BIO REVIEW • state that each part of allele segregate or separate during

Genetics is the study of heredity. meiosis.

Heredity is a biological process where a parent passes certain genes
onto their children or offspring. Every child inherits genes from both
of their biological parents and these genes in turn express specific
traits.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM (GMO’s) Genetically
modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or
bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have
had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of
genetic engineering.
ENVIROPIG also known as Frankenswine, is a type of pig
which was genetically modified: it contains DNA from
the mouse and E. Coli.
• Which established that there are dominant and recessive
traits passed on randomly from parents to offspring (and
provided an alternative to blending inheritance, the dominant
theory of the time).
MENDEL’S POSTULATE IN LAW OF SEGRAGATION
(MONOHYBRID CROSS)
1. In each monohybrid cross, the F1 parents had two separate
copies of each heredity factor. The trait that is expressed
is controlled by the dominant unit factor while the one
that is not expressive is controlled by the recessive unit
factor.
2. The reciprocal crosses gave the same results.
3. The characteristics that did not appear in the First Filial
generation (F1) reappeared in ¼ on the second filial
generation (F2) progeny.

Genetically modified maize is a genetically modified crop. Specific LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
maize strains have been genetically engineered to express (Dihybrid cross)
agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to • This law states that each pair of hereditary character
herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple behave independently in relation to each other.
countries. • As a result, all possible combinations of gametes from each
parent will be produced in equal numbers.
CRISPR- Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats, which are the hallmark of a bacterial defense system that
forms the basis for CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology. SEX LINKAGES
1. X-LINKED RECESSIVE
USES OF CRISPR -more often in Males
1. Fighting cancer -skips generation
2. Extracting HIV -hemophilia (lack of platelets)
3. Making diseases self destruct -colorblindness
4. Reviving extinct mammals -myopia/nearsightedness
5. Protecting plants 2. X-LINKED DOMINANT
6. Producing food (seedless tomatoes, corn, soybeans, -more often in females
-Continuous inheritance of traits
WILLIAM JOHANSEN Stated that… -hypertrichosis
PHENOTYPE is the physical appearance or distinctive trait of an 3. Y-LINKED DOMINANT
organism that is visible to the naked eye. -only in males
Such as the color of the flower, the texture of the skin or blood type, -HOLANDRIC TRAITS
shape, physiology and behavior. 4. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
GENOTYPE are all the alleles possessed by an individual. -equal number of affected both male and female.
Homozygous genotype – is produced by the union of gametes -no skipping of generation
carrying identical alleles. -brachydactyly
Homozygote – contains the same allele at a single locus and 5. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE
produces only one gamete. -SKIPS GENERATION.
PURE LINE -equal number of affected both male and female.
• A group of individuals with similar genetic background -cystic fibrosis
(breeding) often referred to as a line, strain or variety.
• Example: Parents (DD X DD) Offspring (DD) 1. LAW OF SEGREGATION - the principle stating that
HETEROZYGOUS – The union of gametes carrying a different during production of gametes, the two copies of each
alleles produces a heterozygous genotype. (Dd) hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one
Allele – different term of a gene for the same trait. factor from each parent.
2. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT – the
GREGOR MENDEL principles stating that the laws of chance govern which
• The Father of Genetics. particular characteristics of the parental pairs will occur in
• was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic each individual offspring.
principles of heredity through experiments in his garden. 3. LAW OF DOMINANCE – the principle stating that one
Mendel's observations became the foundation of modern factor in a pair of traits dominates the other in inheritance
genetics and the study of heredity, and he is widely unless both factors in the pair are recessive.
considered a pioneer in the field of genetics.
Mendel’s Law DOMINANCE RELATIONSHIP
1. Law of Segregation • Mendel’s work demonstrated complete dominance
relationship between two different alleles for each gene pair.
 1. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE or NO DOMINANCE
In this case dominance is absent and the progeny does not resemble
any of its parents. The F1s are intermediate between the two parents.
Example: flower color in Mirabilis Jalapa (four o’clock flower).
P1 and P2: RR (Red) x rr (white)
Rr (Pink)
F2: 1RR (red) : 2 Rr (Pink) : 1 rr (white)

2. OVER DOMINANCE
-the heterozygote exceeds the phenotypic measurements of the
homozygous parents. • ROOTS SYSTEM
3. Co-dominance A fibrous root system is the opposite of a taproot system. It is usually
When each allele of a gene is associated with a specific substance , co- formed by thin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem.
dominance will occur when both substances appear together in the A taproot is a large, central, and dominant root from which other roots
heterozygote. sprout laterally.
-occurs when two versions, or “alleles,” of the same gene are present
in a living thing, and both are expressed. Instead of one trait being • MAIN FUNCTION of roots
dominant over the other, both traits appear. • ANCHORAGE TO THE SOIL
Spotted cows and flowers with petals of two different colors are • ABSORPTION OF SUBSTANCE
examples of codominance. • CONDUCTION OF ABSORBED MATERIALS
Example: A-B blood types in man. • Specialized Function
4 MULTIPLE ALLELES • Support
-Three or more alternative forms of a gene (alleles) that can occupy • Brace Roots
the same locus. However, only two of the alleles can be present in a • Prop Roots
single organism. For example, the ABO system of blood groups is • Clinging Roots
controlled by three alleles, only two of which are present in an
individual. "multiple alleles."

TURNER SYNDROME (X)

Monosomy of sex chromosome
(only one X chromosome present)
Occurrence – 1 in 2500 live female births
It was first described in 1938 by Dr. Henry Turner who observed a
set of common physical features in some of his patients.

DOWN SYNDROME (Trisomy 21)

• Low muscle tone
• Head and facial malformations
• Abnormalities of the extremities
• Developmental delays
• Heart malformations
• Increased risk of infectious disease • Specialized Function
• Early death • Photosynthesis
• Green, aerial roots (hanging plant)
KLINEFELTER SYNDROME (XXY) orchid (Calypso bulbosa) roots
• Tall • Reproduction
• Sexually underdeveloped • Formation of adventitious buds.
• Infertility • Protection
• Sparse facial and body hair • Presence of thorns and spines
• Developmental delays • Nitrogen Fixation
• Increased risk of autoimmune disorders, breast cancer, • With root nodules. (nitrogen for
osteoporosis, leg ulcers, depression, and dental problems metabolism) peanuts, sitao, batao,
patani.
ROOTS
• TYPES OF ROOTS (Based on origin) STEM
• CLASSIFICATION
• BASED ON TOUGHNESS
• HERBACEOUS STEM – For smaller
plants.
• WOODY STEM – For bigger plants
(trees).
• BASE ON LOCATION
• AERIAL STEM
 • RUNNERS (Stolons) ex. • SPECIAL FUNCTION
Strawberry, peppermint, • ABSORPTION
spider plant • REPRODUCTION
• TENDRILS (Scramblers) ex. • STORAGE
Family cucurbitaceae. Melon, • PROTECTION
grapes. LEAVES
• Expanded and flattened green part of plants.
• Part of Leaves
• Dicot Leaves
• Petiole or Leaf stalk
-Connects the leaves to stem also conducts materials to and from the
leaves.
• Lamina or Leaf Blade
• Shapes may be:
• Linear
• CLASSIFICATION • Cordate
• BASE ON LOCATION • Ovate
• UNDERGROUND STEMS • Deltoid
• RHIZOMES- these are • Renifrom
underground stems • Orbcicular
ex. Bamboo and Ginger, lotus, • Flabellate
• TUBERS- specialized storage • Cuneate
stem of certain seed plants. • Lanceolate- narrow oval shape tapering to a point at each
Underground foods that stores end.
glucose • Oblanceolate- with the more pointed end at the base.
• ex. Solanum tuberosum • Cuneate- wedge-shaped.
• BULBS- They contain food • Spathulate- spatula-shaped.
reserves consisting mainly of • Ovate- having an oval outline or ovoid shape, like an egg.
glucose. The entire bulb is • Obovate- with the narrower end at the base.
covered by a thin protective • Elliptical- most common leaf
tunic. ex. Genus Alluum • Rhomboid- having or resembling the shape of a rhombus.
• CORM- • Deltoid- triangle shaped
ex. Gabi • Orbicular- having the shape of a flat ring or disk.
• Reniform- kidney-shaped.
• Cordate- heart-shaped.
• STRUCTURE • Margin may be:
• EXTERNAL • Entire
• Nodes- those points on the stem at • Dentate
which leaves or buds arise. • Lobed
• Internodes-the region of the stem • Scalloped
between the noods. • Cleft
• Leaf scars Lamina or Leaf Blade
• Bundles scar • Base may be:
• Lenticels • Rounded
• Buds • Truncate
• STRUCTURE • Cordate
• INTERNAL • Sagittate
• Epidermis • Auriculate
• Cortex • Peltate
• Vascular Bundles
• MAIN FUNCTION • Monocot Leaves
• MECHANICAL SUPPORT • Leaf Sheath
• CONDUCTS WATER, NUTRIENT AND • Leaf Blade
MINERALS
• PRODUCE NEW LIVING TISSUE
• SPECIAL FUNCTION
• UNUSUAL METHOD OF SUPPORT
• Tendrils
• Root climber
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Green Stem
• Phyllodes