SOCIAL STRATIFICATION _________________________________________________________ 4

The Caste system _______________________________________________________________ 4

Varna System and its gradual transformation into caste system _________________________________ 4
Characteristics of a traditional Caste system _________________________________________________ 5
1. Hierarchy ______________________________________________________________________ 5
2. Hereditary _____________________________________________________________________ 5
3. Traditional Occupation ___________________________________________________________ 5
4. Endogamy _____________________________________________________________________ 5
5. Theory of pollution ______________________________________________________________ 5
6. Restrictions on social interaction and opportunities____________________________________ 5
7. Localized group _________________________________________________________________ 6
Functions of caste system ________________________________________________________________ 6
1. Great unifying force _____________________________________________________________ 6
2. Efficiency ______________________________________________________________________ 6
3. Jajmani System _________________________________________________________________ 6

The Class System _______________________________________________________________ 6

Caste and Class in India __________________________________________________________ 6

Three ways for govt. to eradicate social inequality. ___________________________________________ 7
1. Preferential Treatment ___________________________________________________________ 7
2. Affirmative Action _______________________________________________________________ 7
3. Positive Discrimination ___________________________________________________________ 7

Social Mobility _________________________________________________________________ 7

Two types of mobility ___________________________________________________________________ 8
1. Intergenerational Mobility ________________________________________________________ 8
2. Intragenerational Mobility ________________________________________________________ 8
3. Occupational Category Mobility ____________________________________________________ 8

INSTITUTION OF FAMILY _________________________________________________________ 9

Family ________________________________________________________________________ 9
Functions of a family ____________________________________________________________________ 9
1. Procreation ____________________________________________________________________ 9
2. Sexual regulation _______________________________________________________________ 9
3. Economic support _______________________________________________________________ 9
4. Social placement ________________________________________________________________ 9
5. Socialization ___________________________________________________________________ 9
6. Emotional Security ______________________________________________________________ 9
 Kinship group __________________________________________________________________ 9

Types of Families ______________________________________________________________ 10

Based on size _________________________________________________________________________ 10
1. Nuclear ______________________________________________________________________ 10
2. Extended _____________________________________________________________________ 10
Based on relationship __________________________________________________________________ 10
1. Conjugal______________________________________________________________________ 10
2. Consanguine __________________________________________________________________ 10
Based on your role_____________________________________________________________________ 11
1. Family of orientation ___________________________________________________________ 11
2. Family of procreation ___________________________________________________________ 11
Based on the place of residence __________________________________________________________ 11
1. Patrilocal Family _______________________________________________________________ 11
2. Matrilocal Family ______________________________________________________________ 11
3. Neolocal Residence _____________________________________________________________ 11
Patriarchal or matriarchal _______________________________________________________________ 11

Marriage _____________________________________________________________________ 11
Homogamy __________________________________________________________________________ 11
Marriage and Family in India_____________________________________________________________ 12
Changes in Indian System of marriage and family ____________________________________________ 13
Global trends of marriage _______________________________________________________________ 13

RELIGION __________________________________________________________________ 15

Magic _______________________________________________________________________ 16

Sect _________________________________________________________________________ 16

Cult _________________________________________________________________________ 16

Functionalist perspective on religion ______________________________________________ 16

Conflict perspective ____________________________________________________________ 17

Durkheim’s theory of religion ____________________________________________________ 17

Secularization _________________________________________________________________ 17

Resacralization ________________________________________________________________ 18

Fundamentalism ______________________________________________________________ 18

DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL __________________________________________________ 20

 Durkheim on Crime ____________________________________________________________ 20

Deviance ke consequences ______________________________________________________ 21

Theories of Deviant Behavior ____________________________________________________ 21

Biological Theory ______________________________________________________________________ 21
Psychological Theory ___________________________________________________________________ 21
Labelling Theory ______________________________________________________________________ 21
1. Primary deviance ______________________________________________________________ 22
2. Secondary deviance ____________________________________________________________ 22
Conflict Theory _______________________________________________________________________ 22

White Collar Crimes ____________________________________________________________ 22

CULTURE __________________________________________________________________ 23

Symbol ______________________________________________________________________ 23

Components of Culture _________________________________________________________ 24

Beliefs_______________________________________________________________________________ 24
Values_______________________________________________________________________________ 24
Language ____________________________________________________________________________ 24
Norms ______________________________________________________________________________ 24
1. Explicit norms _________________________________________________________________ 24
2. Implicit norms _________________________________________________________________ 24
3. Ideal norms ___________________________________________________________________ 24
4. Real norms ___________________________________________________________________ 25
Technology___________________________________________________________________________ 25

Ethnocentrism ________________________________________________________________ 25

Xenophobia __________________________________________________________________ 25

Culture shock _________________________________________________________________ 25

Cultural Relativism _____________________________________________________________ 25

Multiculturalism_______________________________________________________________ 25
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
No society is based on perfect equality. Every society has a system of ranking and rating its
members on a number of criteria such as income, occupation, education and hereditary status.
Through the history, most societies have used these criterions to come up with some system of
classification such as lords and serfs, rich and poor, landlords and landless labours., upper
castes and lower castes.
Social stratification is a system of such structural inequality which rates and ranks the members
of a society based on a select criterion which limits access to wealth, opportunities, privileges
etc. It is based on a select criterion which is mostly not based on an individual’s personal
attributes. There are three commonly recognised system of stratification.
 Estate system (Not in syllabus)
 Caste system
 Class system
The Caste system
It is a rigid form of social stratification based on heredity status, traditional occupation and
restrictions on social relationships. The typical caste system is part of Hindu social
organisation. It is the oldest system of stratification. Caste is a heredity and usually localised
group having a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in hierarchy
of castes.
The religious justification for origin of caste system is that brahmins proceeded from mouth of
brahma the creator, kshatriyas from his shoulders, vaishyas from his thighs and shudras from
his feet. But a more valid justification is that caste system is a perversion of old varna system,
the functional division of labour in society.
Varna System and its gradual transformation into caste system
A functional division of labour in society based on guna or aptitude. Any individual
with an aptitude for learning could be a brahmin. In other words, it was a classification
of individuals on the basis of their quality and ability. It was not a classification of
groups into hereditary categories. It also did not imply any gradation on the basis of
ritual purity. Based on their occupation, each varna developed their own subculture.
Vaishyas amassed wealth, Shudras fell into permanent backwardness, Brahmins
interpreted sacred texts in a new way to justify their superiority and to socially exclude
the masses of untouchables and outcastes. Those who resisted this system and preferred
to live independently are today counted as tribal.
 This shows how the caste system came as a perversion of varna system. But the caste
system can still not be explained in terms of 4 Varnas. Because:
 There are thousands of castes and sub castes in India
 Their place in social hierarchy varies from place to place
 Castes have evolved over the years. Legal changes, education,
urbanization etc have transformed many features of caste system.
Characteristics of a traditional Caste system
1. Hierarchy: This system represents a hierarchical pyramid with brahmins on top and
many low castes or Dalits at the bottom. In the middle, there are thousands of other
castes and sub-castes. The hierarchy however is not clear-cut one. The top and the
bottom layers are fixed but, in the middle, there is considerable debate on status of each
group.
2. Hereditary: Castes are decided on the basis of the birth in a family and there is little to
no room for mobility.
3. Traditional Occupation: Every caste is associated with a certain occupation that is
handed down from one generation to another. Temple priests, leather workers,
carpenters, barbers etc. all came from traditional castes. Lord Dumont believed that
caste and occupation are also interlinked with the religious orientation. Certain
occupations were perceived as pure while other were seen as impure. This perception,
influenced by the religious texts dictated their position in caste hierarchy. They are not
ordered strictly in terms of power relation or economic domination.
4. Endogamy: Individuals usually marry within their caste and any inter-caste relations
were strictly forbidden. There was however internal exogamy in brahmins where each
clan represented a sapinda(family tree) and marriage took place between clans.
5. Theory of pollution: Relations between castes were determined by the theory of
pollution and the notion that lower castes are impure and polluting to the upper castes.
This formed the basis of social exclusion of lower castes and untouchability.
6. Restrictions on social interaction and opportunities: Lower castes had to abide by strict
rules. They were not allowed to wear jewellery, enter temples or attend schools. They
were excluded from villages and forced to live in separate neighbourhood. They were
forbidden to present themselves infront of the higher castes, even from a distance on 60
feet. Acceptance of cooked food and water was a deciding factor in the social status of
 a caste. A caste which served food to another food but did not accept food in return was
a superior caste while the latter was the inferior caste.
7. Localized group: There are no fixed standards to evaluate the caste system all across the
country. Also the social status of each caste varies according to the territory. A caste
may be untouchable in one region while not in another.
Sometimes castes divide themselves into a number of sub castes in which case certain
restrictions like endogamy do not apply to them.
Functions of caste system
1. Great unifying force: It held together numerous culturally diverse groups in the wake of
external threat and frequent aggression.
2. Efficiency: It promoted efficiency in economy by execution of traditional occupation in
absence of vocational schools by encouraging craftsmen to excel in their profession and
spread their art in their lineage.
3. Jajmani System: ?
The Class System
Refers to classification of people on the basis of their economic positions in the society. This
system emerged as individuals started accumulating wealth. Social classes like class are not
rigid like caste system and there is scope for mobility as they gain or lose in market system.
Even though individuals born in wealthy families have better access to resources and education,
those who are poor also in principle have a chance to get educated and rise up the ladder by
getting a good job. The age-old classification of classes in to upper lower and middle class still
holds true. Among the upper castes, there are two types, aristocracy of birth and wealth such
as ruling class and the new rich.
Sociologists rely on a number of factors to determine classes. Wealth and income are most
common ones. Income refers to an individual’s earnings and wealth refers to sum total of all
assets owned by the person. Other criterion used to classify people into different classes is level
of education, type of occupation, house type etc. Sometimes, place of residence (low income
neighbourhood or wealthy areas) are important.
Caste and Class in India
Caste and class are not mutually exclusive.
Untouchability abolished. But customs dominate trends in society, not laws. Dalits don’t have
access to north Indian temples etc.
But education is changing the narrative. Unlike older times, a lot of Dalit kids are getting access
to quality education and liberate themselves from clutches of traditional occupation.
Reservation of seats in educational institutes, government services and legislatures have
brought about significant change.
Three ways for govt. to eradicate social inequality.
1. Preferential Treatment: If there is competition for a job or a seat, and other factors are
equal, then a person from disadvantaged caste will be preferred over the other. This
doesn’t result in dilution of merit as other all the candidates in contention have similar
qualification.
2. Affirmative Action: This includes positive actions to help members of the disadvantaged
classes such as special loans and scholarships.
3. Positive Discrimination: Even if other factors are not equal, members of disadvantages
communities are given preference. People with lesser qualification are given preference
to fill the posts. This is criticized as merit is diluted.
Rural Urban Migration affects inter caste relations. People live their ancestral villages to
live and work in city. Though some of them continue with their traditional jobs in cities as
well, most of them disassociate themselves with their jobs prescribed by their caste and
follow new occupations. The restrictions found in rural areas cannot be enforced in cities.
People live together in urban tenements. Old system of caste is thus replaced with new
symbols of class. Economic opportunities now determine the person’s social status.
Castes have also emerged as an important pressure group in politics. It plays a dominant
role in party politics. Party’s consider numerically large castes as vote banks and field
candidates and allot ministerial posts according to castes. Since caste considerations
influence voting pattern, parties look to exploit these caste links.
Social Mobility
It is the upward or downward movement of a person from one social class or status to another.
It results in gain or loss of wealth, power and prestige for individual. Based on ease or difficulty
in upward movement, stratification systems are classified as open or closed societies. Rigid
stratification systems such as caste and estate which are hereditary offer little to no mobility
and are an example of closed societies while class system based on wealth and income is an
example of open society. Open and close societies are relative terms.
 Two types of mobility
1. Intergenerational Mobility: This involves comparison of parent’s and child’s social
class positions. We see if child’s class position is higher than the parent’s or not. In
case it is higher, we term it upward intergenerational mobility.
2. Intragenerational Mobility: If an individual’s occupation changes during the course
of his life time which results in movement of his social position, it is called
intragenerational mobility. Individual begins his career as a manager in a company
but he goes on to become the CEO.
3. Occupational Category Mobility: Change of in economic or societal position of an
occupation relative to other occupations. A person may not have moved out ofhis
occupation yet this occupation relative to others occupations may now provide the
benefits of economy and society.
Castes were a closed system with little to no mobility.
According to MN Srinivasan, process of Sanskritization has provided some social mobility for
carious lower castes in ritual hierarchy. Low castes are able to rise to a higher position by
adopting the rituals and beliefs and practices of higher castes. Sometimes the process of rising
up the social ladder takes more than one generation. Ezahavads example.
Today the situation is different. Legal changes, affirmative action have increased the chances
of mobility for those at the bottom of social ladder.
 INSTITUTION OF FAMILY
Family is a universal social institution. It is a social group of two or more people who live
together and are related by marriage, blood, adoption. Hence, family is not only a man or
woman living together but also two brothers living together.
Functions of a family
1. Procreation: Every society needs to replace its members. Even though reproduction
can take place outside the barriers or marriage, it is only an institution of a family
that can effectively nurture and socialize the young human to meet the needs of
society.
2. Sexual regulation: No society can allow unrestricted intercourse. First, every society
assigns and defines the roles and status of every individual. Secondly, by specifying
who marries within and outside community, society establishes the networks of
relationships and forging alliances.
3. Economic support: Before industrial revolution, family was unit of production and
consumption. Today, family is no longer significant unit of production. Individuals
pursue independent economic activities beyond their home. (kaafi shit, need better
framing)
4. Social placement: Every individual is recognized as the member of a family which
gives him an inherited status. Children inherit not only family name but also a social
standing. Birth into a particular family determines a kid’s caste class religion
language etc.
5. Socialization: The institution of family is responsible for initiating the child into
social circles, religious groups etc. Thus, the child gets socialized into group’s
values, beliefs and standards.
6. Emotional Security: Food and shelter can be provided by other institutions like
orphanage. Providing emotional security is one of the most important functions of
family.

Kinship group is a network of families related by blood, marriage or adoption. The culture
defines which family relationships are considered important.
Imperial china followed a Patrilineal system in which members trace their kinship through
the father’s line of descent. In this system, generations are tied to kinship through the male
members of the family.
Even though this is the prevalent system in India, in the Nair’s of Kerala, the matrilineal
system is in place. Kinship consists of families related through maternal line of descent.
In a system where an individual is considered to be equally related to both mother and father,
it’s called bilateral system.
A clan is a unilateral kin group based on matrilineal or patrilineal descent whose members
believe they are descendants of a common ancestor. Its immaterial whether the members share
a biological ancestor or not, what’s important is that they believe that they do. Members of a
clan are expected to marry outside clan.
A household is different from a family. A household is made up of one or more people who
live in a same dwelling unit which may be a house or an apartment. Hence, household not only
includes family members but also persons who are not related to each other, for example room-
mates. (or if you drive your roomie out, then you’re a household in yourself) A family is always
a household, but a household is not always a family.
Types of Families
Based on size
1. Nuclear: it consists of parents and their biological or adopted children. They are 2
generational families.
2. Extended: its social group that consists of parents’ children and other members who
are related by birth and marriage. Other relatives usually include parents’ siblings
and their families. In traditional agrarian societies, extended families are the norm
as all the members are expected to work on the family farm. Other than labour, they
also provide support for less fortunate family members and emotional support. They
pooled resources to support members who pursued higher education or a business
venture.
Based on relationship
1. Conjugal: a conjugal family is based on marriage rather than blood relationships.
Nuclear family made up of parents and kids are an example of conjugal family.
2. Consanguine: In a consanguine family the emphasis is on blood relationships more
than marriage. This kind of family system prevailed in Nairs of Kerala where after
the marriage, women don’t leave their home but continue to stay with their brothers
and sisters while husband is a mere visitor to the family. The children are raised by
mother and her brother whose own children are raised in a separate household. This
 system is no longer practiced. It formed extended family which spread over two or
three generations.

Based on your role

1. Family of orientation: Refers to family in which you are a child because it is the
family which raises you and socializes you
2. Family of procreation: The family in which you are a parent.
Based on the place of residence
1. Patrilocal Family: If a son who gets married brings his wife home to his father’s
residence, it’s a patrilocal family
2. Matrilocal Family: Expects the couple to live with or near the wife’s family.
3. Neolocal Residence: When a couple’s livelihood no longer depends on the ancestral
property, the newly-wed couple takes up an independent residence. The married
couple lives apart from the either the parents’ family or community. These families
are the norm in modern urban societies.
Patriarchal or matriarchal (yeh to aata hi hoga bc)
Marriage
Marriage is defined as sexual access between males and females, regulated and legitimized by
society. Ceremony is an important cultural institution in every society that signifies the union
between the man and the women and grants them socially approved status as husband and wife.
Every society has some restrictions on who they can marry. Incest taboo.

Should know endogamy exogamy, Monogamy polygamy

Homogamy refers to marriage of people with similar characteristics.

Preferential marriage refers to marrying someone in specified bloodline. Among south Indian
Brahmins, a man is encouraged to marry his sister’s daughter. In some other communities, a
man is supposed to marry his maternal uncle’s daughter. Some of these customs are not very
strong anymore.
Marriage and Family in India
In Indian society, we cannot generalize. Patterns of marriage, family and kinship as
well as practices vary from caste to caste, region to region. Same caste may follow
different practices in two different regions. The commonly noticed perception of Hindu
cultures that one usually associates with all Hindus is infact only found among the high
classes.
Marriage is considered to be a sacrament and a duty among all Hindus. Lower castes
do not attach that much importance to marriage and only see it as a necessity to have
sons who can help them with work in the field and take care of them in the old age.
Upper castes see it as a religious obligation as they must have a son to perform rituals.
For Christians, marriage is a sacrament and cannot be absolved. Muslims see marriage
as a contract and can be annulled easily.
Legislations allow for divorce across all castes and religion but a lot of women
especially upper caste Hindu and Christian women associate a lot of stigma with
divorce. Women find it difficult to breakaway from tradition and destroy only economic
social and emotional support they have. (wtf)
Marriage with certain relatives is prohibited while it is encouraged with certain. Cross
cousins are encouraged, parallel cousins are prohibited except for Muslim communities.
Polygyny and polyandry have been existing in India for a number of years until
prohibited by Hindu Marriage act 1955. But still, upper castes considered monogamy
the ideal. Only when wife was barren, a second wife was taken. Muslims are permitted
up to four wives.
Polyandry was even less common, only a few hilly tribes like todas of Nilgiris and a
few other north Indian castes followed it.
Widow remarriage was allowed but that was not true of a widow. Twice born castes
placed a ban on widow remarriage and in most cases, they are supposed to shave their
heads, shun jewelry and wear white. This was done to make women unattractive to
possible mates.
Hypergamy is a significant trend in various cultures across India. A man from higher
status group takes a woman from lower status group. But woman is not allowed to
marry a man to a lower community as it would bring shame to entire community. Kulin
hypergamy. Now disappeared but search for higher social status continue, albeit at a
huge cost. They have to pay a lot of dowry and expensive gifts. Even then, girl is
reminded of her lower status.
Few more important features are: marriage brokers, horoscope, dowry system,
elaborate ritualistic ceremony among upper classes and wedding extravaganzas.
Changes in Indian System of marriage and family
There is a decline in joint family system. Traditionally joint families lived in ancestral
home surrounded by extensive land property. Joint family had a manager, usually the
patriarch who arranged for the marriage of all children and took care of ritualistic
ceremony. All common expenses including education for kids were met with ancestral
estate income. This type of family is now on decline. Property gets partitioned, adult
brothers move away and start a new business, or educated kids take up jobs in city. But
since people live longer, parents in their old age move with one of their children’s
family. As wives enter labor force, parents are usually brought in to look after children
of the family. Urban families which might look like small families are not families in
their own but just limbs of bigger families situated elsewhere. Any crisis in family is
taken to be common problem.
The age of marriage is going up in the last two decades. Yet, India has one of the lowest
median age.
Men and women have little more control on choice of their spouse. This is particularly
true for urban middle class and educated poor in rural areas.
Women entering labor force have several consequences for the family. Parents not only
tend to have fewer kids, they also space the child birth. Traditionally, early childhood
was prerogative of the family but now parents send kids to kindergartens. Urban
families tend to be more bilateral than patriarchal. There is a decline in segregation of
sexes in work roles. When both spouses work, they tend to share responsibilities such
as cooking baby sitting etc. Children who were earlier given inferior status are now
encouraged to participate in family discussions. Professionalism in marriage (computer
dating, marriage counsellors etc.)
Global trends of marriage
Cohabitation, sharing household by unmarried couple, is increasing over last 20 years.
Because of increased acceptance for cohabitation, couples don’t see the need for legal
marriages. Personal lives of unmarried couple has started resembling those of married
couples.
One parent family are now a thing. Sometimes caused by death of a spouse or divorce.
Sometimes it’s a deliberate choice where women choose to stay unmarried and adopt a
child. Nearly one third of families with kids in USA have only a single parent. Teenage
pregnancies of women are also a huge reason.
 RELIGION
Object of deep reverence; once been equated with salvation and now characterized as opium
of people.
Giddens said “various modes of worship which prevailed in roman world were considered by
the people as equally true, by the philosopher as equally false and by he magistrate as equally
useful”
Durkheim said “Religion is unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,
uniting into single moral community all those who adhere to those beliefs and practices”
In sociological terms, religion is simply a set of beliefs, practices, rituals and symbols that
somehow relate to a community’s orientation to the supernatural or the life beyond.

Any proposition about an aspect of the universe that is accepted by many as true may be called
a belief. Religion is founded on many such beliefs although they are not universal. A systematic
belief is not necessary a universal component of religion, not even belief in god is essential to
a religion. Confucianism Taoism do not involve a particular god figure. They constitute certain
ethical and philosophical systems that emphasize correct behavior and a moral way of life. For
centuries, religion was always expressed in terms of system of beliefs. This is why followers
of any religion is called believers or the faithful.
Religions are of two types. Monotheistic or Polytheistic. Former believes in only one god, the
omnipresent supernatural god. Later worships several gods that preside over numerous forces
of nature.
Sacred is another important element of religion. Sacred texts provide a framework of
knowledge within which the supernatural and the phenomena outside ordinary experience
become meaningful to believers.
Emotionalism is another important aspect of religion. Religious experience is a profound
personal experience. There is no uniform patter but it depends on intensity of one’s faith,
orthodoxy of a religion etc etc. some religious experience includes self-torture, magical dances
etc.
Members of most religion have a sense of community in that their beliefs, rituals and practices
unite them into a common fold. Some like catholic church have a hierarchy structure while
most are loosely based associations of members. Every religion has a sense of mutual identity.
Magic
Refers to an active attempt to manipulate spirits or supernatural forces in order to attain desired
results. Magic does not involve worship of god or gods. It is a set of techniques intended to
coerce the spirits to grant certain wishes and almost always is a means to an end. In the middle
ages, most white people believed in sorcery, werewolves and witchcraft. Importance of magic
has declined with rise of science and new perspective on religion. Several elements of religion
are incorporated in to practices of religions.
Sect
An exclusive, highly cohesive group of believers who strictly adhere to a religious doctrine and
reject many beliefs and practices of general society. Membership into a sect is voluntary,
usually by conversion. Sects adopt several unconventional beliefs and forms of worship. They
usually follow equalitarian ideals with new members and old members treated with equal
respect. They expect active participation and strict conformity from their members. Sects are
less formal than organized religion. Their members suffer harassment from society because
they deviate from established norms and hold rigidly to their religious convictions.
Sects make no attempts to influence religious lives and behavior of those who are not a member
of the sect. There is some sort of a religious eligibility test to qualify as a member of sect. It is
indifferent or hostile to state and the larger society and often uphold vision of an alternative
society.
Cult
An amorphous type of religious organization which is often inspired by a charismatic leader.
People voluntarily follow a leader who preaches new beliefs and practices. They invoke
negative sentiments by the virtue of their unconventional doctrines. They always attract
controversy. Several organized religions began as cults. Usually, they last as long as their
leader. Cults have been accused of kidnapping and stuff. Don’t join one guys.
In India the terms cult and sect are used loosely. For examples Vishnavites and Shaivites are
called sects but they are just part of a mainstream religion.
Functionalist perspective on religion
Every society must in order to survive meet a number of functional pre-requisites. One of the
most important being solidarity of its members. Religion is regarded as the integrative and the
legitimizing institution which unites people in a cohesive and binding moral order. A sense of
common purpose and unity that is provided by religion inspired a moral community based on
social solidarity.
It is the most enduring tension management device ever created by man. Man transformed his
fear of forces of nature and turned it into a system of rituals to worship the deity that presided
over the forces of nature. Freud believed man created religion in an attempt to thwart his
anxieties he felt in a world that was beyond his control. Religion makes the world
comprehensible by answering many unanswerable questions.
Weber capitalism coming?
Weber thesis on religion called for attention to three forms of relationships between social
organization and religious ideas. Firstly, social groups with economic interests often show
themselves to be more receptive towards religion than others. Secondly, religious ideas result
in formation of certain groups and these groups may develop economic activities. Thirdly, the
distinction between the elite and the masses is as pertinent to the religious sphere as to others.
SEE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION FROM PAGE 205 MODULE.
Conflict perspective
They recognize religion as an integrative force. But they argue religion was always used by
ruling class to suppress the masses. Karl Marx saw religion as an enemy of a socialist
revolutionary state. He compared religion to a drug that lulls people into false consciences.
Masses get indoctrinated into religious doctrines that support the status quo. Marx said man
makes religion. Religion doesn’t make man. Leaders of a religion often side with the ruling
class and legitimize the political and economic domination of the lower classes. Poor and
oppressed were told that they shall accept their fate and not rebel against the system and they
shall be rewarded later. In India the untouchables were told it was their divine duty to serve the
upper castes and they shall be rewarded in their next birth. Religion also inhibit social change.
History of social revolutions indicate that religion and the priestly class were often opposed to
change.
Durkheim’s theory of religion
Durkheim studied the most primitive religious institution, the totemism found among
Australian aborigines.
NAHI ATA YAAR
Secularization
In his book the secular city, Hervey Cox defines secularization as the process that simply
bypasses and undercuts religion and goes on to other things. Traditional religion plays no
significant role in the public life of secular metropolis. Secularization is the de-sacralization of
the world in which there are no religious symbolism for the integration of society. In simpler
terms, it means reducing the influence of religion in everyday life. Hence, world becomes more
rational and secular. Scientists argues that technology undermines religion as it provides better
solutions to specific problems and reduces the need for recourse to religious explanation and
answers. Technology also gives us an increased sense of mastery over our own affairs. In India,
the shift sees more people turn to modern science to cure illness or to produce better crops,
unlike earlier times when religion played important consideration in both.
Three propositions of secularization are:
1. Differentiation of secular spheres from religious institutions and norms.
2. General decline of religious practices. History shows that closer people are
involved in industrial production, less religious they become
3. Privatization of religion to a private sphere. Process of religious individuation
based on freedom of conscience.
Modernization doesn’t mean death of god or end of religion. It only means a certain type of
outlook towards religion. Typical example is Indian case where people don’t see any conflict
in religion and science. A man with PHD in astronomy may consult an astrologer in planning
a wedding for his daughter.
Resacralization
Believe that humans have gone too far with secularization by obliterating the lines of mystery
and humans still want mystery. Young people all around the world are returning to appreciate
mysticism.
There is no proof of a mass return to supernatural beliefs, nor is our everyday life more
spiritualistic than before. Yet there is a definite increase in the search for a new meaning or
new spiritual discipline as evidenced by the new radical religious movements.
Fundamentalism
A conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in
favor of restoring traditional otherworldly spirituality. It denotes unconditional acceptance of
the literal truth of the faith, there is no room for debate. They practice their faith and leave the
rest of the society alone and don’t sit in judgement over members of other faiths (people should
be like them). Five characteristics of fundamentalism are:
1. They interpret the scriptures literally
2. They do not accept religious pluralism
3. They pursue personal experience of god’s presence
4. They oppose secular humanism, tendency to turn to science for answers instead
of god.
5. Many fundamentalists endorse conservative political goals.
 DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL
Difficult to think of a society where all people always conform to all norms. Types of deviant
behavior are to be found in every society. Crime, violence, dishonesty. Deviant behavior is
neither good, nor bad. It’s a neutral act of nonconformity. Case not: mahatma gandhi, rosa
parks. (no)
Deviance may be defined as a behavior that is in violation of social norms of a society. Certain
deviant behavior is against the norms of society in general for example murder. But mostly,
deviance have meaning only in a certain social group. For example, a brahmin who eats meat
is deviant only in eyes of other brahmins.
Difference between crime and deviance. Bribing is accepted even though crime. Deviance can
be of views also, atheist in a god believing society.
Because there is no standard right or wrong, its usually the culture which defines a particular
behavior as acceptable or not. Hence an act of deviance can only be defined in terms of culture
of the group.
Deviance is always relative. An act considered normal in one culture will be considered deviant
in some other culture. Even killing has different perceptions in different contexts. Premeditated
murder, Self-defense, War.
There is no room for value judgements when defining deviant behavior. Hence, Sociologists
view crime and deviance as neutral concepts and make no moral judgements.
Durkheim on Crime
Crime is the violation of an imperative or a prohibition. It is an act prohibited by the collective
consciousness. It can be defined in terms of collective morality prevalent in a group at a point
of time.
Durkheim rejects that crime is pathological or an example of social morbidity. He insists is has
been present in all the societies and is an integral part of all healthy societies. Crime is not
only normal, it is necessary. It helps in bringing change in society and implies threes a way
open to necessary changes and in certain cases it prepares these changes. Hence he sees a link
between deviance and progress. There are types of crime where the existance of those is a
sound indication of the healthy nature of the social order. This is the only way for us to explain
the progressive changes brought about by such great moral innovators as Socrates, Gandhi,
Martin Luther.
Deviance ke consequences
Deviance also unites the community in its response. So in communities with strong collective
consciousness, any deviance will be taken seriously. Groups such as religious ones take a
collective action against deviance and hence it acts as an integrating force.
Deviance has bad consequences as well. It undermines trust. The stability of a social system
is based on the expectation that people behave according to established norms. When there is
widespread theft etc, people loose trust in their leaders. Large scale violations create fear and
insecurity. Deviance is also expensive. The expenditure on law and order is testimonial to that
Theories of Deviant Behavior
Biological Theory
Criminals somehow look different from normal people. Facial features like shape of
head and type of nose and other physical deformities were thought to be attributes of
deviants. It was thought that criminals could be identified by certain physical signs that
betray people’s savage nature.
These biological explanations are no longer accepted. We can see that deviants can be
‘perfect gentlemen’ in appearance. But current biological theorists focus on genetic
factors, hormonal abnormalities etc. to determine whether certain biological factors are
prone to certain types of deviant behavior. There are no conclusive evidences presented
yet.
Psychological Theory
Some theories attribute deviance to emotional scars left over form early childhood
experiences. Personality theorists look for key personality traits that are
disproportionately present among deviants. Aggression and impulse for instant
gratification are said to be traits of criminals.
Behavioral theorists focus on rewards and punishments. Children learn the behavior
that brings positive rewards and avoid patterns which generate punishment.
Although psychological theorists can’t explain all forms of deviant behavior, they are
very helpful in understanding policy implications. Instead of treating criminals as bad
people to be reformed by punishments, psychological theories aid in the process of
therapy and rehabilitation.
Labelling Theory
According to this theory, the crucial factor is not the deviance itself but the social
response to it, that is how society labels an individual. Officials who take bribe and are
 corrupt are not labelled as deviant but those who come with good welfare intention are
deviant in the politician community and are labelled as deviants. Once caught, these
same officers are labelled as corrupt by public. Hence the focus is not on individual
deviant but the social process by which the deviant becomes labelled as deviant and
what consequences the deviant faces by this labelling.
1. Primary deviance refers to original deviant behavior. Unless he is caught, he will
not be labelled as deviant.
2. Secondary deviance develops when individuals are labelled as deviant and they
accept the deviance and continue to behave accordingly.
Social status of a person is important. Wealthy and powerful get away with a lot of
deviant acts. Labelling theory also explains how many powerless and marginal
individuals are labelled as deviants by others. Petty criminals’ alcoholics etc.
Conflict Theory
This theory attribute deviant behavior to unequal distribution of resources in modern
society. Wealth and power is concentrated in the hands of few individuals. Economic
dominants make laws in order to promote their own interests by using their wealth and
power to manipulate legal systems.
The poor on the other hand have no access to resources and opportunities and resort to
deviant behavior. Those who are oppressed and suppressed for generations by the
affluent revolt against their oppressor. This is perceived as deviant behavior.
White Collar Crimes
They are one of the most common crimes in India. They are committed by people of higher
socio-economic status in the course of their business activities. Bribery, Adulteration and
embezzlement are common ones. Pollution of air and water by factories, illegal dumping of
toxic waste, sale of defective products is also white-collar crimes.
 CULTURE
What distinguishes a man from non-man is his possession of culture which is the result of
communal living. Culture shapes our values beliefs norms and the way we perceive the world
around us. How we dress, what language we speak, what we eat (everything) is determined by
our culture. A society is a group of interacting individuals who share a common culture.
Culture has been defined as the common whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. Culture is a total way
of life of a social group, meaning everything they are they do and they have. It is a complex
system that consists of beliefs, values, languages etc shared by members of a social group.
While other creatures largely depend on their instincts, humans have deliberately adopted a
highly variable and changeable set of cultural responses. For example, hunger and sexual urge
are biological facts, but it is culture which determines how these biological urges are channeled.
Culture refers to a group’s social heritage that has been transmitted from generation to
generation. Scientific knowledge, art forms, customs etc are handed down from one generation
to other. To begin with, we do not even choose our religion or language.
Culture not only consists of non-material things but also of material objects such as tools,
technology and buildings etc. but also material objects such as tools, technology, fashion etc.
There is also difference between ideal culture and real culture. Ideal Culture is the culture
people think they have as it is mandated by society’s norms and expectations. Real Culture is
the culture people actually have. For India, the ideal culture is what our constitution ensures
us, a classless and casteless society. But the real culture is the one where these evils still persist.
Symbol
Culture is symbolic. A symbol is something the meaning or value of which is bestowed on it
by us. It is an object with no intrinsic meaning but infused with profound meaning that is
created and transmitted by culture. Therefore, the meaning of symbols is most arbitrary a
matter of cultural invention, and the meaning exists only so long people share it. A national
flag is not just a piece of cloth, soldiers die to defend its honor.
Symbols also differ from region to region. Head up and down in India means yes but means
no in Turkey.
Components of Culture
Beliefs
A belief is an idea about reality that people accept as true. It may be based on
scientific evidence, religious faith or public opinion. Some beliefs are scientifically
verifiable, however belief in god, faith and all are solely based on faith.
Values
Values are shared agreements among members of a society as to what is desirable or
non-desirable in social life. They are generalized standards by which people decide
the good, the bad, the beautiful or ugly. Freedom, Justice, Equality are some of the
‘almost’ universal values. Since values guide our choices and our behavior, they are
the key to understanding of how people conduct themselves in a given society.
Language
It is the most important element of a symbolic culture. It is a form of symbolic
communication through structured and sound patterns which are infused with shared
meanings. Written words and arbitrary sounds assume significant culturally assumed
meanings. Language and culture are thoroughly intertwined. In the Arab world where
camels have a huge significance, there are over 3000 words for camel. In English,
there is only one word for snow while the Innuits of Canada have several words.
Language is a product of culture but culture is also shaped by language. All systems
of knowledge such as science, philosophy, art, music etc are all expressions of
language with specific meaning structures.
Norms
Norms are established standards of social behavior which individuals in a group are
expected to follow. They are simple rules of conduct which prescribe and proscribe.
They provide guidelines to standards of behavior and define them as appropriate and
inappropriate.
1. Explicit norms are those which are states formally. Like don’t do weed in
NALSAR campus.
2. Implicit norms are those which are not stated formally but those generally
agreed by the members of the group. Like do not do weed in acad. block.
3. Ideal norms refer to high standards requiring strict conformity. For example,
Honesty is the best policy.
 4. Real norms reflect standards of behavior in real situations. For example, lying
about not studying for exams to best friends. (Also have to do folkways
mores and law)
Technology
It refers to all material things as well as the accumulated knowledge about them. It
ranges from primitive tools of cavemen to the most refined modern computers. New
technology creates new occupations and new attitudes. It sets modern man apart from
his ancestors.
Ethnocentrism
It is the tendency to evaluate one’s own culture as superior. Culture preserves social heritage
and instills pride and members among members of society. This results in people believing
that everything that their culture stands for is the best in the world. People tend to believe that
their way is the only way. One half of the human race regards the other half as lazy dirty
cunning and immoral. Many of these ugly stereotypes are based on ignorance, lack of
exposure to other cultures, or innocent misunderstandings.
Xenophobia
It is an irrational fear of foreigners and an outcome of ethnocentrism. We see anti-
immigration movements fueled by fear of foreigners.
Culture shock
Refers to psychological and social maladjustment people suffer when they travel to different
culture. People are suddenly exposed to a number of norms, beliefs and practices that aren’t
their own and are so different that they need time to adjust and adapt. Westerners are
horrified to see that so many Indians urinate and defecate in open. Indians are shocked to see
families in brazil on beaches swimming in nude.
Cultural Relativism
Refers to the principle that an aspect of a culture can be evaluated or judged only in terms of
the culture as a whole. Every element of a culture has a function unique to the group which
shares the culture. Therefore, a custom or practice in a culture cannot be judged as right or
wrong in absolute terms, it must be understood in terms of its functions. (for example, what
Akanksha ma’am told about jalikatu)
Multiculturalism
It is a principle of coexistence of different cultures which fosters understanding and
appreciation of different cultures. A number of cultural groups exist side by side in the same
culture. It is beyond mere tolerance for other cultures. It’s a deep appreciation for their
richness as well as contribution to the culture as a whole. The idea is that different cultures
must not only co-exist but also maintain their cultural identity while subscribing to the bigger
culture. For example, India is a land of many cultures.
DURKHEIM ON LAW