Ch01-Phyiscal Layer and Media PDF

Data Communication and
Networking
Dr. –Ing. Vo Que Son
Email: sonvq@hcmut.edu.vn
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

1
Faculty of EEE HCMUT
Content
Chapter 1: Medium of PHY Layer
Wired and Wireless Media
Physical layer standards: RS232, RS422, RS485
Line Coding
Digital modulation/demodulation
Channel parameters
Gaussian noise and BER
Chapter 2: Data Communication
Asynchronous data transmission
Synchronous data transmission
Channel Coding
Data Compression
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Wired Media
 Guided Media
 How can signal be transmitted in wired media
(cables)?
 Voltage is sometimes referred to as electromotive Force within a atom
force (EMF).
 EMF is related to an electrical force, or pressure,
that occurs when electrons and protons are
separated
neutron Static Electricity

proton
Electrostatic discharge
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Waves
Sine Wave Square Wave

• Repeat the same pattern at • Repeat the same pattern at regular
regular intervals intervals.
• Continuous voltage •do not continuously voltage.
• occur naturally and change • Repeat the flat pattern on both the
regularly over time top and bottom of the wave
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Two-wire open lines
Used in short distance communication with low data
rates
Simple structure
Data rate < 19Kbps, max distance L<50m
Sensitive with Crosstalk
Sensitive with EMI
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Twisted-Pair Cable
Used in LAN and Telephone
networks
Data or voice transmission
UTP, STP, ScTP
Reduce more EMI than two-wire

open lines?
Reduce Crosstalk?
Introduce Skew: delay in video
transmission
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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UTP - Unshield Twisted Pair
 Intrinsic Impedance: 100 Ohm
 BW: depending on CAT
 Speed: 10,100, 1000 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
 Average $ per node: less expensive
 Maximum cable length: 100m
 Media and connector size: small
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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STP - Shield Twisted Pair
Intrinsic Impedance: usually 150 Ohm
Speed: 10,100 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
Average $ per node: moderately expensive
Maximum cable length: 100m
Media and connector size: medium to large
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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ScTP - Screen Twisted Pair
Intrinsic Impedance: usually 100 Ohm
Speed: 10,100, 1000 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
Average $ per node: less expensive
Maximum cable length: 100m
Media and connector size: small
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Most of common cables
Name Type Bandwidth Applications
Level 1 0.4 MHz Telephone and modem lines
Level 2 4 MHz Older terminal systems, e.g. IBM 3270
Cat3 UTP 16 MHz 10BASE-T and 100BASE-T4 Ethernet
Cat4 UTP 20 MHz 16 Mbit/s Token Ring
Cat5 UTP 100 MHz 100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet
Cat5e UTP 100 MHz 100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet
Cat6 UTP 250 MHz 10GBASE-T Ethernet
Cat6a 500 MHz 10GBASE-T Ethernet
Telephone, CCTV, 1000BASE-TX in the
Class F S/FTP 600 MHz
same cable. 10GBASE-T Ethernet.
Telephone, CATV, 1000BASE-TX in the same
Class Fa 1000 MHz
cable. 10GBASE-T Ethernet.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Cable and connectors
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Cabling Types
 Switch to router
 Switch to PC or server
 Hub to PC or server
 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 PC to PC
 Router to PC
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Co-axial Cable
Speed: 10-100 Mbps
Average $ per node:
inexpensive
Media and connector size:
medium
Max cable length: 500m
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Co-axial Cable (1)
 Applications: Computer Networks, Data Systems,
CATV, Private Video Networks
 RG-6/RG-59: 75 Ohm, CATV
 RG-8/ RG-58: 50 Ohm, Thick and Think Ethernet
LANs
 RG-62: 93 Ohm, used in IBM Mainframe
EMI prevention
Many kinds of intrinsic impedances: co-axial cables
can be used in specific systems
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Optical fiber
The light used in optical fiber networks is one type of
electromagnetic energy.
The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is
determined by how frequently the electric charge
that generates the wave moves back and forth
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Reflection and Refraction
 Electromagnetic waves
pointing out from the source
are called rays
 When a ray of light (the
incident ray) strikes the
shiny surface of a flat piece
of glass, some of the light
energy in the ray is reflected
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Total internal reflection
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Multi-mode fiber
Subscriber Connector (SC) is used in

multimode
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Single-mode fiber
Straight Tip (ST) connector is used single

mode
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Attenuation
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Optical components
 A LED producing infrared light with wavelengths of either
850nm or 1310nm. LEDs are used in multimode
 LASER producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually
with wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm. Lasers are used
with single-mode
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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 Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external
noise
 Fiber in a cable does not generate interference that disturbs
transmission on any other fiber
 The scattering of light, Absorption, Dispersion, manufacturing
irregularities
 Expensive and complicated installation
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Cabling Evolution
Telephone
Informatics
Unstructured
Structured
Universal Cabling System
Pre-engineered Cabling System
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Cabling Evolution (1)
 Telephony
PABX
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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 Data networking (80 - 90)
 LAN introduction
 New cable media
HOST
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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IEEE 802.3 Ethernet .... 1980
10 BASE-5
10 BASE-2
SAS
10 BASE-Tx
10 BASE-FL
TP-PMD FD
DI 10BASE-5
DAS Coxial
FDDI 10BASE-2
Fiber Distributed Data Interface .... 1980s IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
Token Ring 4 mbps .... 1985
CAT3 Token Ring 16 mbps .... 1989
UTP
IBM Type1
Token Ring
2-pairSTP
ATM
1-26
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Legacy cable systems
 Unstructured.
 Each system had a different
kind of transmission
medium (UTP, telephone
cable, STP, Type-1, coax,
signal cable, fiber ...)
 Each installed system is
non-compatible with other
applications.
 Costly moves and changes.
 No overview.
 Spaghetti cabling.
WHAT A MESS……
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Universal Cabling
Two media: copper twisted pair and optical fiber
Voice, data, video, control signals
Patching Facilities
Universal (Generic): application independent
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Universal Cabling Standards
EUROPE INTERNATIONAL
NORTH AMERICA
TIA/EIA EN 50173 IS 11801
568A
Commercial Building Customer

Telecommunications Generic Cabling for
Premises Cabling
Wiring Standard Customer Premises
October 1995 August 1995 July 1995
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Benefits of Structured Cabling
Redundancy at design stage reduces downtime &
repair time
Concealed cabling
Ease of fault location & repair
Flexibility, expandability & modular connecting
platform
Ease of moves, adds and changes
Enhanced end-use understanding and control
Continuous product support and warranty
Significant long term cost containment
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Cabling structure
CD Campus
ISO11801 Backbone
EN50173-1 Cabling
CD Campus Distributor BD BD
Building
BD Building Distributor Backbone
Cabling
FD Floor Distributor
CP Consolidation Point FD FD FD FD FD FD
Telecommunication Horizontal
TO
Outlet
Cabling
CP
TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Elements of a Structured Cabling System
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Building Distributor - Floor Distributor
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Campus Distributor
< 1500 m
Campus
Distributor
< 1500 m
< 1500 m
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Telecom Oulet
RJ45 (ISO 8877) Horizontal Cable

P2
P3 P1 P4
Telecom Outlet
8 pins
4 pairs
T568 A-B 8 wires
1 drain wire
Patchcord 4 twisted pairs
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Wireless media
Satellite Microwave
Terrestrial Microwave
Infrared
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Microwave
Satellite and Terrestrial Microwave
Advantages :
 No cabling needed between sites
 Wide bandwidth
 Multichannel transmissions
Disadvantages :
 Line of sight requirement .
 Expensive towers and repeaters .
 Subject to interference -e.g. passing airplanes, rain .
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Satellite systems
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station
Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats
signal and transmits on another frequency.
 Example: uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
Typically requires geo-stationary orbit
 height of 35,784km
 spaced at least 3-4° apart
Typical uses
 television
 long distance telephone
 private business networks
 global positioning
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Satellite frequency bands
Applications:
 Broadcast, TV
 Long-haul telephone system
 Private business network
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Satellites Microwave
Point-to-Point Satellite Link
Connecting remote sites
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Broadcast Radio
Radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
use broadcast radio, 30MHz -
1GHz, for:
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
is omnidirectional
still need line of sight
suffers from multipath
interference
reflections from land, water,
other objects
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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LEO systems
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Terrestrial Microwave
Propagation model
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Frequency Bands
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Terrestrial Microwave
Applications
Long-haul voice communications
Common carriers
Private network
Characteristics:
Using sky-wave
Line-of-sight
Frequency band: 2 – 40GHz
Sensitive to obstacles, environment changes.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Terrestrial Microwave: Example
Microwave link in
Cellular networks
Microwave link for

disaster zone
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Infrared
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with
longer wavelengths than those of visible light
Light-of-sight
Applications:
PC-PC, PDA communication
Data communication in small networks
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Physical layer Standards
 Interface standard of Physical layer
 Define connector
 Define signal
 Define protocol
 Common standards
 RS232
 RS422
 RS485
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232
 RS-232 is a popular communications interface for
connecting modems and data acquisition devices (i.e.
GPS receivers, electronic balances, data loggers, ...) to
computers.
 RS-232 can be plugged straight into the computer’s serial
port (know as COM or Comm port).
 Components of standard:
 Connection must be less than 50 feet
 Data represented by voltages between +15v and -15v
 25-pin connector, with specific signals such as data, ground and
control assigned to designated pins
 Specifies transmission of characters between, e.g., a terminal
and a modem
 Transmitter never leaves wire at 0v; when idle, transmitter puts
negative voltage (a 1) on the wire
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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RS232
Connectors:
DB25
DB9 DB-25 Female
Male & Female
RS232 signal example: DB-25 Male
No Parity
Even Parity
Odd Parity
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232 Signal
 Architecturally RS-232 is a bi-
directional point to point link.
 Two independent channels are (serial port - PC side)
established for two-way (full-
duplex) communications.
 RS-232 can also carry additional
signals used for flow control (RTS,
CTS) and modem control (DCD,
DTR, DSR, RI).
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232 Signal
 Common 25 pin D-shell connector
pinout used for asynchronous data
communications.
 Pin desciption:
(serial port - PC side)
Pin Signal
1 PGND Protective Ground
2 TXD Transmit Data
3 RXD Receive Data
4 RTS Ready To Send
5 CTS Clear To Send
6 DSR Data Set Ready
7 SG Signal Ground
8 CD Carrier Detect
20 DTR Data Terminal Ready
22 RI Ring Indicator
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232 Line Driver
 Unbalanced Line Drivers
 Each signal appears on the interface connector as a voltage
with reference to a signal ground.
 The “idle” state (MARK) has the signal level negative with
respect to common whereas the active state (SPACE) has the
signal level positive respect to the same reference.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232 Line Driver
The maximum speed, according
to the standard, is 20kbit/s.
However, modern equipment can
operate much faster than this.
(i.e. Lynx can reach 115200
baud.)
The length of the cable also plays
a part in maximum speed. The
longer the cable and the slower
the speed at which you can
obtain accurate results.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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DTE-DCE connection
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232: Data Transmission
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS232: Null modem
 Null modem is a
communication method to
connect two DTEs (computer,
terminal, printer etc.) directly
using an RS-232 serial cable.
 Null modems were commonly
used for file transfer between
computers, or remote
operation
 Types:
 No hardware handshaking
 Loop back handshaking
 Partial handshaking
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS422
Limitation of RS232:
unbalanced signal
Short distance
RS422
Balanced signal: bits
are transmitted on
both lines: Common
noise rejection
Long distance: 1500m
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS422 Signal
Bit representation:
Bit 1: +V and –V
Bit 0: -V and +V
Details:
Physical media: twisted-pair
Topology: P2P, Multi-dropped
Voltage Levels −6V to +6V +6V
(maximum differential Voltage) -6V
Maximum Drivers: 10 (1 driver,
10 receivers)
Bit rate: 100 kbps – 10 Mbps
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS422: P2P and Multi-dropped
Point-to-Point
Multi-dropped
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS422: extend RS322
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485
 Limitation of RS232: unbalanced signal and P2P
 RS-485 is a EIA standard interface which is very common in

the data acquisition world
 RS-485 provides balanced transmission line which also can be
shared in Multidrop mode.
 It allows high data rates communications over long distances
in real world environments.
 RS-485 was designed for greater distance and higher
baudrates than RS-232.
 According to the standard, 100kbit/s is the maximum speed
and distance up to 4000 feet (1200 meters) can be achieved.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485 Line Driver
 Bus topology
 Point-to-Point
 Multi-drop
 Multi-point
 Slave devices: 255
 Physical media:
Balanced
Interconnecting Cable
 Full-duplex: 4 wires
 Half-duplex: 2 wires
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485 Line Driver
 Balanced Line Drivers
 Voltage produced by the driver
appears across a pair of signal wires
that transmit only one signal. Both
wires are driven opposite.
 RS-485 driver has always the
“Enable” direction control signal.
 Differential system provides noise
immunity, because much of the
common mode signal can be
rejected by the receiver. So ground
shifts and induced noise signals can
be nullified.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485 Network
 RS-485 provides Half-
Duplex, Multidrop
communications over
a single twisted pair
cable.
 The standard
specifies up to 32
drivers and 32
receivers can share a
multidrop network
 Terminator resistors
avoid reflected signal
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485 Network
 RS-485 provides full-
duplex: multipoint
communication
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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RS485 hub
Expand network
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Line coding
 In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by
using digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques:
line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling
may or may not be needed.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Digital Transmission
 1 signal element=1
symbol
 Data element: bit 1 or
bit 0
 Baseband transmission
 Although the actual
bandwidth of a digital
signal is infinite, the
effective bandwidth is
finite.
 r is the number of data
elements carried by one
signal element
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Effect of lack of synchronization
 In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many
if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
 Solution
- At 1 kbps, the
receiver receives
1001 bps instead of
1000 bps.
- At 1 Mbps, the
receiver receives
1,001,000 bps instead
of 1,000,000 bps.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
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Line coding schemes
 Signal Spectrum: no high frequency components, no DC component
 Clock Synchronization between Tx and Rx, external clock or self-clock
synchronization
 Complexity and cost
 Interference and Noise immunity
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Unipolar NRZ
Non Return to Zero
Bit 1: positive voltage, bit 0: 0V
Constant voltage in bit duration
Lack of clock synchronization
Having DC component
Easy for deployment
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
 Using 2 voltage levels: +V, -V
 Bit 1: -V, bit 0: +V
 NRZ-I: Bit 1: inverted voltage, Bit 0: keep same voltage as
previous level
 Synchronization:
 Clock-Edge: bit 1, No clock-Edge: bit 0
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Polar NRZ
 In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the
bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines
the value of the bit.
 NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 data
rate
 Advantages:
 Simple implementation
 Efficiency of using bandwidth
 Disadvantages:
 Having DC component
 Lack of synchronization
 Applications: in magnetic recorder, not used in transmission
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Polar RZ
Return to Zero: 3 voltage levels
Bit 1: +V0, bit 0: -V0
Voltage level changes in bit duration
Good clock synchronization
Need more bandwidth
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Bi-phase
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding,
the transition at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and
differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.
Manchester: bit 1 –V+V, bit 0: +V-V
Differential Manchester:
Same as Manchester
Next bit is bit 1: no inversion of voltage
Next bit is bit 0: inversion of voltage
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Bi-phase
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Bi-phase
Advantages:
Synchronization: using clock-edge at the middle of bit
No DC component
Error detection: unexpected clock-edge happens
Disadvantages:
Bandwidth: 2 times of NRZ
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
 AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
 Bit 0: 0V
 Bit 1: Alternate Mark inversion: +V, -V
 Advantages:
 Do not loose the clock sync if there is a continuous sequence of bit 1s,
but loose the clock sync if there is a long sequence of bit 0s
 No DC component
 Require lower bandwidth
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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mBnL scheme
In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is
encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in which
2m ≤ Ln.
Increase data rate
Decrease required bandwidth
Definitions:
m: length of binary pattern
B: binary data
n: length of signal pattern
L: number of levels in the signaling
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
Used in DSL technology
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
 Number of binary patterns: 28=256
 Number of signal level: 36=478
 Redundant: 222
 Clock synchronization
 Error detection
 DC balance
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Block and Scrambling coding
Block coding
Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it
replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
Error detection
Increase bit rate
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Block coding
Example of block coding:
4B5B
8B10B
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Scrambling
 Biphase schemes that are suitable for dedicated links between
stations in a LAN are not suitable for long-distance
communication because of their wide bandwidth requirement.
 The combination of block coding and NRZ line coding is not
suitable for long-distance encoding either, because of the DC
component. Bipolar AMI encoding, on the other hand, has a
narrow bandwidth and does not create a DC component.
However, along sequence of 0s upsets the synchronization. If
we can find a way to avoid a long sequence of 0s in the
original stream, we can use bipolar AMI for long distances
 Two techniques: B8ZS and HDB3
 Scrambling do not change the bit rate while balancing DC level
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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B8ZS
 Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
 Replace 8 consecutive zeros by 000VB0VB
 V: denoted for violation: breaks the AMI rule (opposite
polarity from the previous)
 B: denoted for bipolar (follows the AMI rule)
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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HDB3
 High-Density Bipolar 3-zero(HDB3)
 HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V depending on
the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Digital Modulation/Demodulation
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data.
 Types:
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Digital Modulation/Demodulation
Basic principle
Why do we need modulation?
Why do we use analog signal for modulation?
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate
is the number of signal elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud
rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the
bit rate (c=1)
Solution: In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is
unknown. We can find the value of N from
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a
baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements
are carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution: In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r
and L are unknown. We find first the value of r and
then the value of L.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Binary amplitude shift keying
Waveform:
Simple implementation
Used in telematics
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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OOK: On-Off Keying
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Binary amplitude shift keying
Implementation of Binary ASK
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Example
 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit
rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
 Solution: The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Binary ASK: full-duplex
 In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links
with communication in both directions. We need to divide the
bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in
Figure 5.5. The figure shows the positions of two carrier
frequencies and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for
each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate
of 25 kbps in each direction.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

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Binary frequency shift keying
Waveform:
vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc= peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc= analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier
frequency (hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
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98
 More complicated than ASK
 Difficult in synchronization
 Used in Data Communication Modems (CCITT V21, CCITT V23,
BELL 103, BELL 113, BELL 202) and digital radio
 Lower BER than ASK: why?
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

99
BFSK implementation
Using VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
Variations: Multi-level FSK
Using multiple frequencies for FSK
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100
 BFSK demodulation using
PLL
 BFSK coherent
demodulation
 BFSK non-coherent
demodulation
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
101
BFSK: Example
 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
 Solution: This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250
kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

102
Multi-level FSK
 We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps. The
carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels
(different frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.
 Solution: We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 Mbps/3 = 1
MHz. This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1 MHz apart
(2Δf = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 × 1000 = 8000. Figure 5.8
shows the allocation of frequencies and bandwidth.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

103
Binary phase shift keying
Angle modulated signal, constant-amplitude
modulation
Waveform
vBPSK ( t)  A.d( t).cos( ot   )
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

104
Binary phase shift keying
 Medium complex circuit
 Used in digital radio
 BPSK implementation:
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

105
Quadrature PSK
 The binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called
dibits. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four
possible output phases (+45°, +135°, -45°, and -135°).
 Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

106
QPSK
Demodulation scheme:
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

107
Constellation Diagram
Description:
Error rate?
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

108
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Phase and Amplitude
Increase bit rate
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

109
Channel Parameters
Roundtrip Time (RTT): measured by a factor a
a= Tp/Tx
Tp : propagation time = S / V
Tx : transmission time = N / R
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last packet bit transmitted, t = N / R
first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK
ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + N / R
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

110
Delay Example
A data frame of 1000 bits is transmitted between 2
DTE. Determine RTT depending on which kind of
delay (Tp or Tx) in the following cases:
2 DTEs are connected by twisted-pair cable with a distance
of 100m, R=10 Kbps
2 DTEs are connected by co-axial cable with a distance of
10km, R=1 Mbps
2 DTEs are connected via free space with a distance of
5000km, R=10 Mbps
Given v=2.108 m/s
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

111
Channel
 Dedicated medium: Baseband transmission of a digital signal
that preserves the shape of the digital signal is possible only if
we have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
 In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster, we
need more bandwidth.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

112
Baseband transmission
 An example of a dedicated channel where the entire
bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel is a
LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated channel
for two stations communicating with each other. In a bus
topology LAN with multipoint connections, only two stations
can communicate with each other at each moment in time
(timesharing); the other stations need to refrain from sending
data. In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between these
two entities
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

113
Bandpass channel
 If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot
send the digital signal directly to the channel; we need to
convert the digital signal to an analog signal before
transmission.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

114
Bandpass channel
 An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone subscriber
line, the line connecting a resident to the central telephone
office. These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth. The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an analog
signal, and send the analog signal. We can install two
converters to change the digital signal to analog and vice
versa at the receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called
a modem
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

115
Transmission Impairment
 Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent
is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

116
Attenuation
 Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and
its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is
(1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as
 A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

117
Impairment
Distortion
Noise
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

118
Example
 The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3
dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal
at 5 km?
 Solution: The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5

dB. We can calculate the power as
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

119
Example
 The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is
1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
 Solution: The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as

follows:
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

120
SNR
 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

121
Data rate limit
 A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
 Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of
the system.
 The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit
C = B.log2(1+S/N) (bps)
 The Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels (symbols)

we need (Why is there such a limitation?):
R = 2B.log2L (bps)
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
122
Example
 We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
 Solution: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
 Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels,
the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

123
Example
 Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the
signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise
is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the
capacity C is calculated as
 This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless

of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data
through this channel.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

124
Example
 We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as
 This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can
either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the
signal-to-noise ratio.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

125
Example
 Consider an example that relates the Nyquist and Shannon
formulations. Suppose the spectrum of a channel is between
3 MHz and 4 MHz, and SNRdB = 24dB. So,
B = 4 MHz – 3 MHz = 1 MHz
SNRdB = 24 dB = 10 log10(SNR)  SRN = 251
 Using Shannon’s formula, the capacity limit C is:
C = 106 x 1og2(1+251) ≈ 8 Mbps.
 If we want to achieve this limit, how many signaling levels are
required at least?
By Nyquist’s formula: C = 2Blog2M
We have: 8 x 106 = 2 x 106 x log2M  M = 16.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

126
Bandwidth-Delay product
 In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of
frequencies in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed
of bit transmission in a channel or link.
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

127
Bandwidth-Delay product
 The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that
can fill the link.
 Useful when sending burst data and wait for ACK
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

128
Gaussian noise and BER
 Noise: always present in the transmission environment
 Modeled by Gaussian distribution
 Effected to the signal quality at the receiver
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

129
Types of Bit Error
 Single Bit Errors:
 only one bit in a given data unit (byte, packet, etc.) gets corrupted
 Burst Errors
 two or more bits in the data unit have been corrupted errors do not have
to occur in consecutive bits
 burst errors are typically caused by external noise (environmental noise)
 burst errors are more difficult to detect / correct
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

130
 Power Density Function (pdf) of Gaussian distribution:
m: mean (DC value)
: Standard Deviation (RMS/Effective Voltage)
2: variance (noise power) p(x)
1
2  2
0.606  
 x m 
2
1  2  2
p x   2 2
e
2 2 0.136 2 2
2  2
0 m x
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

131
 Assuming that only baseband signal are considered and
during the transmission, the transmitted signal is added by
Gaussian noise, resulting the receiving signal
 VT: threshold voltage
 VD>VT: decide the received bit is bit 1
 VD<VT: decide the received bit is bit 0
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

132
 Probability of transmitting bit 1, but receiving bit 0:
vT ( x  A) 2
1
Pr (vD < vT) = p(0/1) = 
 2 2
e 2 2
dx
 Probability of transmitting bit 0, but receiving bit 1:

  x2
1
Pr (vD > vT) = p(1/0) = 
vT 2 2
e 2 2
dx
 Assuming that the probability of transmitting bit 1 and bit 0 is

the same: Pr(1)=Pr(0)=0.5
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133
 Probability of bit error (Bayes rule):
Pe = Pr(1).Pr(0/1)+ Pr(0).Pr(1/0)
 Because Pr(0)=Pr(1)=0.5, then:
Pe = Pr(0/1)=Pr(1/0)
 Question: what is the value of VT so that Pe is minimum?

v -(x-A)2  -x2
T
1 1
Pe =0.5(  e 2σ2
dx+  2σ2
e dx) minimum
- 2πσ2 vT 2πσ2
-(v T -A)2 -v T2
e 2σ2
-e 2σ2
=0  (v T -A)2 =v 2T  v T =A/2
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
134
Finally, we need to determine Pr(1/0) or Pr(0/1):
using Q(k) function
Q(k) is a normal distribution function
m=0, =1
In this case: VT=A/2(why?)
VT/=A/2
so:
Area is Q(k)
Pe=Q(A/2)
Let k= A/2:
Pe=Q(k)
Telecomm. Dept. DCN
135
How to determine Q(k)
Q(k) chart for k<=7
k>7: using the formula

k2
1 
Q(k)  e 2
2 k
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

136
Frame Error Rate
 Given Pe
 If a frame has n bits. What is the Frame Error Rate?
 Probability of k-bit error:
Pk =CnkPek (1-Pe )n-k

 P0 is the probability that there is no errors in the frame
 Frame Error Rate (FER):
Pf(error) = 1-P0 = 1-(1-Pe )n  nPe (because Pe<<1)
 What is the probability of one frame has exact k-bit

continuous burst error?
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

137
Example
Given a PAM signal with 4
voltage levels in the figure:
Mean voltage: A=5V
Gaussian noise: =0.5V
Determine:
Threshold voltage levels
Symbol Error Probability
FER if 1 frame has 100 bits, and
the transmission channel only
causes the single-bit errors, 2-bit
burst errors, or 3-bit burst errors
Telecomm. Dept. DCN

138

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