect speech. Among these are:

1. Diseases and disorders of the lungs or the vocal cords, including paralysis,

respiratory infections, vocal fold nodules and cancers of the lungs and throat.

2. Diseases and disorders of the brain, including alogia, aphasias, dysarthria,

dystonia and speech processing disorders, where impaired motor planning,

nerve transmission, phonological processing or perception of the message (as

opposed to the actual sound) leads to poor speech production.

3. Hearing problems, such as otitis media effusion and auditory processing

disorder can lead to phonological problems.

4. Articulatory problems, such as stuttering, lisping, cleft palate, ataxia, or nerve

damage leading to problems in articulation. Tourette syndrome and tics can

also affect speech. A lot of people also have a slur in their voice

5. In addition to dysphasia, anomia and auditory processing disorder can impede

the quality of auditory perception, and therefore, expression. Those who are

Hard of Hearing or deaf may be considered to fall into this category.

Developing English language and the skills is often regarded as a defining

characteristic of all sustained learning that attains long-term success (Little, 1996).

Learners‘ interest has consummately grown and students have taken active interest in

the methods of learning (Holec. 1981). The learner is perceived as a decision-maker

who has to, or will develop the capacity for choosing from among available tools and

resources to create what is needed for the task in hand (Dickinson. 1995).
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Much of the literature on developing spoken skills (Ex. Kramsch & Sullivan,

1996; Pennycook, 1989) suggests that acquaintance may be a Western educational

trend. It has become suited to Eastern contexts also. It has validity for language

learners in different educational contexts. Those who believe that learning English is

valid for all learners also believe that all language learners, no matter what their

culture, are individuals with their own set of needs and preferred learning styles in

developing their skills.

English language students are ready to work independently of the teacher

despite their strong orientation towards acceptance of power, authority, collectivism

and interdependence. Paran (1996), suggests

Students could try to find out their resources unanimously

once a direction was initiated. It is true to recognise that the
situation is somewhat different for L2 learners, as they have to
"compensate for the lack of good linguistic skills" and for "the
lack of well-developed automatised skills (p. 29).

Students are found to demonstrate a certain degree of their already acquired

skills and their indulgence in the various task-based activities. It was also reported

that students in the survey took full part in a simulation project and commented

favourably on this kind of learning and developing experience. A study by Lee

(1998), also found that first year university students displayed strong on-task

behaviour within the parameters set by the teacher.

Brown and Yule (1983), have examined various forms of language which are

usually used by speakers of the language. These are:

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 incomplete sentences, often simply sequence of phrases

 very little use of subordinate clauses

 very few use of passives

 active declarative forms are normally found

 not very specific logical connectors (moreover, however) and

metalingual markers (that, when, while etc) exist to mark
relationships between clauses

 topic comment structure is commonly used (as in ‗the birds – did

you let them out.‘).

 Replacing or refining expression (e.g. ‗this man/ the poor fellow has
lost his wife.‘)

 the use of generalized vocabulary (e.g. thing, nice stuff etc.).

 repetition of the same syntactic form

 the use of pauses and fillers (‗erm‘, ‗well‘, ‗of course‘ and so on)

The student when he speaks cannot find the apt word to express his idea. He

has to convey the message with the words he has already known to arrive at a close

meaning. He can use the ‗um‘ and ‗er‘ to fill the delay. Helgesen & Brown (1994)

remark ―in English class it is good and important to answer the teacher's questions

and interrupt with questions of your own. It means that you are interested and paying

attention. In English, it is your job to ask questions if you don't understand‖ (p. 3).

The English class room should not be a one-way traffic. This should be

changed into an interactive session. Interactive Language Teaching W. Rivers

(1987), proposes interaction as a principle of good language teaching. He says that

students achieve facility in using ―a language when their attention is focused on

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conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain

information of interest to speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both).

Human behavior relies on reciprocal interactions among thoughts and beliefs,

behaviors, and environmental factors.‖ (Shunk & Zimmerman, 1997. p.35). Here,

the student can try to use what he possess of English and it will help him to store it

for future use. Any tertiary class room ought to function as student centered one if

―Teacher-directed and dominated classrooms cannot, by their nature, be interactive

classrooms, and this is what language teachers need to learn. Interaction can be two-

way, three-way, or four-way, but never one-way. (Rivers, 1987. p. 9). He also

suggests that ―interaction in the classroom requires the teacher to step out of the

limelight, to cede a full role to the student in developing and carrying through

activities, to accept all kinds of opinions, and be tolerant of errors the student makes

while attempting to communicate.‖ (Rivers, 1987. p. 9)

It is in the class room that Language learning is a tedious, dry-as-dust

process, devoid of any contact with the real world in which language use is as natural

as breathing. Grammar rules are explained and practiced; vocabulary and paradigms

are learned by heart and tested out of context; the ‗book‘ is ‗covered‘ and students

move on. (Rivers, 1987. p. 14)

Speech perception is the processes by which humans are able to interpret and

understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely

linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive

psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to

understand how human listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to
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understand spoken language. Speech research has applications in building computer

systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for

hearing- and language-impaired listeners. Rosetta is an example of listening

software.

2.4.1. Asking Questions develop Speaking:

A question may be either a linguistic expression used to make a request for

information, or else the request itself made by such an expression. This information

is provided with an answer. Questions are normally put or asked using interrogative

sentences. However they can also be put by imperative sentences, which normally

express commands: "Tell me what two plus two is"; conversely, some expressions,

such as "Would you pass the salt?", have the grammatical form of questions but

actually function as requests for action, not for answers, making them all of

functional.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Categories of questions)

 Knowledge
who, what, when, where, why, how..? Describe...?
 Comprehension
retell...
 Application
How is...an example of...?; how is...related to...?; why is...significant?
 Analysis
What are the parts or features of...? Classify...according to...;
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 Synthesis
what would you infer from...? What ideas can you add to...? How
would you design a new..? What would happen if you combined...?
What solutions would you suggest for...?

 Evaluation
do you agree that...? What do you think about?...What is the most
important..? Place the following in order of priority...? How would
you decide about...? What criteria would you use to assess...?

2.4.2. Role play and Developing Speaking:

Role play can be defined as a technique in which people are presented with a

real or artificial environment and they are exposed with some kind of case or

situation and they need to exhibit the same in form of roles. It is a spontaneous

human interaction involving realistic human behavior under artificial or stimulated

environment .It consists of interviews or series of interview in which the participants

or the trainees are provided with a role brief and a s et of circumstances which they

need to enact.

The trainee develops a strategy to how he reacts or thinks in a particular

situation and possible suggestive solutions for resolving the problem or analyzing the

situation .He also learns and forecasts what the other party or as per the case may be

what can be the other reaction. This technique thus not only leads to self learning

about expected job outcome or to create a fit in the job but also helps in

understanding others perception about the task or issue.

2.4.2.1. Objectives of Role play as a training technique:

1) It helps in developing a better understanding of the job

2) It helps in understanding how to handle a particular situation.
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3) It helps in developing better understanding of the issue an better

decision making
4) It helps in anticipating reaction of other party
5) It helps in developing communication, management
development and leadership quality.
6) It helps in improvement of interpersonal relationship
7) It helps in providing an insight to understanding behavioral
patterns of others.

2.5. Reading Skills:

Several disciplines – psychology, linguistics, and education, in particular –

are involved in researching reading and have constantly refined their research

methodology to inquire into this elusive process, hidden from direct observation.

Research methods span a wide continuum from highly controlled psycholinguistic

experiments (using, for example, eye movement tracking, reaction times to linguistic

stimuli, or neuro-physiological measurements such as brain scans), to ethnographic

studies that rely on participant‘s observation, documentation, interpretation, and

discussion with informants in authentic reading contexts over extended periods of

time.

Central to cognitive definitions of reading is the concept of meaning

construction that characterizes reading not as a passive way of getting information,

but as an active process of constructing understanding. The activation and use of

topic-specific pre-knowledge as well as the psycholinguistic processing of text

information both play an important role in meaning construction.

Studies investigate students‘ views of the various skills comprising in reading

and their immediate responsibilities and decision-making abilities in developing

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English. The level of the reading skills and their motivation level and the actual

language learning activities they undertook inside and outside the classroom with a

view to gauging their readiness for developing reading skills is also investigated.

The study entitles the students‘ profile of developing the reading skills and what

academic ways are to be implemented in order to develop the level of reading.

It is certain that students studying in the colleges should have attainment in

all the skills. Then only it is possible that they would have a good chance to be

placed in a very good profession. This is the expectation from both the employers

and the employees all over the world as globalization has compelled such a state. It

is quite evident that reading is the forbidden one among the students in the schools as

the teacher all the time occupied with reading the text leaving the students and

making them to listen to his reading. Reading practice was almost a neglected one

and so all the students find it difficult to read a small paragraph in the class room.

Students can speak to others, listen to others, read the writing in their native language

very easily, but when it comes to English language the position is totally a different

one. Not even a single student has so far developed the reading of news papers in

English and tried to find the logical relationship of vocabulary by referring to the

dictionary.

Reading skills acquisition is the process of acquiring the basic skills

necessary for learning to read; that is, the ability to acquire meaning from print.

According to the National Reading Panel, the ability to read requires proficiency in a

number of language domains: phonemic awareness, phonics (sound-symbol

correspondence), fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension.

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 Phonemic awareness: The ability to distinguish and manipulate the individual

sounds of language. The broader term, phonological awareness, also includes

rhymes, syllables, and onsets and rimes.

 Phonics: Method that stresses the acquisition of letter-sound correspondences

and their use in reading and spelling. This helps beginning readers understand

how letters are linked to sounds (phonemes), patterns of letter-sound

correspondences and spelling in English, and how to apply this knowledge

when they read.

 Fluency: The ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and vocal

expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors

necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be

difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in

the text to his or her background knowledge. This accuracy and automaticity

of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension (Rasinski,

T. 2007).

‗One of the most effective approaches to study reading is the SQ3R method

(Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review). Students may be taught the five

steps of the method from textbook chapters, magazine articles, anthology sections

and newspaper editorials. The steps according to Robinson in the method or reading

are as follows:

Survey the headings and summarize quickly to get the general

ideas that will be developed in the assignment; 2. turn the first
heading into a question; 3. read the whole section through to
answer that question; 4. at the end of the headed section stop
to recite from memory the answer to the question, and jot the
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answer down in phrases ( steps 2,3, and 4 are repeated on each

succeeding headed section); and 5. at the end of reading the
assignment in this manner, then immediately review the lesson
to organize the ideas and recite on the various points to fix
them in the mind. (Robinson, 1970 p. 32)

SQ3R is a five-step strategy appropriate for tertiary students and designed

especially to encourage students to become independent in reading expository

materials. Those who read at tertiary level can apply its techniques to improve

comprehension. SQ3R not only aids tertiary students in organizing and outlining, but

also assists them in developing a sequential process in reading any assignment. The

teacher can thus create extension and refinement activities to develop higher levels of

thinking. Devine also gives the explanation for the question how the SQ3R method

works.

S Survey: Here is where you skim or survey the material. It means

looking over the whole assignment before you actually start to read it.

1. Check the title first to get an idea of what the material is about.
2. Note the beginning and end to get a notion of how much
material the author uses to get across the ideas.
3. Pay attention to headings and subheadings. They can help you
get an over-all picture of the author‘s plan.
4. Look at charts, pictures, graphs, and other illustrative material.
Check the captions under each. These can also help to give
you clues to the over-all plan.
5. Quickly read anything that denotes introductory paragraphs,
and summary sections. They can give you a better overview.

Q Question: This is the crucial stage in personalizing the

assignment, making it really yours. On a separate sheet of paper, jot
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down the questions that you, personally, want answered. What might
the author be able to tell you don‘t already know? What are you
curious about here? Sometimes, turn the headings and subheadings
into questions.

R Read: Now you are ready to actually read the assignment.

1. Read the introductory paragraphs rather carefully.

2. Add to your personal list of questions if you need to.
3. Skin the less important points.
4. Add difficult words to your question sheet so that you can
verify the meanings later.
5. Keep asking yourself: What is the author‘s main purpose in
writing the material?

R Review: After you have completed the reading, try to

understand each section. What was the author‘s main purpose?
What were the chief points? What was the over-all plan? Try to
keep the key points in mind.

R Recite: One of the best ways to understand anything is to tell it

to someone else in your own words. At this final stage, ―tell‖ your
answers to the questions, either to yourself in writing or to another
student in conversation. Making a synopsis or summary [Which
includes answers to your questions] is also a powerful learning
method.

The teachers should realise that they have to motivate their students for

making them begin their reading practice and then the student can take care of

themselves. Gardner (1985), suggests that: ‗Students either opt in or out of informal

context and the extent to which they do would be expected to be influenced primarily

by their degree of motivation and/or anxiety‖ (p. 28).

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Reading is one of the four basic skills that student should master if he wants

to learn a foreign language. Reading English can improve his perception and it helps

him a lot to improve listening, speaking and writing. It can develop knowledge and

increase his visions and enable his attention to English interestingly. Reading is

―appreciating the sense of what is written: we read for meaning‖ (Crystal, 1987. p.

209).

It is true that in English, vocabulary is fast developing day by day. Isabel

Beck, Margaret Mckeown, and Linda Kucan in their book BRINGING WORDS TO

LIFE: ROBUST VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION (2002), have pointed out the

importance of vocabulary in reading. They argued that words occur in three tiers,"

the lowest (tier 1) being common words such as eat and fish, the top (tier 3) being

very content-specific words such as photosynthesis and geopolitical. The tier 2 words

were what they considered general academic vocabulary, words with many uses in

academic contexts, such as analyze and frequent. Willis (1981), asks teachers to let

the students know certain things during reading. He says:

There are different kinds of things that students need to

understand, and there are also different levels of
understanding, for example: the main points in a reading or
listening passage specific details in a reading or listening
passage the attitudes of the author or the characters in a task
the meanings of particular words or expressions the reference
value of words like he and them the meaning of a particular
structure item the general situation in a dialogue.

Scholars use skimming mainly in their research to get a general idea of the

book. Students can join the courses run by certain institutions to develop speed
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reading. It will increase the power of skimming in him. Join Speed Reading courses

which teach techniques that largely constitute skimming of written text also result in

a lower comprehension rate (below 50% comprehension on standardized

comprehension tests)‖(Carver, 1992). Brown (1993), suggests ten things for students

to do before they indulge in reading comprehension. They are:

1. Look at the title and the headings for each section. What do
you think this passage is going to be about? 2. Look at the
pictures. What do you think this passage is going to be about?
3. Read the first and last paragraphs and the first sentence of
each paragraph. What do you think this passage is going to be
about? 4. Read the title. Now quickly scan the passage and
circle all the words that have a connection to the title.5. Scan
the passage and cross out all the words you don‘t know. After
you read the passage again carefully, look up the words in a
dictionary. 6. After looking at the title, pictures, and so on,
brainstorm the specific words you expect to see in the passage.
7. After looking at the title and pictures, make up some
questions you think this passage might answer. 8. What kind
of passage is this? (fiction? or nonfiction?—what kind?) Why
would somebody read this? For information? Pleasure? 9.
Choose words from the passage and write them on the board.
Ask students to scan the passage and circle them. 10. Tell a
story about the background of the reading passage. (See:
Brown)

These suggestions will certainly enable the students acquire reading skills

very easily and, at the same time, it enhances their interest in reading. It is highly

essential that the teacher has to ask questions to his or her students in order to
 72

promote understanding as communication at both sides are vital result. Chaudron

(1988), points out:

With the growth in concern for communication in language

classrooms… the supposition is that open/general questions, or
referential questions, would promote greater learner
productivity, and the latter would likely promote more
meaningful communication between teacher and learner.

Hence, the teachers should ask the student to discuss within him about

the thing he comprehends.

2.6. Review of Literature in Writing:

Researchers demonstrate that writing skills develop best when the teacher

believes they are capable of expressing their thoughts and opinions on paper, where

the environment is print-rich and when they have frequent opportunities to

communicate meaningfully in writing (Graves, 1983; Harste, Woodward & Burke,

1984; Peyton, 1990; Schickedanz, 1986). It is important to be aware of research

results demonstrating that children begin writing for meaning and communication

long before they have mastered oral language or are capable of reading. Graves

(1983), and Calkins (1983), documented that children experience extraordinary

literacy development in environments where they not only wrote, but also were

taught by a teacher who constantly challenged and attended to the writer and his or

her ideas. These findings have direct implications for and applications to ESL

classroom practice.
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Feedback, with its potential to transform a writer‘s text, has a really important

role in process writing but it is not without its drawbacks. First among these is the

tendency for learners to add or delete ideas in their draft only in response to teacher

feedback. In other words, unless teachers are discerning in how feedback is given,

they can foster student dependency. By perfunctorily adding or deleting, in

accordance with teacher feedback, the learner is failing to engage in the writing

process and, as a consequence, the overall ability to write will not improve. Peer

feedback can fall short of what it is intended to achieve, either because peers lack

sufficient knowledge themselves to provide accurate feedback, or because student

peers may be apprehensive about offering constructive criticism. Feedback, if it is to

be useful, will inspire writers to re-plan, re-draft, or re-edit their texts so as to best

convey their intended meaning. The form of their writing, the grammar and

vocabulary, are not attended to until the final draft. This delay in responding to

grammar is one of the strengths of this approach as students are encouraged to

express their ideas without their flow of thought being impeded by their concern for

correctness.

However, one of the shortcomings of process writing, as identified by Swales

(1990), is that it puts too much emphasis on the cognitive processes of writing with

too little regard given to the social forces, which help to shape a text. This weakness

provides the ideal entry point for considering the use of the genre approach, in

conjunction with process. This approach holds that writing is not simply an outcome

of internal processes, but is also determined by purpose and context. So all writing is

done with a purpose in mind, whether it is to write a postcard, a love letter, a

newspaper article, or a university essay, and these various purposes influence the
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overall structure and features of a text such as coherence (Harmer, 2004). Context,

being the social influences operating beyond the page, determines such linguistic

features of a text as register. In teaching according to this approach, an expert text

will be analyzed before the teacher models how to write such a text along with

learner input

Once the students begin to write according to the chosen genre, the process

orientation can be implemented, with the learners developing their text by following

the cognitive stages of planning, composing, and revising. One of the advantages of

using the genre approach along with process is that an initial focus on genre,

examining how the rhetorical and linguistic features of a text are constructed so as to

achieve a particular purpose, helps the teacher to prepare the students to write. Once

the thinking processes necessary to composing such a text have been modeled, then

the students may engage in the cognitive stages recommended by the process

approach in order to construct their own text. Using the two collaboratively helps to

resolve one of the weaknesses of process writing which puts too much emphasis on

the writer as an independent producer of texts and too much emphasis on ―the writer

and the writer‘s internal world‖ (Swales, 1990. p. 220) without considering the socio-

cultural nature of writing. The genre approach gives the learner more initial support,

with analysis of and modeling how to construct a text for a particular purpose before

learners engage in the process of creating their own. Process and genre together, in

recognizing that writing is both personal and social, help to address a major potential

difficulty of learning to write in a new language : that the prior knowledge,

experience, and cultural expectations that a learner brings to the classroom may be
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incompatible with those which render a piece of writing in the target language

effective.

Communicating in written form is more concrete than verbal communication

that has less room for error and even less room for mistakes. Student engagement in

writing can be enhanced when students are immersed in active learning that is

genuine, thoughtful and collaborative. So a special importance is to be given to "the

ways which writers and texts need to interact with readers" (Tribble, 1996. p. 37).

Students have many roles to play in acquiring the skills in English language.

Johnson and Paultson (1976), point out the roles of learners in the following terms:

a. Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume
responsibility for what they do in the class room.
b. Learners monitor and evaluate their own programmes.
c. Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others.
d. Learners tutor other learners.
e. Learners learn from the teachers, from other students, and from other
teaching sources.

The teacher has to play many roles in the developing of English language

skills particularly in the written and the spoken. According to Breen and Candlin

(1980),

The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the
communication process between all participants in the class
room, and between these participants and the various activities
and texts. The second role is to act as an independent -
participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role
is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises
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from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the
teacher: first as an organizer of resources and resource
himself, second as a guide within the class room procedures
and activities. …A third role for the teacher is that of
researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of
appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed
experience of the nature of learning and organizational
capacities.

Complaints about student writing have been documented by various

researchers and include concerns with: ‗grammar, spelling and punctuation

(Baynham et al 1994; Lea, 1994); ability to understand and explain facts‘ (Russell,

1991)

The students may be asked to write nonstop for some time in order to write

what he has in mind. The teacher should make it a must that the student should not

pause and feel difficult in the selection of words for his writing. He may be

encouraged to jot down in writing whatever comes to him as water from a fountain.

In Elbow's own words, "the only requirement is that you never stop" (1998, p. 3).

When analyzing the hindrances of student‘s developing of skills, tension and

nervousness play the vital roles among the students.

English has, so far, been the cruelest of all things for them. Elbow stresses

when the anxiety about writing for a perfect product is removed, students will find

the writing process more enjoyable, liberating and empowering. (Elbow, 2000).

More attention is to be bestowed upon the teaching of communication in a tertiary

environment because the reading and writing practices that students need to learn are

specific to their discipline, this discipline-specific literacy is most effectively learned

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in conjunction with course content...This kind of teaching leads to high quality

learning for students and a high degree of equity as it reaches most of them.‖

Teachers should concentrate on course content for developing the skills all together.

The following are the important steps that the students should follow to improve the

reading skills.

1. The students have to estimate their reading practice.

2. They have to be careful to endow with the right environment.

3. They have to use their eyes powerfully.

4. It is a must that they have to continue to expand vocabulary.

5. They must get used to their speed so that they can understand the
material.

6. They have to enhance their living with good books.

The teachers have to frame a way to eradicate this problem prevalent among

students. Hatch and Brown classify the learners into the following categories. They

are students ―1. having sources for encountering new words; 2) getting the forms of

the new words; 3) learning the meanings of the words; 4) making a strong memory of

the words; and 5) using the words.‖ Teacher has to make the students know about

word formation as this is the base for developing vocabulary in English. He has to

explain how a basic word is changed into many new words by adding a suffix or a

prefix. For example the base word ‗history‘ can be changed into ‗historic‘, historical‘

historians‘ and ‗histories‘ and the teacher should explain the change in meaning

among the words.

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It is very important on the teachers to see whether the student‘s written

communication is well organized. More and more writing will make a student try to

"think of words and also worry at the same time whether they are the right words"

(Elbow, 1998. p. 5). In addition, he has to see if each idea proceeds logically to the

next. Then it is vital to look at whether the written communications are easy to read

and contain the necessary information. He has to use facts where needed and avoid

information that is irrelevant and non- informative.

To describe the various kinds of approaches to teach writing among the

students one has many in number. Among all approaches the traditional textual

approach is based on students‘ reading of sample texts and writing essays. In this

approach he tries to imitate the linguistic, stylistic, and other peculiarities of the

texts. They read and apply them to their own compositions.

The process approach (Tribble, 1996), came to replace the textual approach in

the last part of the 20th century. It is the basis of current methods of teaching

academic writing. This approach presents a process that introduces the texts – pre-

writing, composing/drafting, revising, and editing (Tribble, 1996). In this approach

students have to first come up with ideas in small groups about the topic to be

discussed in writing and in the activity many ideas are to be generated.

The third one is genre approach (Swales, 1990). It focuses on analyzing

communicative purposes of the texts read by students and the ways handled by the

writers of the texts to achieve such purposes. On the basis of such an analysis,

students learn to write their own texts trying to achieve similar communicative

purposes.
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Creative writing suggests ―imaginative tasks such as writing, poetry, stories,

and plays" (Harmer, 2001. p. 259). In the course book ‗Writing Academically’

creative writing tasks are separate (final) but integral part of every unit, which is not

characteristic of other writing course books.

The development of relevant writing skills is absolutely essential but they are

relatively simple to teach. But recently there is a development in the teaching of

English giving more importance to practical writing in the tertiary level. White and

Arndt (1991), point out that, ―For many students writing is a chore to be got through

for a grade, and to many others, not only is it a chore, but a boring one at that‖ (p.

11). There the teachers should shift the boring effect into an interesting one by

enhancing the academic writing in English by following a strict set of laws.

Littlewood (1981), stresses the importance of paying ‗systematic attention to

functional as well as structural aspects of language‖ (p. 1).

For the past many years academic writing has been taught in many ways and

all the teachers find it very difficult to improve the tertiary students in the developing

the writing skills. As Casanava (2002), aptly points out, learning how to write for

academic purposes poses a "clueless" challenge because the rules of the "game" are

almost all implicit (p. 19). Academic writing becomes a unique means for learners‘

consciously mastering the creative, productive, and expressive approach towards

communicative performance in the target language. Another advantage is the role of

reinforcer (Raimes, 1983) that writing plays in second / foreign language teaching.

Creative writing suggests ―imaginative tasks such as writing, poetry, stories,

and plays" (Harmer, 2001. 259). It aims at students‘ developing abilities for writing
 80

in English and it develops fluency in written and oral communication. The short

stories give freedom in selecting the language forms, format, structure, and style of a

written piece. It ends in the increasing of students‘ command of English vocabulary,

grammar, and style. James Moffet (1970), says

Learning to write is different from learning to ride a bicycle or

even learning to play the piano, which is, after all, physical
activities. Writers manipulate symbols, not objects. And they
are acting on the minds of the other people, not on matter. Yes,
indeed. But these differences do not make learning to write an
exception to the general process of learning through feedback.

A student in the class room should have an atmosphere of free from all

tensions and inhibitions. The teacher has so far occupied the front stage forgetting

the purpose of his teaching and the students are kept mere spectators. But the

scenario has now totally changed as more importance and student centre teaching

activities are being introduced. So the student now thinks a class room a sanctuary.

He thinks that his class mates are his companions and he is ever willing to exhibit his

talents.

2.7. Teaching and learning English with technology:

Using various kinds of Media in the classroom has always been a challenge,

and how to bring these Media in the classroom is more than a challenge. Students

and teachers should be able to use in their classrooms different media through

different technologies. Media provide teachers and students with creative and

practical ideas. They enable teachers to meet various needs and interests of their

students. They also provide students with a lot of language practice through activities
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using newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, movies, books, Internet, etc, and tasks

which develop reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. They entertain students

and encourage reading English in general, both inside and outside the classroom,

promoting extensive reading by giving the students the confidence, the motivation

and the ability to continue their reading outside the classroom.

First, technology is an ill-defined concept that encompasses a wide range of

tools, artifacts, and practices, from multimedia computers to the Internet, from

videotapes to online chat rooms, from web pages to interactive audio conferencing.

These technologies vary a great deal in their capacity, interface, and accessibility. It

is thus misleading to think the effects of videotapes are the same as those of the

online chat rooms just because they are all called ―technology.‖ Second, the effects

of any technology on learning outcomes lie in its uses. A specific technology may

hold great educational potential, but, until it is used properly, it may not have any

positive impact at all on learning. Thus, assessing the effectiveness of a technology is

in reality assessing the effectiveness of its uses rather than the technology itself.

Technologies can be used to add more depth and breadth to a topic (McGrath,

1998). Research has shown that students are exposed to intellectual environments

online, but "it remains unclear how much demand there is among students for an

alternative to the traditional classroom" (Althaus, 1997, p. 158). The Internet cannot

replace human speech, it can only copy it. Ideally, "technology promotes cooperation

and collaboration among students and good teachers can capitalize on these

opportunities" (McGrath, 1998). The combination of technologies with traditional

teaching methods will bring about the most desired results. To a certain degree many
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instructors are already doing this by videotaping speeches or showing video clips.

Many instructors require their students to have an email address and send out

announcements on a regular basis. This forces students to take a step into Internet

technology that will facilitate the apprentice of other Internet technologies.

Since most information and communication technologies (ICTs) can be used

in a variety of ways, some more effective than others, it is inappropriate to generalize

the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of one way of using the technology to the

technology itself. Third, to further complicate things, the effectiveness of an

educational approach is highly mediated by many other variables—the learner, the

task, the instructional setting, and of course the assessment tool. Thus, even the same

use of a particular technology in different instructional settings may result in

different learning outcomes. Clearly it is unreasonable to expect any single study to

tell us to what degree technology is effective in improving language learning.

However, a comprehensive review of many studies can get us closer to an answer

(e.g., Cavanaugh, 2001; Lou, Abrami, & d‘Apollonia, 2001; Salaberry, 2001). With

the help of a research method called meta-analysis (Hedges & Olkin, 1995; Lyons,

1995a), we can assess the effectiveness of technology uses in language education by

analyzing findings of numerous empirical studies.

Certainly email and chat rooms are suitable for practising reading and writing

skills, but what about speaking skills? Liu et al. (2003) reveal a serious shortcoming

in the research they reviewed, finding that most focused on the ‘increase of written

communication skills‘ (2003:259). Where studies spoke of an increase in the quantity

of oral output, there was some question as to the ‗syntactic complexity‘ of the
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language output. On the other hand, another researcher has found multimedia to be

highly effective in improving listening and speaking skills (Poon 2003).

Answers to questions presented through multimedia are best not judged as

only ‗correct‘ or ‗incorrect‘ with little or no feedback, especially in cases where there

can be alternative answers, because additional explanations can help learners to focus

on errors. Furthermore, adding hints where students have correctly answered

questions can help learners to think about why their answers are correct. For

example, in a review of a multimedia software program called ‗Connected Speech‘,

Egbert (2004), suggests ‗…when learners are working on determining the number of

spoken syllables in words; it might be more effective for some learners to be shown

an answer instead of just being told well done‘ (2004. p.7).

Magazines are resources for different subjects, cutting out pictures and

passages associated with particular topics. Magazines are also sources in language

development in providing pictures to stimulate verbal or written stories. For example,

they may be used for introducing colors and clothes, means of transport, short

stories, stimulating picture discussions and for other supplementary materials as well,

which cover a topic that may be under discussion in a language class.

A lot of radio programs contribute to language learning. Besides getting new

information and entertainment, in language classes, radio helps the pronunciation, the

intonation, the pitch of voice, etc. These might be successful if we undertake

adequate preparation and design carefully graded tasks. Students gain a feeling of

satisfaction from having understood something of an authentic broadcast; we can see

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the joy in their faces. They develop greater confidence in their ability to cope with

English as it‘s spoken outside the classroom. Albanian students may use BBC World

Service news bulletin, Voice of America or other foreign radio stations. In case

students have no possibilities, the teacher may record the news bulletin, transcribe it

and prepare to explain any difficult vocabulary that may come out.

‗Defenders call TV a window on the world, a magic carpet of discovery.

They claim that it enlarges both knowledge and understanding. Defenders say it

encourages a new way of thinking, with interlocking hopes, needs and problems.

Critics call it the idiot box. They say it promotes mindless viewing of mindless

programs.

―We live in a world where media are omnipresent. An increasing

number of people spend a great deal of time watching television,
reading newspapers and magazines, playing records and listening to
the radio… The school and the family share the responsibility of
preparing the young person living in a world of powerful images,
words and sounds‖ (UNESCO Declaration on Media, 1982)

Media ―inform, amuse, startle, anger, entertain, thrill, but very seldom leave

anyone untouched‖. (Shirley Biagy, 1996)

1. Media provide huge information, they motivate students to speak and help

them integrate listening, reading, talking and writing skills, through various

kinds of activities.
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2. A clear example are Power Point presentations which help students speak

freely, eye contact, organize ideas. Through Media Presentations there is

more communication and collaboration among students, while working with

the pages of a book is more individual, less collaborative and less interactive.

3. There is so much information available at the click of a mouse but at the

same time you have the feeling that there is little memory space in the brain

and students may forget everything, so, try to select the most important things

and review and review till they are located in the long-term memory.

4. We can exploit a piece of learning materials offered by various Media in

several different ways through: analyzing a text in the book, reading and

generating ideas from a text in the newspaper or magazine, watching and

discussing a TV program or a movie, classroom presentations, exercises and

activities using various kinds of Media, pair and group work, reconstructing

the text based on the above information brought from different. Media engage

students in useful writing and revision activities, etc.

Learners should engage in L2 tasks designed to maximize opportunities for

good interaction. Research attempting to examine how learning activities can best be

constructed to produce ideal input, output and interaction has pointed out the

importance of particular task features. Several approaches have been taken to define

significant L2 task characteristics (e.g., Skehan, 1996); however, the most useful

from the perspective of input, output, and interaction appears to be that of Pica,

Kanagy, and Falodun (1993). Based on a review of research on L2 communication

tasks, they identified two task features that play a role in prompting valuable

interactions in L2 tasks. They categorized these features under two variables--

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interactional activity and communication goal--as presented in Table 1. The features

included under interactional activity and communication goal define the

characteristics of L2 tasks expected to influence learners 'language in significant

ways. For example, "interactant relationship" refers to whether the task requires a

"two-way" information exchange for goal completion rather than requiring

information to travel only "one-way" (Long, 1985). When the tasks require a "two

way" interactant relationship, the quality of the interaction is superior.

Many authors describe commercially available programs as fancy-looking

systems that may at first impress student and teacher alike, but eventually fail to meet

sound pedagogical requirements (Watts 1997, Murray & Barnes 1998, Price 1998,

Warschauer & Healey 1998, Pennington 1999). These systems, which do not fully

exploit the potentialities of CAPT, look more like the result of a technology push,

rather than of a demand pull. This may not necessarily be due to a lack of

willingness, on the part of the developers, to include pedagogical guidelines in the

design. It may simply be due to a failure to adopt a multidisciplinary approach

involving speech technologists, linguists and language teachers (Cole et al. 1998,

Price 1998), or more fundamentally, to the absence of clear pedagogical guidelines

that suit these types of environments.

With recent advances in multimedia technology, computer-aided language

learning (CALL) has emerged as a tempting alternative to traditional modes of

supplementing or replacing direct student-teacher interaction, such as the language

laboratory or audio-tape-based self-study. The integration of sound, voice

interaction, text, video, and animation has made it possible to create self-paced

interactive learning environments that promise to enhance the classroom model of

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language learning significantly. A growing number of textbook publishers now offer

educational software of some sort, and educators can choose among a large variety of

different products. Yet, the practical impact of CALL in the field of foreign language

education has been rather modest. Many educators are reluctant to embrace a

technology that still seeks acceptance by the language teaching community as a

whole (Kenning & Kenning, 1990). A number of reasons have been cited for the

limited practical impact of computer-based language instruction. Among them are

the lack of a unified theoretical framework for designing and evaluating CALL

systems (Chapelle, 1997), the absence of conclusive empirical evidence for the

pedagogical benefits of computers in language learning (Salaberry, 1996); and

finally, the current limitations of the technology itself (Warschauer, 1996). The rapid

technological advances of the 1980s have raised both the expectations and the

demands placed on the computer as a potential learning tool.

Many applied linguists and teachers have been reluctant to make any

application of research to second language teaching but more recently Pica (1997)

has shed light on the complex issue of relationships between research and practice.

She categorizes approaches to SLA research on the basis of their interface with

teaching: Some SLA research coexists with L2 teaching while having little if any

intellectual interface. Other SLA research collaborates with L2 teaching when

teachers and researchers work together toward similar goals within the classroom and

the sociopolitical environment of education. A third type of SLA research, which is

most significant for CALL design, complements L2 instruction. Pica (1997),

describes these classroom experiments in the following way: In classroom

experiments that illustrate . . . complementarily, theoretically grounded learning

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materials and strategies to facilitate L2 learning are selected or developed by

researchers. The researchers then work with participating teachers toward classroom

use of these materials and strategies, followed by classroom research on their impact

on students' learning (p. 54).

A very important thing that enhances success in using newspapers in the

classroom is the careful design of tasks. ―Grade the task – not the material‘ is a well-

known maxim in language teaching‘ (Paul Sanderson, 2002).

Here are some pre-activity and while-activity preparation techniques that can

be used in combination with one another: (Paul Sanderson, 2002),

 Give the students the materials before the lesson ask them to
look for vocabulary at home
 Explain any key vocabulary in the materials
 Summarize the newspaper item
 Ask the students to brainstorm what they know about the
newspaper item
 Tell the students the headline and show any accompanying
photograph
 Before reading, write on the board and explain key vocabulary
 Ask the students to predict the story-line
 Allow your students to use a dictionary during the activity
 Encourage your students to go for the overall meaning of a
text, rather than to understand every word
 Encourage your students to bring to their reading their own
world knowledge
 Try to help the students in understanding the grammatical
complexity of the text, facilitate to assimilate the density of
information, guess the low-frequency vocabulary, etc.
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Critics say it stifles creativity and promotes distorted thinking. Social

observers often urge parents not to use television as an electronic baby-

sitter‘(Beckert, 1992). ―It‘s no use complaining that children today would rather

watch TV or videos than read‖.( Philippa Thompson, 2000), We the teachers should

try to exploit students‘ viewing habits as a starting point for developing more active

literary skills. The teachers need to know the interests of the students and what they

like most to watch in order to keep high their motivation, undertake different duties,

fulfill various assignments and feel the success. In a questionnaire the students were

asked which TV station they watch most and why? Most of the students replied that

they preferred to watch top Channel because they like it very much. Here are some of

the considerations that the students wrote:

 It has a lot of information

 It is a powerful and trustworthy station
 It is attractive, entertaining, informative, serious
 It gives quick and exact information in different fields
 ‗Fix fare‘ is one of the most watched programs
 News is of high quality, quick and fresh
 The staff is very professional and well qualified
 It uses an advanced technology
 It gives a lot of interesting documentaries
 It has a wide range of programs, etc. etc

Computers and language teaching have walked hand to hand for a long time

and contributed as teaching tools in the language and second language classroom. In

fact, this is not the first book of its kind. It seems that regularly, as computers evolve,

applications to language teaching in form of relevant general volumes are published

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(Szendeffy, 2005; Towndrow, 2007). Besides, among a large number of recent

publications, some volumes have addressed specific issues in second language

acquisition (Chapelle, 2001), communication (Warschauer & Kern, 2000), or

language teaching for the professions (Arnó Macià, Soler Cervera & Rueda Ramos,

2006), to only mention some.

Kataoka (2000), found that second language learners (L2) face an extreme

amount of anxiety and often feel more comfortable speaking to computers than in

face-to-face situations. In other words, they can feel more comfortable practising

pronunciation without feeling embarrassed by their errors. Tsutsui (2004), notes that

multimedia should provide a process of self-detection which allows students to

recognise errors more consciously than otherwise; force students to retrieve L2

knowledge and test it more accurately; provide opportunities to rehearse utterances

correctly; heighten students awareness of errors; and allow for self monitoring of

performance which reinforces correct speech forms and helps to prevent errors from

reoccurring.

It is reasonable to focus on studies of technological applications that have the

most relevance. Relevance is considered in two areas: technology and pedagogy. As

we know, technology changes constantly and rapidly. The technological innovations

that we are most interested in and that will most likely have an impact on language

education in the future are: (a) multimedia computing; (b) the Internet, especially the

web; and (c) speech synthesis and recognition. These innovations were a fairly recent

development, and efforts to apply them in language education occurred even later.

There was also a major paradigm shift in the pedagogical and research focus of

technology applications in language education in the last ten years (Chapelle, 1995,
 91

2001; Pennington, 1996; Salaberry, 2001), a shift away from traditional drill-and-

skill computer-aided instruction (CAI) models toward multimedia, intelligent CAI,

and integration models. Studies about applications of these newer models appeared

more recently as well.

We live with and by technology; it is time to look at ICT as an integral part of

education with some limited implications in education. Thus, teachers need to use

them as tools in education rather than variables of failure or success in language (or

content) teaching (Felix, 2005).

Computers and technology are still a source of fears and insecurity for many

teachers everywhere in the world despite the latest advances applicable to language

teaching such as specialized websites, blogs, wikis, language teaching methodology,

journals, and so. Although many countries have done institutional efforts to

modernize their equipment, spent large amounts in technology, proved the positive

effects of integrating computers in language learning (Tsou, Wang & Tzeng, 2006),

and so, many teachers still miss the appropriate interest, strong will to learn and a

challenging attitude towards teaching with computers. Most times the reasons are the

lack of time for out-of school training in combination with the natural difficulty in

incorporating new working schemata within their own classrooms. Besides,

institutional organizations, district and national educational boards, and even

publishers are doing important institutional efforts to strengthen the presence and

evolution of distance and online education. As a consequence, computers should no

longer be a little more than a way to typewrite (as they are sometimes today), send

messages and, when lucky, to browse out for information on the net (Johnson &
 92

Eisenberg, 2006). Therefore, one major concern that is commonly shown by both

teachers and education boards is how to motivate and instruct teachers to integrate

computers and ICT into their classes.

Internet is not merely a source of authentic material in English but also a

source of information about all sorts of topics we may want to discuss in the

classroom and at the same time a source of professional knowledge for teachers in

the form of bibliographies, articles, courses and conferences. But to get all these we

need to have some practice and experience. It is often that we spend a lot of time

searching the Internet, and we feel that we are wasting time and finding nothing that

we really wanted. So, it is crucial to have some tips about the ways how to search the

Internet, especially the key words of research.

Internet helps students and teachers to compare and classify information, to

induce and deduce ideas, to analyze errors, to abstract concepts, to analyze

perspectives, to gather information, to work in teams, etc. The Internet is an excellent

tool for locating the latest news not yet published. Information on the Internet has

three characteristics that distinguish it from traditional classroom materials such as

books, supplementary readings, videos and films. The information on the Internet is

extensive, dynamic and readily accessible. Acknowledging these characteristics will

provide a better understanding of the potential as well as the challenges this new

instructional tool offers to teachers.

Unlike most traditional forms of classroom materials, information on the

Internet exists in a medium that can be modified, revised or deleted with relative
 93

ease. Here lies its dynamic nature. Information is obtained immediately,

inexpensively and without a great deal of effort. The extensive, dynamic and

accessible nature of information on the Internet presents new challenges to the

learner. Without adequate tools and strategies, students may become overloaded with

information, unable to comprehend material written at different levels of complexity

or they may become disorientated in countless links. In order to assess and evaluate

the information received through the Internet we should focus our attention, think

critically and attend to various chunks of information.

Using podcasts as a tool for teaching English to students has a tremendous

impact on how well the students learn the English language. Not only will it help out

children who speak English as their first language but it also helps to teach students

who are learning English as a second language. Using podcasts in teaching English

allows students to hear the proper pronunciation of the words and how the English

language should sound. This is extremely important when people are learning

English as their second language because it is a well known fact that English is one

of the hardest languages to learn. English is quite different from the other languages,

which if you have learned a foreign language you are already aware of. Because of

the unique way that the English language puts words together to form sentences and

the many grammar rules children of all ages have a hard time learning proper

English.

Another impact that using podcasting in teaching English has is that the

children tend to learn faster. This can be due to the fact that the children are in a fun
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learning environment and have more control over how they are learning so it is

easier. Or it can be attributed to the fact that when using podcasts they can review the

lesson as many times as it takes for them to understand the concept, podcasts allows

students to learn at a pace that is most comfortable for them, which usually ends up

creating better learning results. Another idea is that with podcasts children can

participate in a variety of projects to help them understand the English language and

its many grammar rules, it has been proven that the more you use the language and

the more you practice with it the easier it is to learn.

Using podcasting in teaching English is also a great way to help advance a

student's development. Unlike many other tools podcasting requires the students to

combine a variety of skills in order to make and create a single product. When they

are making and creating a podcast it helps to teach them about doing research,

communicating in print, to speak effectively, and how to grab people's attention. But

children also have to learn some of the technical skills that are involved with making

the podcast and publishing it on the internet. This will give them plenty of oral and

written practice with the English language.

Some readers may get the feeling that the CD-Rom has been underused since many

demonstrations and classroom techniques could have been video recorded like some

other books in the "How to…" series have done (Harmer, 2007).

Webex: http://www.webex.com/ involves a technology that combines the

real time desktop sharing with web or video conferencing so that the recipients see

the same thing while you talk. It‘s far more productive than emailing files and trying
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to get everyone on the same page over the phone. This eliminates the need of people

to travel and meet on site. This application provides an overall e-learning suite.

These applications are cost effective and have the ability to reach larger no of

beneficiaries in providing the services. The main intentions of the project are to

improve the quality of education with use of technology and learning achievements

while at the same time using the technology to expand the access to education. This

will also aim to achieve coherent and effective response in a strategic manner across

all key areas of activity and geographical locations by mobilizing groups and

ensuring sustainability via empowering the remote centers. The project will also

enhance the community participation including the involvement of the schools,

existing English teaching private centers as well as relevant government institutions.

2.7.1. Internet based project work: Web Quests:

In a mini project a large percentage of the input and material is supplied from

the Internet. It has a clearly defined structure which has to be taken as a basic

guideline. Teacher can design web quest to suit the needs and learning styles of

students. Internet based project work:

Steps:

1. Introduction: overall theme. Background information on the topic.

Introduces key vocabulary and concepts learners will need to understand and

complete tasks

2. Task: explains clearly and precisely what learners will have to do. This

should be motivating and interesting.

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3. Process: Guides learners through set of activities and research tasks, using

predefined resources (Internet based) presented in clickable form.

4. Products: may introduce or recycle lexical areas or grammatical points

essential to the task. It will also have one or several ―products‖ the learners are

expected to present at the end. These will form the basis of the evaluation stage.

5. Evaluation: can involve learners in self-evaluation, giving feedback on

what they feel they have learnt. Also involves teacher evaluation

2.7.2. Interactive whiteboards:

Interactive whiteboards three essential components: The whiteboards itself A

computer, A data projector, A myriad of possibilities: video, CD audio, pictures,

interactive exercises, access to Internet. Items can be moved, write over images,

highlight things, and use different fonts, styles. Lessons and content can be easily

kept and retrieved as it is saved in the computer. Huge bank of resources, authentic

content are accessed in seconds. PowerPoint presentations increased teacher and

learner motivation and attention levels.

English teachers in order to prepare themselves for the digital age (ranked in

order of importance):

1. Get access to a computer with an Internet connection.

2. Learn how to search for information on the World Wide Web.
3. Learn how to send and receive E-Mail.
4. Learn how to join and participate in news groups, and find colleagues with
similar interests.
5. Learn how to attach documents and other files to E-Mail.
6. Learn how to create, publish, and update a home page.
7. Learn how to type with both hands without looking at the keyboard.
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Benefits of Online English teaching:

a. Greatly reduced preparation time.

b. Differentiated tasks to meet the needs of both gifted students and students
with learning difficulties.
c. Get rid of paperwork. No need to spend hours marking students‘ work.
d. Make the leap to using ICT in teaching at no cost.
e. Motivate and engage students.
f. Try new approaches and use innovate teaching.
g. Provide grammar and vocabulary revisions.
h. Significantly increase the amount of practice without spending your
valuable time.
i. Reduce paper copying and contribute to environmental protection.

2.7.3. Internet technologies:

1. Book and CDs geared to grammar and vocabulary:

All of us are familiar with the teaching materials developed for adult learners

who are either studying in further or higher education, taking company training or

working on their English autonomously. References to events, technological devices

or procedures in these manuals quickly become out of date. The reading texts on

debatable topics, which normally should lead to an animated discussion, often seem

passé. The audio resources found on the CD provide needed samples of voices other

than the teacher‗s. However, although they can be excellent and very well focused on

a grammar point or topical vocabulary, they remain studio recordings of professional

speakers using excellent accents and acceptable styles.

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2.7.4.Radio broadcasts give worldwide news:

Adults are generally curious about what‗s happening in the world today,

whether it be politics and society or feature articles dealing with science and

interesting people. It would probably be safe to say that many adults wish they had

more time to read the paper or listen to radio reports. When they see they can do so

in English, and in an English which is understandable and not too journalistic in

style, they are enthused: ―Hey, I can work on my English and pick up some good

information!‖

2.7.5. Instant accesses to up-to-date content and flexibility of use:

Internet is, of course, what makes it possible. Most people have a broad-band

connection and enjoy surfing on the Net, choosing content according to their mood at

the moment. Anyone wishing to improve his English has a plethora of on-line

newspapers, radio broadcasts, podcasts and chat forums he can access, and a good

number of these have special pages for English learners. He can spend five minutes

or half an hour (or more). He can exercise his reading skills, look up words in a

dictionary, practice listening with or without reading along, and draft and submit

prose on a forum. With a multi-media e-learning tool, he can do all of the above and

even record his voice and take part in an improvised dialogue.

2.7.6. On the spot corrections:

Another advantage of using Internet tools is that the learner feels motivated

because he himself can chose the content. And, in the case of inter-active exercises,

he can check his answers immediately, rather than waiting for feedback from a
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human teacher. Being able to clear the answers and redo the exercise in the hope of a

better score is definitely an advantage over the traditional workbook. It is gratifying

for the learner to see his successes instantly and we may hope that the learner will be

tempted to a visit to a more academic resource, such as an on-line dictionary or

grammar compilation to satisfy his curiosity. English Addicts is designed to display

corrections and comments for every item and even provides hints.

So it is a well-known fact that the teachers should provide ample

opportunities to the students to write in the class rooms in order to develop their

listen, speak, read and write skills. In the tertiary level in almost all areas, the

students should develop the skills necessary for learning other arts and science.

Students learning in tertiary level feel that English is very difficult for learn. In fact,

writing is more an individual effort than speaking, while at the same time more rule-

bound and therefore more error-prone.

2.8. CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning):

The design of CALL lessons generally takes into consideration principles of

language pedagogy, which may be derived from learning theories (behaviorist,

cognitive, and constructivist) and second language learning such as Krashen's

Monitor Theory. CALL an approach to teaching and learning foreign languages

whereby the computer and computer-based resources such as the Internet are used to

present, reinforce and assess material to be learned. CALL can be made independent

of the Internet. It can stand alone for example in a CDROM format. Depending on its

design and objectives, it may include a substantial interactive element especially

when CALL is integrated in web-based format. It may include the search for and the
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investigation of applications in language teaching and learning Warschauer Mark

2008). Except for self-study software, CALL is meant to supplement face-to-face

language instruction, not replace it (Davies Graham 2007).

Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach that became

prominent in the late 1970‘s and 1980‘s. In the communicative approach, the focus is

on using the language rather than analysis of the language, teaching grammar

implicitly. The first CALL software in this phase still provided skill practice but not

in a drill format, for example, paced reading, text reconstruction and language games

but computer remained the tutor. In this phase, however, computers provided context

for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place. It also

allowed for programs not designed for language learning. It usually taught skills such

as reading and listening in a compartmentalized way, even if not in a drill fashion.

CALL in 1990‘s saw a definitive shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial

purposes (computer as a finite authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium for

extending education beyond the classroom and reorganizing instruction. Multimedia

CALL started with interactive laser videodiscs. These programs later were

transferred to CD-ROMs, and new RPGs made their appearance in a range of

different languages.

More recent research in CALL has favored a learner-centered explorative

approach, where students are encouraged to try different possible solutions to a

problem, for example the use of concordance programs. This approach is also

described as data-driven learning (DDL), a term coined by Tim Johns. CALL and

computational linguistics are separate but somewhat interdependent fields of study.

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The basic goal of computational linguistics is to ―teach‖ computers to generate and

comprehend grammatically-acceptable sentences… for purposes of translation and

direct communication with computers where the computer understands and generates

natural language. Computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and

their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers now

think about the implications. Technology can bring about changes in the teaching

methodologies of foreign language beyond simply automating fill-in-the-gap

exercises (Domingo Noemi 2007).

2.8.1. History of CALL:

Constructivism, the whole language theory and socio cultural theory is not

fully theory of language learning. With constructivism, students are active

participants in a task in which they ―construct‖ new knowledge based on experience

in order to incorporate new ideas into their already-established schema of

knowledge. Whole language theory postulates that language learning (either native or

second language) moves from the whole to the part; rather than building sub-skills

like grammar to lead toward higher abilities like reading comprehension, whole

language insists the opposite is the way we really learn to use language. Students

learn grammar and other sub-skills by making intelligent guesses bases on the input

they have experienced. It also promotes that the four skills (reading, writing,

listening and speaking) are interrelated (Stepp-Greany 2007). Socio cultural theory

states that learning is a process of becoming part of a desired community and

learning that communities rules of behavior Mitchell, R; F. Myles (1998).

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The availability and use of current technologies that support computer-

assisted language learning (CALL) and computer-mediated communication (CMC)

raise the critical question of whether or not there is a paradigm shift in how

languages are taught and learned (cf. Kaiser, 1997). Frith (2005), indicates that even

though some L2 students are often required to speak in English in their social

settings, they mostly enjoy listening especially when they are watching television or

films. This observation emphasizes the use of multimedia environments in L2

classrooms. What's more, Frith (2005), believes that video lessons can be very

stimulating. This is what is needed to actualize real development. Besides, this is also

an enjoyable part of listening development, because for many students, learning is

associated with dull and boring class room activities. Unfortunately, in this case this

generalization does not work, because L2 learners ―do it‖ on their own in a

convenient and different way. Verdugo et. al. (2007), assert that children actively

take part in understanding the story because of the interactivity of internet based

stories and this makes learning easy. This make the development of listening ability

more effective and entertaining, but less effort-required.

2.8.2. Role changes for Teachers:

Although the integration of CALL into a foreign language program can lead

to great anxiety among language teachers, (Leigh Thelmadatter 2007), researchers

consistently claim that CALL changes, sometimes radically, the role of the teacher

but does not eliminate the need for a teacher altogether. Instead of handing down

knowledge to students and being the center of students‘ attention, teachers become

guides as they construct the activities students are to do and help them as students
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complete the assigned tasks. In other words, instead of being directly involved in

students‘ construction of the language, the teacher interacts with students primarily

to facilitate difficulties in using the target language (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) that

arise when interacting with the computer and/or other people (Stepp-Greany 2007)

(Domingo Noemi 2007).

Computer-Assisted Class Discussion (CACD) provides learners with the

opportunity to generate and initiate different kinds of discourse, which in turn

enhances their ability to express a greater variety of functions in different contexts as

well as to play a greater role in managing the discourse. They feel freer to address

questions to anyone or everyone in the class, to query the teacher from time to time,

to suggest new topics or steer the discussion towards things they are interested in, to

request more information or confirmation of something said by someone else, or to

express thoughts or opinions that have not been explicitly solicited.

Elimination of a strong teacher presence has been shown to lead to larger

quantity and better quality of communication such as more fluidity, more use of

complex sentences and more sharing of students‘ personal selves (Stepp-Greany

2007). However, teacher presence is still very important to students when doing

CALL activities. Teachers should be familiar enough with the resources to be used to

anticipate technical problems and limitations. (Domingo Noemi 2007)Students need

the reassuring and motivating presence of a teacher in CALL environments. Not only

are they needed during the initial learning curve, they are needed to conduct review

sessions to reinforce what was learned. Encouraging students to participate and

offering praise are deemed important by students. Most students report preferring to
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do work in a lab with a teacher‘s or tutor‘s presence rather than completely on their

own (Stepp- Greany 2007).

2.8.3. Role changes for Students:

Students, too, need to adjust their expectations, of their participation in the

class in order to use CALL effectively. Rather than passively absorbing information,

learners must negotiate meaning and assimilate new information through interaction

and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, be that person a classmate or

someone outside of the classroom entirely. Learners must also learn to interpret new

information and experiences on their own terms. However, because the use of

technology redistributes teachers‘ and classmates‘ attentions, less-able students can

become more active participants in the class because class interaction is not limited

to that directed by the teacher (Stepp-Greany 2007). Moreover more shy students can

feel free in their own students'-centered environment. This will raise their self-esteem

and their knowledge will be improving. If students are performing collaborative

project they will do their best to perform it within set time limits.

2.8.4. Use of CALL for the four skills:

A number of studies have been done concerning how the use of CALL affects

the development of language learners‘ four skills (listening, speaking, reading and

writing). Most report significant gains in reading and listening and most CALL

programs are geared toward these receptive skills because of the current state of

computer technology. However, most reading and listening software is based on

drills. Gains in writing skills have not been as impressive as computers cannot assess

this well (Stepp-Greany 2007).

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However, using current CALL technology, even with its current limitations,

for the development of speaking abilities has gained much attention. There has been

some success in using CALL, in particular computer-mediated communication, to

help speaking skills closely linked to ―communicative competence‖ (ability to

engage in meaningful conversation in the target language) and provide controlled

interactive speaking practice outside the classroom (Ehsani, Farzad; Eva Knodt

1998). Using chat has been shown to help students routinize certain often-used

expressions to promote the development of automatic structure that help develop

speaking skills. This is true even if the chat is purely textual. The use of

videoconferencing gives not only immediacy when communicating with a real

person but also visual cues, such as facial expressions, making such communication

more authentic (Stepp-Greany 2007).

Using the computer not as a medium of communication (with other people)

but as something to interact with verbally in a direct manner, and the current

computer technology‘s limitations are at their clearest. Right now, there are two

fairly successful applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR) (or speech

processing technology) where the computer ―understands‖ the spoken words of the

learner. The first is pronunciation training. Learners read sentences on the screen and

the computer gives feedback as to the accuracy of the utterance, usually in the form

of visual sound waves (Ehsani, Farzad; Eva Knodt 1998). The second is software

where the learner speaks commands for the computer to do. However, speakers in

these programs are limited to predetermined texts so that the computer will

―understand‖ them (Domingo Noemi 2007).

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2.8.5. Multi Media Language Centres:

During the 1960s, language laboratories with cassette players and headphones

were introduced into educational institutions. The use of this kind of center grew

rapidly in the late 1960s and 1970s, but then went rapidly out of fashion" (Ehsani,

Farzad; Eva Knodt 1998). Later, ―digital language labs‖ were introduced, still

following the traditional language format, such as teacher monitoring. What made

them new was that they incorporated new technologies such as video. The term

multimedia was originally used to describe sets of learning materials which included

a book, audiocassettes and/or videocassettes. However, with the advent of computer-

based materials, such packages tend to be called multiple media or mixed media -

although there is not absolute consensus on this point.

2.8.6. Advantages of Technology for Learning

As many researchers have said (Hubbard, 1987, 1998; Clifford, 1998), the

best of technology does not by itself create a productive learning environment. The

technology offers access, authenticity, and insights (Phillips, 1998). It advances in

intelligent and adaptive technologies also offer a world of illusion, games, and

simulations. Technology can stimulate the playfulness of learners and immerse them

in a variety of scenarios. Technology gives learners a chance to engage in self-

directed actions, opportunities for self-paced interactions, privacy, and a safe

environment in which errors get corrected and specific feedback is given. Feedback

by a machine offers additional value by its ability to track mistakes and link the

student immediately to exercises that focus on specific errors. Studies are emerging

that show the importance of qualitative feedback in CALL software. When links are
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provided to locate explanations, additional help, and reference, the value of CALL is

further augmented.

Bump (1990), showed that use of a LAN with computer-assisted class

discussion (CACD) software was effective in English courses. Some of the

advantages of CACD found in his and other studies include intense collaboration

among students and between students and teacher, increased student participation,

particularly of minorities and women, decentralization of the instructor‘s role and

therefore more learner-centered, more ―honest‖ communication (e.g. more self-

disclosure, expression of emotion), and improved thinking and creativity.

Raimes (1992), states that reading, thinking, talking, and writing about a

subject are all essential parts of the writing process and that ―for second-language

students, these activities are especially valuable, as they provide many opportunities

for communication in the new language.‖ She adds that both the process of revising

what one has written and getting feedback from readers are also essential. To varying

degrees, these activities are all possible with computer networking and thus,

networks may be an effective tool for teaching writing.

The recent shift to global information-based economies means that students

will need to learn how to deal with large amounts of information and have to be able

to communicate across languages and cultures. At the same time, the role of the

teacher has changed as well. Teachers are not the only source of information any

more, but act as facilitators so that students can actively interpret and organize the

information they are given, fitting it into prior knowledge. Students have become
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active participants in learning and are encouraged to be explorers and creators of

language rather than passive recipients of it.

Herschbach (1994), argues firmly that new technologies are add-on expenses

and will not, in many cases, lower the cost of providing educational services. He

stated that that the new technologies probably will not replace the teachers, but will

supplement their efforts, as has been the pattern with other technologies. The

technologies will not decrease educational costs or increase teacher productivity as

currently used. Low usage causes the cost barrier. Computers, interactive instruction

TV, and other devices are used very few hours of the day, week, or month. Either the

number of learners or the amount of time learners apply the technology must be

increased substantially to approach the concept of cost-effectiveness. There are other

more quick and less expensive ways of reducing costs, no matter how inexpensive

the technology being used (Kincaid, McEachron, & McKinney, 1994).

Lewis et al. (1994), indicate three conditions under which Computer-assisted

Learning and other technologies can be cost-effectiveness: Computer-assisted

Learning costs the same as conventional instruction but ends up with producing

higher achievement in the same amount of instructional time; it results in students

achieving the same level but in less time. These authors indicate that in examples

where costs of using technologies in education are calculated, they are usually

understand because the value of factors, such as faculty time and cost of equipment

utilization, is ignored (McClelland, 1996).

Nowadays multimedia refers to computer-based materials that can perform

more varied tasks then the purely-audio mixed-media. Not only can such play pre-
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recorded audio and video material, it can create new audio and video recordings. It

also has the capability of integrating the four basic skills of listening, speaking,

reading and writing, as well as giving immediate, if limited, feedback to the student.

However, like its predecessors, multimedia centers run the risk of being underutilized

due to poor management.

Media environments' high, fast and easy accessibility makes an almost

perfectly tailored solution to L2 effective and easy-to-reach learning and practising

resources. Using media environments is convenient in itself; indeed, because it gives

us the possibility to choose what is appropriate for us at a certain period of time.

Hoven (1999), asserts that computers allow L2 learners to determine the way and the

pace that suits them and their needs. For example, when an ESL practiser is in class,

s/he can have access to the internet, TV/video to watch movies or educative

programmes in the target language, or study on a listening/speaking application using

a computer on his/her own. Ehsani et. al. (1998), emphasize that by combining

sound, vision, text, video and animation, this self-paced interactive learning

environments create much more educative and creative classroom environments.

What's more, besides individual work, two or more people can work together in a

group activity which makes the process more interactive. Hoven (1999), believes that

computers allow learners to add up what they know altogether more effectively and

support peer correction. What's more, technology has shaped the collaborative

relationships between students and the way they interact with each other which

eventually shape the learning opportunities in a classroom.

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Adult learners have a hard time distinguishing the sounds of the language, are

often inhibited in speaking in front of others, and usually do not get undivided

attention from their instructors (Eskenazi, 1999). Computers have a role to play in

learning to speak; however, interaction with the computer remains mainly via

keyboard and mouse. Most commercial software provides learners with practice in

filling blanks or choosing the correct answer. A small proportion of available

software offers learners practice in reading and listening to authentic written and

spoken language. An even smaller proportion lets learners produce language by

repeating words or sentences, recording their responses, and comparing them to

native models (see Wachowicz & Scott,).

2.8.7. Advantages of CALL:

2.8. 7.1. Motivation:

Generally speaking, the use of technology inside or outside the classroom

tends to make the class more interesting. However, certain design issues affect just

how interesting the particular tool creates motivation (Stepp-Greany 2007). One way

a program or activity can promote motivation in students is by personalizing

information, for example by integrating the student‘s name or familiar contexts as

part of the program or task. Others include having animate objects on the screen,

providing practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity and providing a

context (real-world or fantasy) that is not directly language-oriented.

For example, a study comparing students who used ―Corner Stone‖ (a

language arts development program) showed a significant increase in learning

(compared to students not using the program) between two classes of English-
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immersion middle-school students in language arts. This is because Corner Stone

incorporate personalized information and challenging and imaginative exercises in a

fantasy context (Ravichandran, T 2000).

2.8.7.2. Adapting learning to the student:

Computers can give a new role to teaching materials. Without computers,

students cannot really influence the linear progression of the class content but

computers can adapt to the student (Domingo Noemi 2007). Adapting to the student

usually means that the student controls the pace of the learning but also means that

students can make choices in what and how to learn, skipping unnecessary items or

doing remedial work on difficult concepts. Such control makes students feel more

competent in their learning (Ravichandran, T 2000). Students tend to prefer

exercises where they have control over content, such as branching stories,

adventures, puzzles or logic problems. With these, the computer has the role of

providing attractive context for the use of language rather than directly providing the

language the student needs (Domingo Noemi 2007).

2.8.7..3. Authenticity:

―Authenticity‖ in language learning means the opportunity to interact in one

or more of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) by using or

producing texts meant for an audience in the target language, not the classroom. With

real communication acts, rather than teacher-contrived ones, students feel

empowered and less afraid to contact others. Students believe they learn faster and

better with computer-mediated communication (Domingo Noemi 2007). Also,

students learn more about culture in such an environment (Stepp-Greany 2007).

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In networked computer environments, students have a conscious feeling of

being members of a real community. In situations where all are learners of a foreign

language, there is also a feeling of equality. In these situations students feel less

stressed and more confident in a language learning situation, in part because surface

errors do not matter so much. This works best with synchronous CMC (e.g. chats) as

there is immediate feedback but email exchanges have been shown to provide most

of the same benefits in motivation and student affect (Domingo Noemi 2007).

2.8.7.4. Critical thinking skills:

Use of computer technology in classrooms is generally reported to improve

self-concept and mastery of basic skills, more student-centered learning and

engagement in the learning process, more active processing resulting in higher-order

thinking skills and better recall, gain confidence in directing their own learning. This

is true for both language and non-language classrooms (Stepp-Greany 2007).

2.8.7.5. Problems and criticisms of CALL instruction:

First of all, there is the problem with cost (Warschauer Mark 2008) and the

simple availability of technological resources such as the Internet (either non-existent

as can be the case in many developing countries or lack of bandwidth, as can be the

case just about anywhere) (Domingo Noemi 2007). However, the limitations that

current computer technology has can be problematic as well. While computer

technology has improved greatly in the last three decades, demands placed on CALL

have grown even more so. Not to mention that if the computer cannot evaluate a

learner‘s speech exactly, it is almost no use at all (Ehsani, Farzad; Eva Knodt 1998).
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2.8.7.6. Talking Texts

A talking text is a tool which will read aloud any section of text (a single

word, a sentence, a paragraph, etc.) typed or copied into it from either the CALL

application or an external source such as a Web page. It can be used by the learner to

support his or her reading comprehension activities and/or to check the pronunciation

of individual words, expressions and/or full sentences (Hamel, 2003a). The Oxford-

Hachette French Dictionary on CD-ROM also integrates such a facility as does Free

Text a CALL program for advanced learners of French (Hamel, 2003b), which reuses

the TTS system FIP Svox (Gaudinat & Werhli, 1997). Another use of talking texts in

CALL programs is for the presentation of prompts (Gray, 1984). An example of a

CALL system that integrates speech synthesis specifically for the purpose of reading

aloud prompts and providing pronunciation models of sentences in grammar

exercises in Dutch is the Appeal ("A pleasant personal environment for adaptive

learning") system (de Pijper, 1997), which generates grammar exercises "on the fly"

in response to individual learner requirements "according to predefined models" (p.

581). This is made possible by the unique feature of TTS to generate speech models

on demand.

Now, foreign language teaching methods are rapidly shifting from the

traditional methods to the methods using computer applications and multimedia

environments. These applications and environments are used extensively and

successfully in reading, writing, listening and speaking practices by ESL teachers

and students throughout the world. What's more, the tools I mentioned here are truly

helpful in practising the four skills of a language (reading, writing, listening and
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speaking) since these tools give language practisers almost exacly what they need;

however, the main focus of interest is developing listening and speaking skills via

internet & multimedia tools. ―The internet is suitable place to practise languages as it

offers the possibility, with the right software, of using images and audio resources at

the same time, combining sounds and images as in communicative situations in the

real world. It also provides users with a highly appealing and innovative format‖

(Labayen et. al., 2005, p.9). From now on, Computers, internet and multimedia

environments offer the tools can help ESL students practising listening and speaking

throughout this text.

Most of the problems that appear in the literature on CALL have more to do

with teacher expectations and apprehensions about what computers can do for the

language learner and teacher. Teachers and administrators tend to either think

computers are worthless or even harmful, or can do far more than they are really

capable of (Leigh Thelmadatter 2007).

Reluctance on part of teachers can come from lack of understanding and even

fear of technology. Often CALL is not implemented unless it is required even if

training is offered to teachers (Leigh Thelmadatter 2007). One reason for this is that

from the 1960‘s to the 1980‘s, computer technology was limited mostly for the

sciences, creating a real and psychological distance for language teaching (Bollin,

G.G. 2003). Language teachers can be more comfortable with textbooks because it is

what they are used do, and there is the idea that the use of computers threatens

traditional literacy skills since such are heavily tied to books (Bollin, G.G. 2003)

(Loucky, J.P. 2009). These stem in part because there is a significant generation gap
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between teachers (many of whom did not grow up with computers) and students

(who did grow up with them).

Teachers may resist because CALL activities can be more difficult to

evaluate than more traditional exercises. For example, most Mexican teachers feel

strongly that a completed fill-in textbook ―proves‖ learning (Loucky, J.P. 2009).

While students may be motivated by exercises like branching stories, adventures,

puzzles or logic, these activities provide little in the way of systematic evaluation of

progress (Domingo Noemi 2007).

Teachers may be put off CALL when effort needed to implement it well.

However ―seductive‖ the power of computing systems may be [3], like with the

introduction of the audio language lab in the 1960‘s, those who simply expect results

by purchasing expensive equipment are likely to be disappointed (Warschauer Mark

2008).

There is a lack of unified theoretical framework for designing and evaluating

CALL systems as well as absence of conclusive empirical evidence for the

pedagogical benefits of computers in language (Ehsani, Farzad; Eva Knodt 1998).

Most teachers lack the time or training to create CALL-based assignments, leading to

reliance on commercially-published sources, whether such are pedagogically sound

or not (Warschauer Mark 2008).

The most crucial factor that can lead to the failure of CALL or the use of any

technology in language education is not the failure of the technology, but rather the

failure to invest adequately in teacher training and the lack of imagination to take

advantage of the technology's flexibility. Graham Davies states that too often,
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technology is seen as a panacea, especially by administrators, and the human

component necessary to make it beneficial is ignored. Under these circumstances, he

argues, "it is probably better to dispense with technology altogether".

The Internet and the rise of computer-mediated communication in particular

have reshaped the uses of computers for language learning. The recent shift to global

information-based economies means that students will need to learn how to deal with

large amounts of information and have to be able to communicate across languages

and cultures. At the same time, the role of the teacher has changed as well. Teachers

are not the only source of information any more, but act as facilitators so that

students can actively interpret and organize the information they are given, fitting it

into prior knowledge. Students have become active participants in learning and are

encouraged to be explorers and creators of language rather than passive recipients of

it.

Engaging in Computer-assisted Language Learning is a continuing challenge

that requires time and commitment. As we approach the 21st century, we realize that

technology as such is not the answer to all our problems. What really matters is how

we use technology. Computers can/will never substitute teachers but they offer new

opportunities for better language practice. They may actually make the process of

language learning significantly richer and play a key role in the reform of a country's

educational system. The next generation of students will feel a lot more confident

with information technology than we do. As a result, they will also be able to use the

Internet to communicate more effectively, practice language skills more thoroughly

and solve language learning problems more easily.

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2.9. CALT (Computer Assisted Learning and Teaching):

Over the past decade there has been a growing interest in the use of

technology for the teaching of pronunciation. Various types of computer hardware

have been introduced and a survey of the literature shows an emerging interest

among language teachers and researchers in the benefits of computer -assisted

pronunciation instruction (Albertson 1982, Molholt 1988, Molholt, Lane, Hanner, &

Fischer 1988, Pennington 1988, Chun 1989, Perdreau and Hessney 1990, Johnson

and Rekart 1991). Interest in the use of such equipment has been focused on

promoting the use of computer-based visual displays for student feedback in the

teaching of pronunciation and in sharing techniques for effective use of the available

equipment. There have also been a number of empirical studies exploring the

effectiveness of this technology in the teaching of second and foreign language

pronunciation (Vardanian 1964, Richmond 1976, de Bot & Mailfert 1982, de Bot

1983, Weltens & de Bot 1984a, 1984b, Johnson, Dunkel, & Rekart 1991, Schwartz,

Markoff, & Jain 1991). As improved equipment comes onto the market, language

programs will compare available systems and look for ways to decide whether the

considerable expense is justified. Administrators will want to know whether students

who work with the equipment acquire better spoken language skills than those who

do not and if so, at what cost and within what time framework.

The computer as an omnipresent tool is influencing almost everything in

human life. This includes also the domain of education, where new technologies

dramatically change the storage and presentation of information (printed documents

are substituted by multimedia digital content), the interaction between teacher and

learner, the collaboration between students, etc. The use of these new technologies
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and media for language learning and teaching has become an own discipline, known

as computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Intelligent computer-assisted

language learning (ICALL) explores the use of Artificial Intelligence methods and

techniques for language learning. Understanding the diversity of the target culture is

necessary for successful communication with native speakers (Savignon, 1983;

Canale & Swain, 1980). On-line resources such as newspapers and magazines are,

therefore, invaluable because they provide students with up-to-date cultural

information that can lead to enhanced cultural awareness, understanding, and

knowledge.

The problem with learning a language from live context is that context itself

cannot be learned; it can only be experienced, or apprenticed in. Therefore in order

for context to be made learnable, especially in an academic setting, it has to be

transformed into analyzable text. As an educational tool, multimedia technology

opens up immense possibilities of contextualization by textualizing knowledge

through its representational capabilities, that is, its endless reproducibility. What the

printing press did to the evanescent spoken word, multimedia technology does to

words and images:

 Digitalization insures against the aging and decay of the presented event.

 Random access breaks the linearly experienced flow of time. It can rearrange

the order of events, fast forward, or fast rewind them; it can

juxtapose/superimpose gestures, words, and actions that were experienced

separately.
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 Digital technology can slow down or speed up the spoken word without

altering pitch and tone.

 Multimedia can select events perceived to be similar or analogous, draw them

out of their original texts, and reconfigure them within a different frame. It

can repeat a segment of speech or a gesture over and over again up to

absurdity; it can isolate fragments of speech or behavior to a level of

presentation that was certainly not perceived that way by those who lived the

experience.

In the acquisition literature it has been claimed that natural settings are

qualitatively better than pedagogically constrained environments (e.g., classrooms)

because they provide positive instead of negative evidence (Pinker 1979). Porter

(1986), argues that offering learners the opportunity to interact with native speakers

outside of the classroom helps these students acquire adequate socio cultural models

of the L2 (e.g., pragmatic features of communication such as prompts and repairs).

On the other hand, allowing learners to interact with other fellow students —

nonnative speakers — with a similar level of proficiency helps learners engage in

more extended interactions that help them refine their nonnative grammatical system

(e.g., morpho syntax).24 Finally, it is important to highlight the fact that situated

cognition does not entail doing without some type of instruction.

Johnson (1985), conducted a study on computer-assisted learning to promote

L2 acquisition, but her report focused primarily on such issues as equal access,

software development, and computers in composition, typical practices, and model

programs. There appears to be no published article on language program evaluation

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intended to assess language skill development and the integration of technology into

the curriculum.

The potential pedagogical effect of the technological tools used in L2

instruction (e.g., VCRs, audio tape recorders, satellite TV, etc.) is inherently

dependent on the particular theoretical or methodological approach that guides its

application. In fact, in some cases, the emergence of technological breakthroughs has

been wrongfully guided by inaccurate theoretical assumptions: the use of the

language learning lab in conjunction with the audio lingual method (ALM). That is

why Price (1987), notices that different methodological approaches favor the use of

one medium over another. In other words, it is not the medium itself that determines

the pedagogical outcome, but the specific focus of the theoretical approach on the

learning phenomena. On the other hand, instruction which is well designed and

rightfully targeted can be extremely successful even if the nature of the technology

itself is not in accordance with the major tenets of the prevalent methodological

approach. The use of technological tools (the language learning lab and children's TV

programs) reveals that educators should be knowledgeable in two areas: educational

theory and practice, and the process of instructional design and use of different

technologies (Bates, p. 246).

In an electronic environment, however, the relationship between social,

interactive, cognitive and metacognitive discourse and learning may be rather more

complex. For example, the fact that discussion is taking place within a wholly

linguistic environment (where non-verbal communication strategies are not

available) appears to influence the way in which participants contribute (a number of

studies have explored this theme; for example, Rice and Love, 1987).
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Chun (1989), has shown how electronic visual feedback can also be used to

teach suprasegmentals to learners of other languages. Through electronic visual

feedback, native speakers of American English practicing Mandarin tone are able to

compare their pitch patterns to native speaker models on the display and they can

thus easily correct their tendency to use, for example, falling intonation for level

tone. Also when native speakers of American English use electronic visual feedback

to practice intonation, they can very easily see, for example, when practicing

information questions, their tendency to use the English pattern, in which intonation

falls steadily as the utterance is spoken. But to teach suprasegmentals most

effectively through electronic visual feedback, the teacher must use phonetic material

that clearly and unambiguously illustrates the patterns being taught. This is not

always easily achieved, due to the fact that the relationship between the acoustic

signal and the ways in which it is perceived auditory is not a simple one.

Bump (1990), showed that use of a LAN with computer-assisted class

discussion (CACD) software was effective in English courses. Some of the

advantages of CACD found in his and other studies include intense collaboration

among students and between students and teacher, increased student participation,

particularly of minorities and women, decentralization of the instructor‘s role and

therefore more learner-centered, more ―honest‖ communication (e.g. more self-

disclosure, expression of emotion), and improved thinking and creativity. Spaai and

Hermes (1992), have addressed this problem by developing a visual intonation

display system — the Intonation Meter — that more closely represents the way in

which intonation is perceived. Instead of displaying the unaltered pitch contour with
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all of its interruptions due to voiceless sounds, the Intonation Meter fills in the

interruptions with dotted lines so that the signal is continuous.

Raimes (1992), states that reading, thinking, talking, and writing about a

subject are all essential parts of the writing process and that ―for second-language

students, these activities are especially valuable, as they provide many opportunities

for communication in the new language.‖ She adds that both the process of revising

what one has written and getting feedback from readers are also essential. To varying

degrees, these activities are all possible with computer networking and thus,

networks may be an effective tool for teaching writing. Schwartz (1993), argues that

natural settings constitute the right language learning environment because "negative

data do not figure prominently, if at all... in the input these L2ers receive" (p. 161).

The use of computers to teach grammar has not received the same amount of

attention as communicative CALL, but computer-based grammar instruction offers

many potential benefits. Although it is currently impossible for the computer to

engage learners in authentic two-way communication, it is, in fact, possible for

CALL to provide rich input in the form of integrated multimedia programs and to

provide explicit grammar explanations that can be viewed and reviewed at the

learner‘s own pace. In a meta analysis of research on the use of multimedia to teach a

variety of subjects, Ragan, Boyce, Redwine, Savenye, and McMichael (1993), found

that, in general, multimedia instruction reduces learning time by 30% compared to

traditional instruction. They further demonstrated that features of multimedia

instruction such as learner interactivity and learner control over programs produce

improved outcomes in achievement.

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Some researchers have already offered their verdict on that prediction. For

example, Bates (1995), cautions against the overly optimistic reliance on the

emergence of new paradigms in learning as a consequence of improved

telecommunication systems. He predicts that computers will become "as significant

to the learner as the electricity that carries the power to the refrigerator: essential for

its operation, but independent of the function that the refrigerator performs" (P. 227,

italics added). More important, Muns (1995) contends that the Internet has not

created any "radically new conceptual means of communicating" (P. 15).

Conferencing systems are computer programs which allow people to

communicate with one another in real-time. This is achieved by linking people across

networks through the use of special software. One such program is called IRC

(Internet Relay Chat) (Mathiesen (Lian), A. B. 1993). It allows users to share

information by typing messages to one another while they are all connected to the

system. Thus, at an agreed time, people, say from Japan, Belgium, Finland, Mexico

and Australia might "meet" to keep in touch with each other or to discuss a particular

topic. "Meeting spaces" can be set aside where only the messages belonging to a

particular group are ever seen on the screen. This is necessary to avoid confusion

given that literally thousands of people are simultaneously logged in to IRC. Thus,

persons interested in communicating in a language other than English can, on

running IRC, join a foreign language group where they will have the opportunity to

communicate in the (admittedly written) target language with both native and non-

native speakers of that language.

CMC (Computer mediated communication) is becoming increasingly

established as an important medium for teaching and learning in higher education

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(for example, Tolmie & Barbieri, 1997; Emms & McConnell, 1998; Harasim et al.,

1995). Hence there is a concomitant need for academics to understand how to

manage this medium so that its learning potential may be optimised. CMC may be

used to critically develop social and academic interaction between students and

tutors. Other recent studies (for example McConnell, 1997), have looked at

interaction patterns between men and women in educational CMC (such as turn

taking and directing conversation), gender related language use (Herring, 1993), and

general behavioural, use and attitude differences (Yates, 1993).

Online language teaching has four approaches.

1. The technology-driven approach attempts to formulate a pedagogy based

on the advantages and the innovative features of a new medium and sometimes even

tries to promote the medium itself. The pedagogy is rarely radically new, but often a

regeneration of an existing (sometimes even forgotten) method (Decoo, 2001).

2. The attributes-based approach analyzes the capabilities of a particular

medium with respect to its potential effect on learning (Salomon, 1979; Kozma,

1991). Media can be analyzed in terms of their ―cognitively relevant‖ capabilities,

which relate to three aspects: the technology of the medium (e.g., physical,

mechanical, or electronic capabilities), its symbol systems (e.g., written language,

spoken language, pictures, or graphs) and processing capabilities (e.g., displaying,

receiving, storing, retrieving, organizing, transforming, or evaluating information).

3. The affordances-based approach evaluates the potential or the capacity of

new technologies to enhance the language learning and teaching process. The term

affordance was coined by Gibson (1979), and refers to the potential for action or the
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capacity of real-world objects to help humans in executing their assertive will. In the

CALL literature, attention is being increasingly turned to the precisely defined

potential of new online systems and technologies to reach a desired goal, in this case

language learning and teaching (Le Loup & Ponterio, 1998).

While a number of studies have investigated the role of the Web in language

learning, they have tended to concentrate on individual variables such as reading

ability (Ganderton 1999), acquisition of grammar (Lamy 1997), elicitation tasks

(Ayoun 2000), motivation and attitude (Atkinson 1998), discourse analysis

(Warschauer 1996), or project-based CALL (Meagher & Castanos 1996, Debski &

Gruba 1998). No large-scale multivariate investigation focusing on the students‘

experience of Web- based language learning has been reported to date. Where the

effectiveness of Web-based learning is concerned, research is scarce and lacks

scholarly rigour (Windschitl 1998, McIssac & Gunawardana 1996), and the difficulty

of generalising results continues. In general, research into the efficacy of CAL has

produced equivocal results (Dunkel 1991), and it is easy to list problems attached to

such research (Chapelle 1997). The present study has deliberately not attempted to

investigate effectiveness in terms of achievement. Instead, it has concentrated on

students‘ views on the Web as a viable environment for v language learning.

Researchers have asserted that the computer should be used to replicate what

they believe ought to occur in the classroom. Many proponents of CALL have

advocated the development of communicative computer programs that provide

opportunities for meaningful communication (Garrett, 1991; Underwood, 1993;

Quinn, 1990; Lavine, 1992). Although some educators have decried the use of

computers as electronic workbooks for drill and-practice exercises (Chun & Brandl,
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1992; Underwood, 1993), others have advocated their use for tutorials and drills to

free up more classroom time for real communication (Gilby, 1996; Hoffman, 1996).

The availability and use of current technologies that support computer-

assisted language learning (CALL) and computer-mediated communication (CMC)

raise the critical question of whether or not there is a paradigm shift in how

languages are taught and learned (cf. Kaiser, 1997). Computer-Assisted Class

Discussion (CACD) provides learners with the opportunity to generate and initiate

different kinds of discourse, which in turn enhances their ability to express a greater

variety of functions in different contexts as well as to play a greater role in managing

the discourse. They feel freer to address questions to anyone or everyone in the class,

to query the teacher from time to time, to suggest new topics or steer the discussion

towards things they are interested in, to request more information or confirmation of

something said by someone else, or to express thoughts or opinions that have not

been explicitly solicited. More important, the Internet also provides a student-

centered learning environment in which students receive input through on-line

readings and produce output via the Computer Mediated Communication in the

target language (Lafford & Lafford, 1997).

According to Skrelin and Volskaya (1998), "the generalized [prosodic]

contours free from additional emotional colouring are used as models" (p. 24) typical

of TTS make it particularly suitable for CALL because they allow the learner to

focus on prosody without the distraction of emotional coloring. The utility of

synthetic speech for teaching pronunciation was in fact demonstrated much earlier by

Feldman (1977). In an experiment in which he compared learners' ability to

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discriminate among intonation patterns produced by a speech synthesis system with

their ability to discriminate among the same intonation patterns produced by a native

speaker, he found that learners found it easier to discriminate between simplified

examples produced with speech synthesis compared with examples produced by

native speakers. Defining the domain of knowledge, skills, or attitudes to be

measured is at the core of any assessment. Most people define oral communication

narrowly, focusing on speaking and listening skills separately. Traditionally, when

people describe speaking skills, they do so in a context of public speaking. Recently,

however, definitions of speaking have been expanded (Brown 1981).

Intelligent computer- assisted language learning— Intelligent CALL, or

ICALL—has been defined in a number of ways, but one understanding of the term

relevant here is that of CALL incorporating LT techniques for e.g. analyzing

language learners ‘language production or modeling their knowledge of a

second/foreign language in order to provide them with more flexible—indeed, more

‗intelligent‘—feedback and guidance in their language learning process.

CALL, ICALL and LT have been three largely unrelated research areas, at

least until recently:

1. The CALL ‗killer apps‘ have been e-mail, chat and multimedia programs,

developed and used by language teaching professionals with very little input from

LT research (Pennington, 1996; Chapelle, 1997; Chapelle, 1999; Chapelle, 2001;

Levy, 1997; Salaberry, 1999).

2. The only kind of LT which has had any kind of impact on the CALL field

is corpus linguistics, and even in this case it has been the Humanities Computing
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‗low-tech‘ kind of corpus linguistics, rather than the kind pursued in LT (the latter is

sometimes referred to as ―empirical natural language processing‖)2. ICALL has

often been placed by its practitioners in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), rather

than in LT (e.g. Swartz and Yazdani (1992); Holland et al. (1995)), more specifically

in the subfield of AI known as intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) (e.g. Frasson et al.

(1996); Goettl et al. (1998)). Partly for this reason, work on ICALL has proceeded,

by and large, without feedback into the LT community.

3. But on the other hand, in LT in general, (human) language learning has not

been seen as an application area worth pursuing. In the recent broad State of the art

of human language technology overview edited by Cole et al. (1996), ‗language

learning‘ does not appear even once in the index, and there is no section on CALL.

2.10. Video Tapes Used by Instructors for Evaluation

In addition or in exchange for audio tapes, some instructors use video tapes

for recording and evaluating speeches. The benefits include capture of both audio

and visual cues. Instructors do not have to rely on their memory to evaluate, i.e.,

facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, speed of speech or intonation. Another

benefit is that students can keep a record of their performance and see themselves as

members of the audience do. Some students are intimidated by the thought of

watching and hearing themselves on video tape, but research has shown that in

general, students with low levels of speech competency improve after reviewing

themselves on tape (Glenn, 1996, p. 10)

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Disadvantages include the increased amount of time necessary on the

instructor's side for each individualized student evaluation. To review video tapes

they feel capable of grading a speech when they first see it. They thus, run the danger

of being biased or influenced by other external factors such as being tired or

distracted Another disadvantage is that research also has shown that video

evaluations did not improve or even had a negative impact on performance of

students with moderate to high levels of apprehension (Hinton & Kramer, 1998, p.

157), and therefore did more damage than good.

Computers are neither universal remedy nor panicky. They don't solve

problems deriving from bad teaching. Neither do they lead to the disappearance of

the teacher in the speech classroom. Computers have already changed

communication in the classroom and will continue to do so but they do not diminish

the teacher's presence (Carter, 1995, 24). Especially in domains such as public

speaking courseware cannot substitute for the experience of learning from the

successful classroom teacher, for the experience of giving speeches in front of live

attentive classmates, or for the experience of careful, thoughtful discussion following

the speech? (Vest and Tajchman, 1995, pp 15- 16). Technologies should not be

added on or substituted for anything in the public speaking classroom. Instead, they

need to be integrated, which takes time, effort, and experience. When instructors note

that students begin to use computers with ease and creativity (Dockstader 1999 p 73),

technology has become a natural part of their interaction.