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2. Explain the differences between 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G mobile communications.
The early nineties brought us GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications). What it
brought us right away was international roaming, SMS (texts) and sim cards (yes, 1G didn’t
have those). It was hailed as the second generation mobile standard, so we got the 1G/2G
nomenclature as well.
In 2G and all the generations to follow, we have to have a way to share a channel between
multiple users: otherwise, there would be a maximum of around 50 users in a 10 mile cell.
The approach selected in GSM was TDMA (time division multiple access), having different
users use the same frequency in different time slots.
2.5G was the introduction of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) into GSM, allowing
packet switching: splitting the communication into data packets and sending them through a
channel which is not occupied all the time, like in the previously used circuit switching. 2.9G
took this a step further with Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution (EDGE) which,
unsurprisingly, enhanced the data rate of GPRS by the factor of three by introducing a new
modulation technique. The first viable internet connections over cellular come with these
advancements of 2G data traffic.
Data rates of at least 200 kbit/s were set as a lowest limit for a solution that would be dubbed
3G. It enables voice, video and internet in a mobile scenario. CDMA was the basis of the
new 3G, and again we weren’t able to make one standard to rule them all: UMTS (Universal
Mobile Telecommunications Service) came in GSM-dominated markets, while CDMA2000
came as a successor of the already existing CDMA schemes in 2G. Both standards were
developed from the early nineties.
Generation 4: MAGIC (10s)
And since LTE is an Evolution, the advanced versions of LTE (unsurprisingly called LTE-
Advanced) reached all the strict requirements of IMT-Advanced for 4G. On their way, they
introduced self organising networks, bigger MIMO, device-to-device (D2D) communication
and quite a few other smart innovations.
Bluetooth was developed under IEEE 802.15.1, which is used for providing wireless
communication through radio signals. The frequency range supported in Bluetooth vary from
2.4 GHz to 2.483 GHz. It covers less distance than Zigbee. In bluetooth, GFSK modulation
technique is used.
Whereas in Zigbee, BPSK and QPSK modulation techniques are used like UWB (Ultra-Wide
Band). the frequency range supported in Zigbee mostly 2.4 GHz worldwide, it means 2.4
GHz is not supported all times. It covers more distance as compared with Bluetooth.
The data transfer rate is faster in Bluetooth than zigbee whereas zigbee covers larger
distance than Bluetooth.
Both Bluetooth and ZigBee have a lot in common which are, each area unit styles of IEEE
802.15 WPANs. each run within the a pair of.4-GHz unlicensed band, and each use tiny kind
factors and low power. Besides these similarities, there are some differences which are
given below in tabular form.
Bluetooth vary from 2.4 GHz to While the frequency range supported in
There is maximum of 8 cell nodes While there is more than sixty five
The radio signal range of Bluetooth While the radio signal range of zigbee is
An excellent intuitive UI
A good smartphone OS should boot quickly and allow for a quick and beautiful UI that is both
fully functional and yet not overwhelming to the users.
Smartphones are nothing without good and functional apps , and an app store is where you
get the apps , but the prospect of getting quick cash drives some developers to make
irrelevant apps and so a good and curated app store is vital for the smartphone to function
as intended .
Data usage
One major feature of the smartphone systems is the ability to multitask but with that ability ,
comes the need to monitor the data and network usage and in some cases even limit them
so that they do not incur additional cost.
Battery Management
As smartphones include more sensors and processor cores and gpu , in general more
processing power , the amount of power required by the smartphone keeps on ever
increasing , so smartphones need to have a good battery management which can help
battery to last through the day, with moderate to high usage.
1. Explain functioning of cellular network. How the given set of frequencies is used to
increase capacity of a network?
2. Suggest three solutions for energy constraint problem in mobile devices.
3. How is a mobile station localized to a new location?
4. Describe the process of call handover when a mobile station moves.
5. Compare unicast, multicast and broadcast communication.
6. Describe the mobile IP protocol. Explain, with a diagram, how a corresponding mobile
node on a visit sends and receives IP packets to and from another mobile node. How does
the packet delivery mechanism in the mobile IP protocol differ from that in the IP protocol?
Assignment-3
1. Explain the functions of home and foreign agents in the mobile IP protocol.
2. What are the advantages of hoarding data at the mobile device?
3. Describe data caching. Explain data cache maintenance in a mobile computing
environment.
4. Explain cache invalidation mechanisms. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
stateful stateless cache invalidation.
5. Differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous cache invalidation.
Assignment-4
Q1. Briefly compare IEEE 802.11g and IEEE 802.16 in terms of working range,
maximum data rates and medium access schemes.
The most fundamental difference between WLAN and WiMAX is that they are designed for
totally different applications. WLAN is the standard to provide moderate- to high-speed data
communications within a short range, generally within a building. On the other hand, WiMAX
is the standard to provide Internet access over a long range outdoor environment. Besides
the obvious difference in transmission range, there are a number of improvements in the
radio link technology that distinguish WiMAX from WLAN. WLAN standards describe four
radio link interfaces that operate in the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz unlicensed radio bands. WiMAX
standards include a much wider range of potential implementations to address the
requirements of carriers around the world. All WLAN implementations use unlicensed
frequency bands, but WiMAX can operate in either licensed or unlicensed spectrum. A
detailed comparison of WiMAX and WLAN technologies is summarized in table below:
Q2. Explain two advantages and two disadvantages of cellular system with small
cells.
Q3. Explain hidden terminal problem with the help of suitable diagram. How do IEEE
802.11 and Bluetooth, respectively, solve the hidden terminal problem?
In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal problem occurs
when a node can communicate with a wireless access point (AP), but cannot directly
communicate with other nodes that are communicating with that AP.[1] This leads to
difficulties in medium access control sublayer since multiple nodes can send data packets to
the AP simultaneously, which creates interference at the AP resulting in neither packet
getting through.
As seen in the above problem, the transmission range of A reaches B but not C.
Similarly, the range of C reaches B but not A. Also the range of B reaches both A and
C.
Now, the node A starts to send something to B and C doesn’t receive this
transmission.
Now C also wants to send data to B and senses the carrier. As it senses it to be free,
it also starts sending to B.
Hidden terminal problem occurs when two nodes that are outside each other’s range
performs simultaneous transmission to a node that is within the range of each of them
resulting in a collision.
That means the data from both parties A and C will be lost during the collision.
Hidden nodes mean increased probability of collision at receiver end.
One solution to avoid this is to have the channel sensing range much greater than the
receiving range. Another solution is to use the Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (MACA).
Q4. Consider an area of 3600 square Km covered by a cellular network. If each user
requires 20 KHz for communication, and the total available spectrum is 60 MHz, how
many users can be supported without frequency reuse? If cells of area 36 square Km
are used, how many users can be supported with cluster sizes of 3 and 7?
1) 60 MHz /0.02 MHz = 3000 users
2) Total number of cells is 3600/36 = 100 cells
o In the cluster size of 3 each cell 3000/3 = 1000 users.
The total number of users are 100 x 1000 = 100,000 users.
o In the cluster size of 7 each cell 3000/7 users.
The total number of users are 3000/7 x 1000 = 42857 users.
Q5. A vehicle moves on a highway at an average speed of 60 Km/h. In the traffic of the
city, the average speed drops down to 30 Km/h. The macro-cellular radius is 30 Km,
and the micro-cellular radius is 3 Km. Assume the macro-cellular layer is used on the
highways and the micro-cellular in the city.
i. How many handoffs are expected over a journey of six hours on a highway?
ii. How many handoffs are there in one hour drive through the city?
iii. What would happen if there was absolutely no traffic and the vehicle could move at
75 Km/h in the city?
iv. What does this show about deciding which layer should handle a call?
(a) The physical characteristics of wireless networks make it impossible and impractical for
the CAMA/CD mechanism to be used. This is due to CSMA/CD’s nature of ‘listening’ if the
medium is free before transmitting packets. Using CSMA/CD, if a collision is detected on the
medium, end-devices would have to wait a random amount of time before they can start the
retransmission process. For this reason, CSMA/CD works well for wired networks, however,
in wireless networks, there is no way for the sender to detect collisions the same way
CSMA/CD does since the sender is only able to transmit and receive packets on the medium
but is not able to sense data traversing that medium.
Therefore, CSMA/CA is used on wireless networks. CSMA/CA doesn’t detect collisions
(unlike CSMA/CA) but rather avoids them through the use of a control message. Should the
control message collide with another control message from another node, it means that the
medium is not available for transmission and the back-off algorithm needs to be applied
before attempting retransmission.
(b) In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in
radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath
include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from water
bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings.
The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase
shifting of the signal. Destructive interference causes fading. Where the magnitudes of the
signals arriving by the various paths have a distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution,
this is known as Rayleigh fading. Where one component (often, but not necessarily, a line of
sight component) dominates, a Rician distribution provides a more accurate model, and this
is known as Rician fading.
Q2. Why mobility results in packet loss? As a mobile node gets farther and farther
away from a base station, what are the two actions that a base station could take to
ensure that the loss probability of a transmitted frame does not increase.
When accessing the internet or any network, small units of data called packets are sent and
received. When one or more of these packets fails to reach its intended destination, this is
called packet loss. For users, packet loss manifests itself in the form of network disruption,
slow service and even total loss of network connectivity.
As a mobile node gets farther and farther away from a base station, the two possible ways
that a base station could take to ensure that the loss probability of a transmitted frame does
not increase, are:
1) increasing the transmission power, and
2) reducing the transmission rate.
Q3. Compare Bluetooth 4.2 and Bluetooth 5.0 in terms of working range, maximum
data rates and applications domain.
Working Range- Bluetooth 5 speed is faster than Bluetooth 4. 2 with 2 Mbps format, which
is twice the speed of Bluetooth 4, about 1 Mbps, which allows Bluetooth 5 to meet one of the
IoT requirements.
Data Rate- Bluetooth 4.2 actively operates within a radius of 50 meters in open space and
within a radius of 10 meters indoors, which makes it not very convenient, while Bluetooth 5
actively operates within a radius of 200 meters in open space and within a radius of 40
meters indoors.
Application Domain- Bluetooth 4.2 compatibility works best with devices compatible with
version 4 of the series, but will not work with devices that have Bluetooth 5, while Bluetooth 5
compiles with v1, v2, v3, v4, v4.1 and version 4.2, but despite this, all Bluetooth 5 features
will not be used.
Q4. (a) Why does access point maintain buffers in Indirect TCP?
(b) Explain snooping TCP. What are its advantages and disadvantages?