Mechanical Behaviour Simulation PDF

1
Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech

mechanism improvements
L Lovas1, D Play1*, J Marialigeti2, and J F Rigal1
1INSA-Lyon, Genie Industrial, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
2Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary
The manuscript was received on 10 November 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 30 March 2006.
DOI: 10.1243/09544070D21604
Abstract: This paper deals with the synchromesh behaviour of the manual car gearbox. Firstly,
the state of the art on Borg–Warner-type synchronizers is presented. Then, the gear-changing
process is studied and eight main operating phases are defined. The phases are described using
classical tribological, mechanics and thermodynamics theories. Models are interconnected
to describe synchronizer behaviour and they are included in a numerical simulation soft-
ware. Measured data are compared with the results of simulation software. Then, stick-slip
phenomenon during gear changing is studied. Stick-slip is supposed to be present in two
contact zones: sleeve splines and the synchronizer cone. The effects in both zones are discussed.
Finally, double bump phenomenon is studied. Double bump is assumed to be the maximum
axial operating force coming from short successive phases at the end of the gear-changing
process. Due to the angular integer division of splines and to the non-definite angular position
of mechanical parts, sliding sleeve displacement into the ring and gear claw clutch splines
gives secondary angular rotation and large increases in the axial operating force. The model
can explain large variations and random dispersion of the measured double bump force peaks.
Keywords: manual gearbox, synchronization, second bump, numerical simulation
1 INTRODUCTION 1. To make the angular velocity difference between

the synchro hub and the gear to be engaged at
Manual car gearbox synchronizers are complicated zero. This task is called ‘synchronization’;
mechanical structures. They ensure the connection 2. To prevent gear changing when there is a
of three main parts of the transmission (Fig. 1; see difference of angular velocity. This task is called
also Fig. 31). The synchronized side of the trans- ‘interdiction’;
mission is made up of the disengaged plate clutch, 3. To move the synchro sleeve between the syn-
the input shaft of the gearbox, and the connected chronizing splines;
gears. The synchronizing side is composed of mech- 4. To allow power transmission when gear changing
anical parts up to the wheels of the car. The manual occurs.
gear-changing mechanism consists of forks and
shafts moved either by actuators or by hand. Variations in the angular velocity difference are
As the dynamical behaviour of these three mech- usually obtained by conical friction clutches, while
anical parts is complicated to simulate, owing to the the power transmission is usually done by spline
large number of elements involved, it is not easy coupling. One, two, or three conical surfaces are
to study the entire gear-changing process in detail. considered, depending on the torque transmitted.
The following study considers only synchronizer Clearly, a wide variety of technical solutions exists
behaviour, with the four following aims: but the same types of problem are found. In this
paper, the Borg–Warner-type synchronizer with one
* Corresponding author: INSA-Lyon, Genie Industrial, Bat Jules conical surface clutch is considered (Fig. 1). Note also
Verne, 20 Av. Albert Einstein, Villeurbanne Cedex, F-69621, that only three centring mechanisms are taken into
France. email: daniel.play@insa-lyon.fr account.
D21604 © IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
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The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield 01924 204830
2 Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements
Fig. 1 Main parts of a gearbox transmission
2 STATE OF THE ART effects of different linings on cone surfaces and

the effects of grooves on the synchro ring conical
Although synchronizers have been used since the surface. The proposed linings allow the shift force
late 1920s, it was not until several years later that to decrease as well as time for speed changing.
scientific papers describing their behaviour appeared. At the same time, linings are not so sensitive to
In the late 1960s, a global description was given [1] variations of oil type and to less severe manu-
and used extensive technical experience to formulate facturing tolerance requirements for conical parts.
simple mechanical equations to describe synchron- They also have a significant damping effect on
ization and interdiction. In the early 1980s, the effect changing force. The study of conical surface groove
of different linings on the conical surface clutch was effects has led to proposed optimized values for
studied [2–4] and the increase of transmitted power groove dimensions [1, 15, 16]. The grooves may
has led to new developments such as multicone have either an axial or circumferential geometric
synchronizers, once again using simple mechanical position. The axial grooves are shown to need
theory [5–8]. During the last decade, simulations of less changing force, but are more influenced by
global mechanical behaviour have called on classical geometrical errors due to manufacturing and wear
softwares (Matlab Simulink, Adams) [9–11]. All these occurring during operation.
contributions can be classified into the following 3. The description of synchronizer behaviour during
categories: gear changing, using numerical simulation soft-
1. The description of new synchronizers, with little ware models, with a comparison of experimental
theory and the main focus on discussion of experi- results including the study of the dynamical
mental behaviour [12–14]. These papers place behaviour of the gear-changing mechanism, syn-
emphasis on the structure of the synchronizer and chronizing, and the synchronized parts of the
describe its advantages. Synchronizing solutions transmission. The gear-changing process has been
usually permit decreasing either the shift force or studied using various models, and is distinguish-
the time needed for gear changing. able by various working phases. The comparison
2. The description of angular velocity synchron- between measured data and the results from
ization. Hydrodynamic calculations and a tribo- numerical simulation highlight the effect of para-
logical approach are introduced, such as the meters such as conicity angle, conicity angle error,
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering D21604 © IMechE 2006
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L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal 3
cone friction coefficients, spline chamfer angle, 3 A STUDY OF SYNCHRONIZER WORKING

number of cones [8], and number of splines [9]. PHASES
The dynamics of the manual changing mech-
anism, joining the gear lever and the gearbox by Studying synchronizer behaviour requires a detailed
cables [10, 9] and rods [17, 18, 8] have been knowledge of the gear-changing process. Different
shown to have an effect on gear-changing force. relative positions of the synchronizer parts, as well
The effect of torsional dynamics of the trans- as the characteristic points of both synchronized
mission has also been studied [19, 20] with the angular velocity and the axial force variation, enable
introduction of the gear backlash effect. To con- successive phases to be distinguishable. The number
clude, widely recognized problems exist, such as of phases depends on the limits of the relative studies
second bump, gear-changing noise, or impossible and on the type of model formulated for the gear-
gear changing, the reasons for which are still changing process. Thus, the number of phases varies
unknown. in the literature from four [20] to eleven [10]. In this
4. The study of shift feel and approach from the study, the gear-changing process is described from
driver’s point of view. A simple dynamical study the neutral-gear lever position to the position when
of the transmission is performed in order to the sleeve has meshed the gear. The gear-changing
explain gear-changing problems such as noise and process is divided into eight phases, illustrated in
impossible gear changing. Usually, these problems Fig. 2. The model limitations are given either by
are attributed to the torsional vibrations of the synchronizing torque variations, angular velocity
transmission, torsional backlashes [20], or are variations, or variation of the relative position of the
deduced from variations of the force applied on mechanical parts.
the sleeve during gear changing [18]. The difficulty In numerical simulations, synchronizer behaviour
of obtaining objective measurements was dis- was studied in two environments [22]: either mounted
cussed [21]. All these papers give an idea about on a test rig or working in a given gearbox archi-
the variety of gear-changing problems and define tecture. Each environment has its own dynamical
the characteristics of optimal gear changing and power loss characteristics. Many synchro ring
from the user’s point of view. They attempt to link, geometries and materials were tested in both
as far as possible, human perception of gearshift environments; hence the following figures in the
and the mechanical data [5]. For example, a time- text illustrate many cases. Thus, synchronization
synchronization integral has been introduced durations and synchronizing force maximum values
[21, 9], corresponding to the sum of loads during can change from one figure to another, depending
the synchronization phase. on the case in question.
New advances in synchronizers as well as increased
transmitted power and actuating load control give 3.1 Presentation of working phases
rise to new technical problems that in turn must be In order to illustrate part positions during gear
addressed. For example, a high experimental force changing, only the splines of the sleeve, the ring,
peak is sometimes seen after the synchronization and the gear are shown (Fig. 3). Note that an inner
phase. This peak is called the second bump. The view of the sleeve is given in order to facilitate
amplitude of this second bump of axial force cannot visualization. In fact, the real position of the sleeve
clearly be explained and is then difficult to simulate. splines in relation to the meshing of the other mech-
The occurrence of the second bump and its size seem anical parts is reversed. The following descriptions
to be random phenomena. It is also assumed that
of phases are based on experimental visualizations
this force is responsible for the cracking noise during
made with a high-speed videocamera during specific
gear changing. Furthermore, some other phenomena
gearbox tests not reported here.
are not clearly explicable, such as the wear of the
coupling spline chamfers of the synchro ring. These
3.1.1 First free fly (Phase 1)
poorly understood phenomena make it difficult to
optimize synchronizer performance. Consequently, Free fly means that the sleeve moves forward axially
this study reviews all the process and mechanical without significant mechanical resistance (Fig. 4).
models in greater detail. It begins with a description During this phase, the sleeve also displaces the
of the successive phases of synchronizer behaviour. centring mechanisms that push the synchro ring
Then, simulation models are presented and, finally, towards the cone of the gear. The axial velocity of
the stick-slip phenomenon in synchronizers and the sleeve is high, the required axial force is low,
second bump are studied in detail. and both are constant. The equations describing the
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Fig. 2 Definition of working phases during the gear-changing process
Fig. 3 Presentation of the main parts of splines
Fig. 4 Variation of the spline position during the first free fly (Phase 1)
force and angular velocity variations are given in on the sleeve increases. The force is transmitted from
Appendix 2, Section 2.4. the sleeve to the balls of the centring mechanisms,
then to the side of the synchro ring. The equilibrium
of the balls is ensured by springs. When the trans-
3.1.2 Start of the speed synchronization (Phase 2)
mitted force reaches a given level, it cannot be
The spline position at the start of speed synchron- balanced by the springs and the balls of the centring
ization corresponds to the final position of the pre- mechanisms withdraw into their housings. The
vious phase (Fig. 4). The axial pushing force applied sleeve moves forward slightly and the sleeve splines
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enter into contact with the splines of the synchro 3.1.4 Turning the synchro ring (Phase 4)
ring. The axial force is transmitted directly from
If the angular velocity difference reaches zero,
the sleeve to the synchro ring. As the synchro ring
the friction phenomenon stops. The synchro ring
approaches the gear cone, it compresses the oil
previously heated by the dissipated friction energy
trapped between the synchro ring and the gear
loses the heat and its diameter decreases. It soon
conical surfaces. With the decrease from the normal
becomes stuck on the gear cone. The resistant force
distance between the conical surfaces, the oil film
component on the spline chamfers disappears. The
pressure increases. Thus, a rapid increase of axial
sleeve starts to move axially (Fig. 5). At the same time,
force is needed to achieve gear changing. In order to
a decreasing axial force is imposed. The displace-
break the hydrodynamic oil film and minimize force
ment of the sleeve turns the synchro ring and the
increase, grooves are made in the conical surface of
gear while the chamfers remain in contact. The
the synchro ring. In this study, only radial groove
axial velocity of the sleeve increases from zero to
effects are discussed. The grooves help to break the
maximum. The axial force falls to a minimum
oil film and remove the oil. During this phase,
value. As before, the equations describing the force
the axial velocity of the sleeve decreases to zero. The
and angular velocity variations are well known and
equations describing the force and angular velocity
displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.3.
variations involved are well known and displayed in
Appendix 2, Section 2.1.
3.1.5 Second free fly (Phase 5)
3.1.3 Angular velocity synchronization (Phase 3) The synchro ring stops turning when the spline
chamfers separate. The sleeve moves forward axially
The spline position of each mechanical element
until approaching the spline chamfers of the gear
during angular velocity synchronization corresponds
(Fig. 6). The axial velocity of the sleeve is maximal
to the final position of the first phase (Fig. 4). After
while the required axial force becomes minimal.
most of the oil has been evacuated, mixed lubri-
During this phase, the sleeve meshes with the synchro
cation takes place between the conical surfaces.
ring. The angular velocity of the gear is assumed
An increasing axial force is applied and then main-
to be equal to that of the sleeve. The equations
tained practically at a constant high level of 500–
describing the force and angular velocity variations
700 Newtons. The mixed friction consumes the
are also well known and displayed in Appendix 2,
kinetic mechanical energy difference, and the angular
Section 2.4.
velocity difference between the sleeve and the gear
decreases towards zero. While an angular velocity
3.1.6 Start of the second bump (Phase 6)
difference exists, the equilibrium of axial and
tangential forces applied on the spline chamfers When the spline chamfers of the sleeve and that of
prevents continuation of the gear-changing process. the gear approach each other (Fig. 7), a thin film of
This phase usually lasts for approximately half of oil is formed again between the chamfer surfaces.
the gear-changing time. The equations describing The compression of the oil film requires an increase
the force and angular velocity variations are also well of axial force in order to maintain the axial velocity
known and displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.2. of the sleeve. Normally, this increase is not enough
Fig. 5 Variation of the spline position during turning of the synchro ring (Phase 4)
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Fig. 6 Variation of the spline position during the second free fly (Phase 5)
Fig. 7 Variation of the spline position during the start of the second bump (Phase 6)
to maintain the axial velocity and the sleeve slows at a constant velocity, a narrower turn angle requires
down while the oil film is broken, as can be seen in more force to accelerate and turn the gear in a
[11]. Then, the axial force increases strongly as the shorter time. This phase constitutes the second and
oil is discharged and the metallic chamfer surface major part of the second bump phenomenon. The
becomes compressed. This axial force increase stops turning force is completely independent of the force
when the tangential force component from the force separating the gear and the synchro ring. The
equilibrium on the chamfers is high enough to turn equations describing the force and angular velocity
the synchro ring previously stuck on the cone. The variations are given in Appendix 2, Section 2.6.
synchro ring then becomes free, and the sleeve can
continue the axial displacement. The consecutive 3.1.8 Final free fly (Phase 8)
increase of the axial force is the first component of
the phenomenon called double bump. Here also, the After turning the gear, the sleeve moves forward
equations describing the force and angular velocity axially and meshes the splines of the gear. The axial
variations are displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.5. velocity of the sleeve reaches a maximum value and
the axial force becomes minimal. The equations
3.1.7 Turning the gear (Phase 7) describing the force and angular velocity variations
are also given in Appendix 2, Section 2.4.
After separation of the synchro ring and the gear
cone, the sleeve turns the gear when it moves
3.2 Models for synchronizer behaviour
forward with low axial velocity (Fig. 8). Clearly,
simulation
the axial force required for turning depends on the
relative position of the sleeve splines and the gear A simulation using a numerical model was per-
splines. This relative initial position is obtained at formed in order to describe synchronizer behaviour.
the end of synchronization. If the turning angle is The model consists of eight units, each of which
wide, the force required is low. If the angle is narrow, describes the previously mentioned phases. Each
the force amplitude can reach a high level. As the unit contains iteration loops that calculate the
axial displacement of the sleeve is assumed to occur interactions between the mechanical parts and take
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Fig. 8 Variation of the spline position when turning the gear (Phase 7)
into account the variations of the main parameters. force is still present, the synchro ring cannot move
The models used in the numerical simulation are down on the cone. The mean synchronizing diameter
described below. decreases, surface pressure increases, and the synchro
ring remains stuck on the gear cone (Fig. 9). This
3.2.1 A model of power losses in the gearbox model is described in [15]. Separation of the synchro
ring from the gear cone needs a second bump force
In a gearbox, power losses come mainly from three
peak (see Section 4.2.1).
sources. Firstly, power losses in roller bearings are
calculated with the Palmgren formula referred to in
3.2.3 The elastic deformation model of the synchro
[23] and [24]. Classical hydrodynamic formulae are
ring
used in the case of hydrodynamic plain bearings [23].
Secondly, power losses due to the friction of seals Due to machining tolerances, the conicity angles
used to isolate the oil are calculated with empirical of the synchro ring cone and gear cone can
formula given in [24]. Thirdly, oil-churning power differ. A conicity angle error is defined (Appendix 2,
losses are calculated with formulae developed by [25] Section 2.1). In this study, only positive values are
and [24] for given ranges of oil immersion and oil considered as defined in Fig. 10. As the synchro
temperature. Clearly, a gearbox contains many bear- ring is far less rigid than the gear cone, the syn-
ings, gears, and isolation seals and, consequently, chronization force produces considerable displace-
power losses are non-negligible [26]. During gear ment and tends to rotate cross-sections of the
changing, the clutch is supposed to be disengaged; synchro ring, reducing Da towards zero (Fig. 10). This
thus, friction on the clutch plate does not influence phenomenon is analytically described in [15] and
the gear-changing process. visualized through finite element simulations in [27].
Conicity angle difference values from Da=0.05° to
3.2.2 The heating model of the synchro ring Da=0.25° were calculated from measured gear cone
and synchro ring conicity angles [27, 28]. Note that
During synchronization, friction occurs between the
these values change owing to continuous wear of
conical surfaces of the synchro ring and the gear
cone. The friction converts kinetic energy into heat.
One part of the dissipated heat is absorbed by the
gear, the other part is absorbed by the synchro ring.
It is assumed that the thermal mass (the mass of the
part multiplied by the thermal capacity) of the gear
is much higher than that of the synchro ring. Thus,
the increase of the gear bulk temperature is not
significant. However, the synchro ring bulk tempera-
ture increases (Dt=4–9 °C) and results in thermal
expansion. Thus, the cone radius of the synchro ring
increases. Meanwhile, the axial synchronization force
is still present and pushes the synchro ring higher
and higher on the gear cone. Clearly, heat production Fig. 9 Displacement of the synchro ring issued from
stops at the end of synchronization. As the axial thermal dilatations
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separation less than 10−5 mm). Contact damping c

c
can also be introduced (5Ω105 Ns/m [23] for a surface
separation less than 10−5 mm) coming from the oil
film. A geometrical model describing the approach
of the sleeve chamfer and the gear chamfer surface
is given in Fig. 11 [23]. Equations describing the
process are given in Appendix 2, Section 2.5.
3.2.5 A gear-turning model

After separation of the synchro ring from the gear
cone, the sleeve has to turn the gear. The equation
Fig. 10 Model of deformation for the synchro ring proposed to describe the turning force can be found
in Appendix 2, Section 2.6. During turning, the axial
the conical surfaces. Conicity angle error provokes a velocity of the sleeve increases from the value result-
quick axial force increase at the start of the synchron- ing at the end of the previous phase to the maxi-
ization phase [16]. On the other side, synchro ring mum value. As axial and tangential velocities are
deformation caused by axial force in the presence of connected on the spline chamfers, axial acceleration
conicity angle error results in sticking of the synchro can be computed from the tangential acceleration.
ring on the gear cone. Thus, separation of the
synchro ring from the gear cone also needs a second 3.2.6 A model of stick-slip
bump force peak. Heating and elastic deformation
The stick-slip phenomenon appears when a mass is
effects are supposed to be independent of each other
placed on a surface and moved there by a com-
in the computation model, and their effects are
bination of stiffness and damping (Fig. 12). Various
added for computation of the second bump force
phenomena can be observed that depend first on
(see Section 4.2.)
mass, surface friction, and sliding velocity on the
contact surface and, secondly, on elasticity and
3.2.4 A model for the start of the second bump
damping loads parallel to the sliding velocity. If
As the sleeve approaches the gear spline chamfers, the normal force is low and the sliding velocity
an oil film is created between the chamfer surfaces. is high, simple sliding is observed. If the normal
Contact elasticity coming from oil-film compression force increases and the sliding velocity decreases,
can be introduced [11, 10] and an increase of contact harmonic oscillations are observed. Finally, when the
stiffness k as a result of surface asperity compression normal force is high and the sliding velocity is low,
c
can also be introduced (106–5Ω107 N/m for a surface harmonic oscillation phases are interrupted by linear
Fig. 11 Spline chamfer contact geometry
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(Fig. 14). As both normal forces and sliding velocities

change considerably during the gear-changing pro-
cess, it is assumed that stick-slip oscillations will vary
strongly, and all three previous forms of amplitude
oscillations will occur.
3.3 A brief survey of the numerical simulation

Fig. 12 Model of the stick-slip
software and validation
displacement phases. The latter phenomenon is The numerical simulation model was developed on
called stick-slip (Fig. 13). An equation describing the a Delphi informatics’ environment (Pascal language)
process is given in Appendix 2, Section 2.7. using a simple modular structure. Each module
It is assumed that stick-slip phenomena appear corresponds to one of the previously mentioned
between contact surfaces in the synchronizer. The working phases. The modular structure enables to
first contact surface is the side surface of the sleeve study each working phase on a desired descriptive
spline. Here, the normal force is the local tangential level of mechanical behaviour to be studied, and this
force, and the sliding velocity is the axial velocity level as a function of local conditions to be modified.
of the sleeve (Fig. 14). The second contact surface is In each module, iteration loops allow the variation
the gear cone. Here, the normal force comes from of parameters describing the behaviour of the parts
the axial force and the sliding velocity is given by the to be calculated. The main modules and iteration
angular velocity difference of the two cone surfaces loops are presented in Fig. 15.
The governing parameters are either the axial
velocity, or the axial force applied on the sleeve.
Only one of them is applied for a specific numerical
simulation, depending on the studied working phase
and the actual geometric position of the parts. The
software has more than 60 input parameters that
ensure highly flexible use and permit adaptations
to various boundary conditions. Furthermore, the
software takes into consideration the effect of gear-
box architectures: the number and type of bearings
as well as lubricant type, oil quantity, temperature,
and inertia of mechanical parts.
The numerical values of parameters transmitted
from one phase to another are the sleeve axial
Fig. 13 Variations of oscillation amplitude depending position, synchronized angular velocity, and the
on exiting velocity v axial force applied on the sleeve. When computing
b
Fig. 14 The contact surfaces concerned: a) the sleeve spline side, b) the cone of the gear
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Fig. 15 Structure of the simulation software
Phase 1, the sleeve axial velocity is considered to Phase 5 is computed in the same way as Phase 1.
be constant. The axial force is computed from the The sleeve has to move axially in order to mesh the
equation given in Appendix 2, Section 2.4. Phase 1 synchro ring (Fig. 6).
ends when the normal distance between the conical In Phase 6, the sleeve approaches the gear splines
surfaces of the synchro ring and the gear cone (Fig. 7). The relative position between the sleeve
becomes small enough for the application of hydro- spline side chamfers and gear spline side chamfers
dynamics laws. is an input data. Sleeve axial velocity decreases
In Phase 2, the relationships of both the decreasing when the contact force increases on the spline side
axial velocity and the increasing axial force (Fig. 28) chamfers. When axial velocity falls below a given
are given. Synchronized gear angular velocity is com- limit, an axial force increase is needed to maintain
puted from hydrodynamics equations (Appendix 2, the contact. At the same time, the sticking force of
Section 2.1). The phase ends when the axial force the synchro ring on the gear cone is computed from
becomes big enough to break the oil film. conicity angle error (input data) and synchro ring
In Phase 3, the axial force increases based on the thermal expansion owing to accumulated heat. When
preceding phase conditions. Synchronized angular the tangential component of the axial force applied
velocity is computed from mixed lubrication on the spline chamfers is high enough (Fig. 29),
equations (Appendix 2, Section 2.2). Heat produced the synchro ring is set free and the phase is over
from the dry friction part of the mixed lubrication is (Appendix 2, Section 2.5).
also computed, in addition to the distributions of In Phase 7, the sleeve turns the gear. The necessary
heat into the synchro ring and gear. Oil viscosity turning angle (Fig. 8) comes from the spline relative
variation between the conical surfaces as a result of position, given as input data. The equation for
heat dissipation is taken into consideration. Phase 3 turning is given in Appendix 2, Section 2.6. As the
ends when the synchronized angular velocity equals axial velocity is given, the turning force amplitude
the synchronizing angular velocity. depends on the turning angle. Because of turning,
For computing Phase 4, the relationships of both the synchronized angular velocity is different from
axial force decrease and sleeve axial velocity increase the synchronizing one. The phase ends when gear
are given. The equation for turning is given in turning is finished.
Appendix 2, Section 2.3. Because of mechanical part Phase 8 is again a free fly phase when the sleeve
turning, the synchronized angular velocity differs meshes gear splines. It is computed like the previous
from the synchronizing one. The phase ends when free fly phases.
the synchro ring is turned with an angle issued from Power losses are computed in each step of com-
the spline geometry (Fig. 5). putation and refreshed values are introduced in
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motion equations. Occurrence of stick-slip is observed test bench was used. The numerical simulation
in each non-free fly phase. If limit conditions are and measurement data display similar character-
reached, axial or tangential stick-slip equations are istics to the literature in three main zones (Fig. 16).
computed and the position of mechanical parts is The first zone is that of the constant axial force
modified. applied on the synchro ring. The calculated axial
The synchromesh behaviour, for a JH five-speed force equals the mean experimental 240 N force
car gearbox (Fig. 31) was simulated. Based on gear- during this period. The measured data display axial
box architecture, synchronized inertias were com- force oscillations, which are not considered in the
puted for each speed. Power losses issued from simulation. On the one hand, this variation can be
rolling bearings and from the oil-churning of the attributed to the fact that small contact zones exist
gears were computed depending on the instant between the synchro ring and the gear cone instead
angular velocity of each part. The numerical results of the whole apparent contact surface. As the two
confirm the variation of the gear-changing time parts are in rotation with different angular velocities,
as a function of engaged speed (Fig. 32), engaged and both have eccentricities, friction conditions
inertia and changing axial force (Fig. A6) (Appendix 2, can vary during angular velocity synchronization.
Section 2.8). Therefore, force variations can appear.
The numerical results for synchronisation behaviour The second cause of force variation can be
were also compared to measured data published in attributed to the stick-slip phenomenon and will be
the literature [18] using the same initial conditions. discussed later. A 700 N second bump of axial force
Synchro ring and cone parameters, and command is then calculated (Fig. 16), corresponding also to the
parameters were set as described [18]. For numerical amplitude of the measured second bump load [18].
simulation, the inertia and power loss model of the Furthermore, the measured angular velocity presents
Fig. 16 Data for validating the simulation software. The numerical test-bench environment with
synchro and command parameters from [18]
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a desynchronization period after reaching the syn- way, oscillation is present in the axial force that is
chronization point that corresponds to the turning applied on the synchro ring by the sleeve.
phase of the ring [18]. This desynchronization is
equal to 35 r/min; a similar value is obtained by 4.1.1 Three small bumps on the axial force plateau
numerical simulation (Fig. 16). Then, two small peaks
With appropriate stick-slip parameters (h =0.063
can be observed on the measured angular velocity R
kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd, k =500 Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2,
curve. The first peak is the smallest and is assumed Q Q m v
v =45 rd/s, Da=0), the simulated axial force (Fig. 16)
to be as a result of the turning of the ring, while the m
and the measured axial force [18] have similar shapes
second higher peak corresponds to the turning of
and the oscillation amplitudes have similar orders of
the gear. The same amplitudes are also obtained
magnitude. In this case, low torsional elasticity is
from the numerical simulation.
used and the sliding velocity limit is very high. In
such a configuration, the bumps on the axial force
plateau can be reproduced, because the sliding
4 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND velocity limit when stick-slip appears is reached in an
DISCUSSION early moment of angular velocity synchronization.
As the angular velocity difference between the
The numerical simulation software enables the study synchro ring and synchronized gear cone decreases
of eight working phases of synchronizer behaviour. quickly, and torsional stiffness is relatively low, there
The following discussion is restricted to the role of is no time for the formation of classical stick phases.
the stick-slip phenomena and to the second bump The simulated axial force (Fig. 17) oscillates around
observation. a mean value of 500 N with an amplitude of 10 N,
which represents a variation of 2 per cent. The mean
4.1 The role of stick-slip phenomena value and the amplitude of the measured force have
the same magnitude.
Harmonic axial force oscillations with small ampli-
tudes are observed in various phases [Fig. 2, see
4.1.2 No bump on the axial force plateau but
also Fig. 23(b)], and they do not have a considerable
oscillations at the end
effect on the gear-changing process with the given
boundary conditions. The applied elasticity, damp- Using sliding parameters similar to those published in
ing, and mass data come from the literature [18, 29]. [30, 31] (h =0.063 kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd, k =250 000
R Q Q
On the contrary, stick-slip phenomena are assumed Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2, v =9 rd/s, Da=0), the
m v m
mainly to take place between two contact zones of simulation result obtained is a flat plateau [32].
the synchronizer: at the sleeve spline side contact Harmonic oscillations appear only at the end of the
surface and at the conical surfaces. Numerical simu- synchronization process, a short time before the final
lation results allow discussion as to whether stick- synchronization (Fig. 18). The oscillating frequency
slip on the spline-side surfaces can exist. Numerical is high and the axial force amplitude is about 12 N,
simulations confirm significant stick-slip effects on considered as negligible for governing the angular
conical surfaces, also. Various types of behaviour can velocity of the gear. With this first set of parameters,
be obtained as a function of the involved stick-slip stick-slip oscillations appear only just before the
parameters while using the same changing force synchroni ation, and have no effect on the end of
and sleeve velocity command. The main parameters the synchroni ation.
influencing stick-slip phenomena are torsional However, by modifying the friction coefficients
inertia, elasticity and damping, dynamic and static on the conical surfaces and the spline chamfers
friction coefficients, and critical sliding velocity ( f =0.04, f =0.1; h =0.063 kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd,
s 2 R Q
when harmonic oscillations appear. Only orders of k =314 000 Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2, v =4rd/s,
Q m v m
magnitude of the parameters were used. The study Da=0), examples can be found where stick phases
of parameters makes it possible to distinguish the occur before synchronization (Fig. 19). This can
following cases. happen when the friction conditions on the cone
When stick-slip appears, firstly oscillating move- and dynamical behaviour of the transmission during
ment is superposed on the decelerating motion gear-changing are not adapted. During the stick
of the synchronized gear. Instant force equilibrium phenomenon, the synchro ring and gear turn together.
between the synchro ring and gear cone follows the The sleeve interprets this as if there were no inter-
movement oscillation. Thus, oscillation in the instant diction and thus moves forward axially (Fig. 20).
force equilibrium on the synchro ring appears. In this Then, harmonic oscillation occurs. The sleeve stops
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Fig. 17 Results from simulating the plateau with three bumps. The numerical test-bench environ-
ment, synchro, and command parameters from measurements; stick-slip parameters
from section 4.1.1.
Fig. 18 No bumps on the plateau. The numerical test-bench environment, synchro, and
command parameters from measurements; stick-slip parameters from section 4.1.2.
because the interdiction force appears again. Next, the second bump results from the separation of the
another stick phenomenon follows and the sleeve synchro ring and the gear cone, and lasts a very short
moves forward again. time. The force peak in the second part of the second
If the sleeve reaches the end of the synchro bump results from the turning of the gear and lasts
ring gear chamfer well before the theoretical syn- longer. As the overall duration of the bump is less
chronization time, synchronization is performed than 2×10−2 s (Fig. 16), these two successive phases
instantaneously by shocks and the gearbox emits a are difficult to distinguish from test measurements
rattled synchronizer noise. At the same time, both and visualizations. However, a distinction must be
sleeve and synchro ring splines suffer heavy wear made: the first part is influenced mainly by synchro
damage. ring material, cone and spline chamfer friction
characteristics, and surface conicity error [28], while
the second part depends on spline chamfer friction
4.2 Discussion of the second bump phenomenon
characteristics and the relative spline position of the
It was assumed that the second bump phenomenon synchro ring and the gear. In order to decrease
is in fact constituted by two force peaks with different the second bump peak, different parameters have to
origins. The axial force peak in the first part of be considered in both cases.
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Fig. 19 Stick at the end of the synchronization phase (numerical test-bench environment,
synchro, and command parameters from measurements)
Fig. 20 Forces on the sleeve during synchronization with stick-slip
4.2.1 The separation force peak sum of two force components. The first part of
the tangential force is the force needed to counter-
At the end of the speed synchronization, the synchro balance the pressure that the synchro ring exercises
ring is pushed against the gear cone but it is in a on the gear cone when stuck on it. This pressure
thermal expansion state and deformed geometric comes from two sources: from synchro ring defor-
position. The difference of angular velocity then mation because of conicity angle difference, and
stops with a concomitant disappearance of friction. from deformation because of synchro ring thermal
The synchro ring cools down quickly and remains expansion. The conicity angle difference vanishes by
stuck on the gear cone as the axial force is still pre- the end of the synchronization, as the synchro ring
sent and does not allow the synchro ring to lower. is deformed by axial force and takes the conicity
The sleeve moves forward axially until reaching the angle of the gear cone.
splines of the gear. Then, the sleeve must slow down, The synchro ring initial bulk temperature is
because it cannot turn the gear without separating assumed to be similar to the gearbox oil temperature:
the gear from the synchro ring. An increase of axial t=80 °C. During synchronization, the conical sur-
force is needed, so that the tangential component of face temperature can increase until t=120 °C. This
the force equilibrium can overcome the static friction latter value is confirmed by both measurements [27]
resistance of the synchro ring and turn the ring on and simulations [25, 28]. Part of the heat produced
the gear cone. during friction is absorbed by the synchro ring
The axial force needed for the separation is and its bulk temperature increases with Dt=4–9 °C.
obtained from the tangential force calculation (see Under temperature increase, the synchro ring
Fig. 23 later). The separating tangential force is the expands, its mean radius increases, and the synchro
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

ring moves upwards on the gear cone surface. This changing force will act on the gear and sleeve spline
situation is maintained while differential motion chamfers.
and circumferential friction exist between conical
surfaces. When the differential motion ends with
4.2.2 The turning force peak
reaching the angular velocity synchronization, the
synchro ring loses the accumulated heat and its Immediately after the separation of the synchro ring
mean radius decreases. As the axial force is still from the gear cone, the sleeve starts to turn the gear
present, the synchro ring cannot move down on the in order to mesh it. The turning angle is determined
gear cone and remain stuck. by the relative position of the sleeve splines and
The equations of the deformation model [15, 22] the gear splines at the end of the synchronization.
(Fig. 9) and the thermal expansion model [15, 22] During turning, the sleeve is assumed to move
(Fig. 10) give these pressure values. The second part forward first with constant axial acceleration, starting
of the tangential force comes from contact force from the axial velocity inherited from the previous
existing between the sleeve and gear spline chamfers phase. At the same time, it is assumed that the turn-
(Fig. 11). Equations of the geometry and the contact ing force accelerates the gear with a constant angular
model (Appendix 2, Section 2.5), [23, 22] give this acceleration. After the sleeve has reached the maxi-
force value. mum axial velocity, the axial acceleration stops.
There is a second chamfer of angle x manufactured As the angular acceleration is linked to the axial
on the spline sides of the sleeve (Fig. 21). When the acceleration, it stops at the same time. Gear spline
sleeve is meshed with the gear splines, this chamfer tangential velocity will have exactly the value needed
helps to maintain the sleeve in a meshed position. to leave space for the approaching sleeve. The axial
During gear changing, when the separating force is force decreases, as it only has to compensate for the
applied, a good choice of second chamfer angle can gearbox power losses.
decrease the axial force needed to pass beyond the Assuming this, the effect of the turning angle on
same tangential resistant force [see Fig. 23(a) later]. the turning force needed for acceleration can be
In order to decrease axial force, the second chamfer described as follows: the higher the absolute value
angle x must be greater than the friction angle r of the turning angle, the smaller is the turning force
2
between the sleeve spline and gear spline chamfers required. When turning starts, the axial velocity of
(Fig. 29). the sleeve is low. It has to be accelerated to reach the
The variation of the conicity angle error seems to nominal axial velocity. As the spline chamfers are in
have a significant influence on this force peak and contact, axial and angular velocities are connected.
the stiffness of the synchro ring also seems to have Firstly, an axial force increase causes the sleeve axial
an influence on the phenomenon. The static friction velocity to increase and thus the gear angular velocity
coefficient on the conical surfaces and the mech- increases. The forces are high due to the high inertia
anical and thermal properties of the ring material are accelerated in a very short time. Secondly, when
other important parameters. the sleeve reaches the maximum axial velocity, the
After separation of the gear cone and synchro ring axial and angular accelerations become zero. Then a
cone, friction on the gear cone is neglected, as axial lower axial force is applied to maintain the constant
force on the synchro ring coming from only centring angular velocity of the gear and to compensate power
mechanisms is supposed to be small. The main axial losses. Thus, axial force is relatively high at the
Fig. 21 Geometric position and photo of the splines
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

beginning of turning and is lower when acceleration turning. Thus, a higher turning force is needed to
has ended. As the turning angle is a random quantity, maintain constant angular acceleration. A lower
even in the case of strictly identical working force must then be maintained in order to complete
conditions, it is different for each gear change. turning with a higher constant angular velocity than
Numerical simulations win a test-bench numerical the synchronized one (Fig. 23, right side).
environment show that synchro ring material has The measured data can be used to observe gear
a very small effect on variation in turning force angular velocity variation. Observations and simu-
(Fig. 22). As assumed, bronze and sintered steel lation are compared in Fig. 23 [33]. Test-bench
synchro rings behave similarly in this phase (friction measured results [Fig. 23(b)] and numerical simu-
coefficients: 0.08 for bronze, 0.1 for sintered material). lation results [Fig. 23(c)] in a test-bench numerical
Considering the spline chamfer geometry, a global environment are of similar shape but with slightly
symmetry can be observed in the variation of the different numerical values in both turning cases.
turning force as a function of the turning angle Differences between measured and simulated peak-
(Fig. 22). Close to the turning angle Q=0 (where no to-valley angular velocity are supposed to come
large turning is needed), two force peaks of equal from effects of the synchronized inertia, smoothing
size should be present owing to the symmetry of the sharp angular velocity variations. The inertia effect
spline geometry. However, they are of different size. is stronger in the Q>0 turning case (Fig. 23, right
This could be attributed to the effect of the oriented side) than in the Q<0 turning case (Fig. 23, left side).
power losses that always occur in the direction This effect has not yet been included in the
opposing the angular velocity. simulation. The duration of peak-to-valley angular
If the gear has to be turned in the opposite velocity variation is 0.075 s in the Q<0 turning case
direction to the mean angular velocity (Q<0), it has measurements [Fig. 23(b) left side] and 0.04 s in
to be slowed down instantaneously (Fig. 22). The the numerical simulations [Fig. 23(c), left side]. The
turning force can be lower, because the power losses duration of peak-to valley angular velocity variation
aid gear-turning (angular acceleration). When the is 0.03 s in the Q>0 turning case measurements
angular acceleration has stopped, the gear follows [Fig. 23(b), right side], and 0.01 s in the numerical
turning with a lower constant angular velocity than simulations [Fig. 23(c), right side].
the synchronized one, under the effect of power From the theoretical point of view, geometric
losses (Fig. 23, left side). Consequently, no supple- positions exist where turning is impossible owing to
mentary axial force is needed to finish the turning. the sharp end of the chamfers. In such cases, gear
If the gear has to be turned with Q>0, it has to be changing is theoretically impossible. However, in
accelerated instantaneously (Fig. 22). Gearbox power practice, turning is possible because the chamfers
losses decrease the angular acceleration of gear are blunted, though very high axial force is required.
Fig. 22 Turning force distribution versus turning angle
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Fig. 23 Synchronized angular velocity variation in two directions
The measured data show that either very high second classes of values and an upper force limit is defined.
bump force peaks are present, or a long delay Peaks higher than the limit are included in the higher
before the second bump. Clearly, these phenomena class of the diagram, regardless of their size. This
decrease shift feel comfort, but the probability of method is confirmed by the presence of maximum
such cases is low. force limits in the measured signals for one side. On
Another theoretical position is encountered when the other side, it is assumed that simulated very high
sleeve splines are exactly opposite the gear splines. peak force values cannot be realistic. The gear-
In such cases turning is not needed, as the theoretical changing mechanism has intrinsic inertia and damp-
turning force is zero. In the measured data, the ing and gear changing has a non-zero duration.
second bump peaks do not appear at all, or else they Consequently, extreme high peaks are damped or
are very small. Changing is done quickly and shift filtered and do not appear in the measurements;
comfort is good. Unfortunately, the probability of hence, they are considered as maximum peak values
such cases is also low because of spline geometry in the simulation.
and medium-size second bump force peaks are In the case of the test-bench numerical environ-
usually observed. ment, the behaviour of one synchronizer is simu-
An analysis of measured second bump data con- lated. The synchronizer can be set to three
firms the previous description. From a study of the geometrical positions: successively, position P1,
occurrences, a peak force occurrence diagram can be neutral, and position P2 (Fig. 1). As in real test bench,
drawn. The measured data are obtained by sampling power losses are different for positions P1 and P2.
long duration tests. Peak values are gathered into Synchronizer data come from measurements on real
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

synchronizers. It is supposed that every relative in the simulated case. Simulations fit well with the
spline position j can be realized with the same measured data in this case.
probability. If the quantity of sampled measured data A study of measured data and numerical simu-
is great enough, approximately every relative spline lations was also performed for changing P2P1
position is presented; thus, measured and simulated (Fig. 25). Here, the measured peak occurrence
data can be compared. spectrum is similar to that of the previous case. The
When simulating gear changing from position main difference is the larger number of elements in
P1 to position P2 (P1P2) using a bronze synchro the class 0 N. After tuning the parameters, simulation
ring, it can be seen that peaks occur mainly in two with the following values approaches the measured
force classes: class 0 N and class 550 N (Fig. 24). The data: jµ[0.15; 0.8], and the friction coefficient on the
measured data appear to have a maximal force limit spline chamfers is f=0.2. As in the previous case,
of 550 N, which can be attributed to the fact that the the measured and simulated peak force spectra are
maximum imposed axial force is 550 N. similar. The sum of the occurrences in the two upper
Numerical simulations were performed in order to classes is 56 per cent in the experimental case and
investigate this phenomenon. Second bump peaks 49 per cent in the simulated case. The occurrence of
were simulated, with j varying from 0.05 to 0.95, in the lower class is the same in both cases. Here also,
order to study the effect of the relative spline chamfer simulations fit well with the measured data in this
position to the turning force during the second case.
bump peak. An occurrence spectrum similar to the Next, the sintered synchro ring is considered.
measured spectrum was obtained. After tuning the Experimental force peaks are distributed mainly
parameters, simulation with the following values in three zones: around class 0 N, class 300 N, and
approaches the measured data: jµ[0.2; 0.8], and the around the maximum class (Fig. 26). For P1P2 gear
friction coefficient on the spline chamfers is f=0.25. changing, after tuning the parameters, simulation
Friction coefficient values of these magnitude and with the following values approaches the measured
even higher classically were found in the literature data: jµ[0.2; 0.95], and the friction coefficient on the
[34]. By comparing the peak force spectra (Fig. 24) it spline chamfers is f=0.15.
can be seen that both have similar shapes. Moreover, Measured and simulated peak force spectra are
the sum of occurrences in the two upper classes is similar. The lower three classes give 14 per cent of
68 per cent in the experimental case and 64 per cent total peaks in the experimental case and 16 per cent
Fig. 24 Second bump peak values and occurrence, bronze synchro ring, gear changing P1P2
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Fig. 25 Second bump peak values and occurrence, bronze synchro ring, gear changing P2P1
Fig. 26 Second bump peak values and occurrence, sintered synchro ring, gear changing P1P2
in the simulated case. The upper three classes give For P2P1 gear changing, the measured force
36 per cent in the experimental case versus 36 per peaks are again concentrated in three zones: around
cent in the simulated case. The mean classes are 0 N, around 200 N, and in the maximal class (Fig. 27).
slightly different: 300 N in the experimental case and Note that the maximal force limit is relatively low,
350 N in the simulated case. The simulations also fit only 450 N. After tuning the parameters, simulation
well with the measured data in this case. with the following values approaches the measured
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Fig. 27 Second bump peak values and occurrence, sintered synchro ring, gear changing P2P1
data: jµ[0.05; 0.95], and the friction coefficient on It is interesting to note that high force peaks do not
the spline chamfers is f=0.08. appear in extreme relative position conditions (j#0
The experimental and simulated peak force or j#1). Peaks are high when the position is almost
spectra are similar. The lower two classes give 23 per ideal to mesh the sleeve and gear without turning
cent of total peaks in the experimental case and (j#0.5). In such cases, sleeve splines have very little
28 per cent in the simulated case. The upper two time to turn the gear. As the gear inertia is high, a
classes give 14 per cent in the experimental case strong force is needed, applied via a small contact
versus 30 per cent in the simulated case. The mean surface next to the starting edge of the chamfer.
classes are different: 200 N in the experimental When the decreasing contact surface becomes zero,
case and 300 N in the simulated case. Here, the simu- the turning force disappears suddenly, provoking
lated spectrum approaches the experimental data strong dynamical excitation. This could be avoided
spectrum, but some differences exist in the position by placing a connecting radius in this zone instead
of the mean force class and in the higher force of the sharp theoretical chamfer edge.
peak values. When acting upon gear-changing factors without
It can be established that four main parameters changing spline chamfer geometry, the best result
influence the spectrum zones. These are the para- that can be obtained with this type of synchronizer
meters modified during tuning. is a decrease of the mean force level. Other improve-
ments need changes of chamfer geometry, such as
1. j influences the sample in the class of 0 N. pronounced radii instead of chamfer edges, or modi-
min
If j increases, the sample in the class decreases. fications of the plane chamfer surface. Even in these
min
2. j influences the sample in the mean force class. cases, the second bump force peak distribution will
max
If j increases, the mean force class will have a contain high force peaks, but their occurrence will
max
lower position in the spectrum. be less.
3. f influences the distribution in the classes. If the Further improvement of gear changing can come
friction coefficient on the spline chamfers is high, from an exact knowledge of the axial position of the
more items are situated in the higher classes. sleeve and the tangential position of the spline. This
4. b acts as f. If the chamfer angle is high, more would permit modification of the sleeve axial speed
gear
items are gathered in the higher classes. in order to obtain optimal spline chamfer contact
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

between the sleeve and gear, and minimize or avoid to the spectrum resulting from the measured data,
the occurrence of risky geometric configuration. the role played by the relative position of the spline
chamfer in the formation of the turning force can be
studied. Finally, they established that simulated and
measured force spectra are very similar.
5 CONCLUSION
The gear-changing process was studied, and eight

main phases of synchronizer behaviour were defined.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The phases were delimited by using measured data
from gear changing. These phases were described
This work was carried out thanks to a grant from the
using classical tribological, mechanics, and thermo-
Hungarian Ministry of Education and the French
dynamics theories. Existing models were used and
Government. The authors would also like to thank
adapted to a synchronizer. New models were pro-
the Federal Mogul Company (Sintered Products) for
posed when such models did not exist. These
helpful discussions during the preliminary experi-
models were organized and interconnected in order
mental approach.
to describe the gear-changing process and the
behaviour of the synchronizer. The models were
included in a numerical simulation software.
The comparison of measured data with simulation
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dissipation de puissance et du comportement Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 2000, 214, 157–165.
thermique d’une boı̂te de vitesses manuelle. PhD
Thesis, University Paris VI, 1995.
25 Boness, R. J. Churning losses of discs and gears
running partially submerged in oil. Proceedings of APPENDIX 1
the 1989 International Power Transmission and
Gearing Conference, Chicago, pp. 355–359. Notation
26 Lovas, L., Play, D., Marialigeti, J., and Rigal, J.-F.
Modelling the synchronisation behaviour of manual c damping coefficient
car gearbox synchromesh mechanisms. In Scientific c damping coefficient in spline side chamfer
Bulletin of North University of Baia Mare, Series C, c
contact
Vol. XVII, Fascicle: Mechanics, Tribology, Tech- c torsional damping coefficient
nology of Machine Manufacturing, Part II: Papers of Q
dB axial displacement of the sleeve during
the 5th International Multidisciplinary Conference,
23–24 May 2003, Baia Mare, Romania. Phase 6
27 Spreckels, M. Einfluss der Temperaturverteilung auf dPF tangential displacement of the gear during
das tribologische Verhalten von Synchronisier- Phase 6
ungen. PhD Thesis, University of Hannover, 2001. f friction coefficient
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f friction coefficient between the spline and v angular velocity of the sleeve
2 B
synchro ring chamfers v synchronized angular velocity of the gear
R
f friction coefficient between the spline and v initial angular velocity of the gear
3 R0
gear chamfers
F force
F axial force APPENDIX 2
ax
F friction force
fr
F friction force between the sleeve and 2.1 Equations describing the start of
fr2
synchro ring synchronization
F friction force between the spline and gear
fr3 This phase is described using hydrodynamics
chamfers
F tangential force equations. The variation of the axial force needed to
tg collapse the oil film
F turning force during Phase 7
turn
h normal distance between two surfaces
C D
b 3
h axial length of a spline chamfer F =K 16pmv sin2 ar (1)
d ax NR ax 1 h(t)
k elasticity coefficient
k elasticity coefficient in spline chamfer where m is the dynamic viscosity of the oil [Pas], b is
c
contact the half-length of the cone generatrix [m]
k torsional elasticity coefficient
Q
L half-width of a spline w3h
d K = (2 sin a+cos a tan Da)
m mass NR 2(a+w)b2 sin a
N normal force to a surface
h+tan Da
N normal force between the sleeve and gear × (2)
1 (h+2 tan Da)2
spline chamfers
N normal force between the sleeve and
2 for radial grooves, where a is the half-width of a
synchro ring
groove on a conical surface (m), w is the half-width
p spline pitch
of a surface portion between grooves on a conical
r gear cone mean radius surface
1
r spline mean radius
2
t time Da=(a −a ) (3)
sin chroring gear cone
T torque
v velocity is the conicity angle error. The variation of the
v axial velocity of the sleeve angular velocity of the synchronized gear is
ax
v tangential velocity of the gear
C D
tg h(t) Y
x axial displacement v =v − (v −v ) (4)
R B B R0 h
1
a conicity angle 4pbr3
Y=K 1 (5)
Da conicity angle error CR h n sin a
b spline chamfer angle R axv
b spline chamfer angle of the gear where h is the initial distance between the conical
gear 1
e gear angular acceleration surfaces at the beginning of the oil film compression,
R n is the axial speed at the end of viscous friction
Q gear turning angle during Phase 7 axv
R period
h synchronized inertia
R
k constant
w
j random spline relative position variable K = (6)
CR a+w
r friction angle between the spline and
2
synchro ring chamfers for radial grooves. For more details, see [15, 3, 22].
r friction angle between the spline and gear
3
chamfers
2.2 Equations describing synchronization
t temperature
Dt temperature varation This phase is also described with the equations of
x spline second chamfer angle the mixed lubrication. The command signal is the
v angular velocity axial force, varying as described in the Fig. 28. The
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Supposing that oil viscosity varies linearly with the

temperature within a given temperature interval
m=a T +b (7)
m m
where a and b are constant. It is described in
m m
the literature, that maximum temperatures on the
conical surfaces are around 120 °C [27]. Knowing that
the working temperature of a gearbox is around
Fig. 28 Variation of the axial force 80 °C, an oil temperature increase of 40 °C can be
assumed during the synchronization phase between
the conical surfaces. In a first approximation, a linear
variation of the synchronized angular velocity is temperature increase law can be admitted for the
short duration of synchronization:
C A B
Q Q k
v (t)=ek1t2+k2t K+ √p 2 − 1 2 ek2/4k
2 1 T =c t (18)
R 2 4 k3/2 T
1
where c #200 °C/s is constant.
A BD
k Q T
×erf √k t+ 2 − 1 (7) Replacing this in the equation of the oil viscosity
1 √
2 k 2k between conical surfaces gives
1 1
where m=a c t+b =At+B (19)
m T m
A G A BHB
h h Equation (19) gives the origin of constants A and B.
v + R g +g F +[(F −F )/t ] R +t
Rv g 2 1 axv ax,max axv m g v In these equations, Da=0 is assumed, as the
K= 3 3
eg3tv/hR angular velocity difference vanishes by the end of
the synchronization phase owing to synchro ring
(8)
deformation (Fig. 10). Full development of the
The following expressions are constant during com- equations is described in [16, 36, 37, 22].
putation of one solution for v (t)
R
2.3 Equations describing the turning of the
g∞
k = 3 A (9) synchro ring
1 2h
R This phase is described by solid mechanics laws. The
g∞ variation of the axial force is
k = 3B (10)
2 h
R f +tgb T +h e
g∞ F −F F = s losses R R (20)
ax 1−f tgb r
Q = 2 A+g ax,max axv (11) s 2
1 h 1 t
R m where f is the friction coefficient on spline chamfer
s
g∞ surfaces, T is the torque of power losses.
Q = 2 B+g F (12) losses
2 h 1 axv The variation of the synchronized angular velocity
R
is
C AB D
f −f r 1 b 2
g∞ = s v f∞ 1 1+ sin2 a (13) v =v +e t (21)
3 S −S sin a 3 r R R0 R
2 1 1
where v is the angular velocity of the gear at the
g∞ =−g∞ v (14) R0
2 3 C start of the phase.
g∞
g∞ = f + 3 S (15)
1 s f∞ 1 2.4 Equation describing the free fly
where Each free fly phase is described by solid mechanics

laws. The necessary axial force is also constant and
f∞=4pr2 b sin a (16) it results from friction on the side chamfers of sleeve
1
S is the Stribeck’s number at the end of the mixed splines owing to torque power losses
1
friction [22, 37], S is the Stribeck’s number at the fT
2
start of the mixed friction [22, 37]. F = s losses (22)
ax r
Here, constants A and B come from the equation 2
of oil viscosity variation during synchroniation The angular velocity of the gear is the same as that
(Phase 3), between the conical surfaces [22]. of the sleeve.
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2.5 Equations describing start of the second Here, a negative sign means that the sleeve is
bump slowed down by the chamfer contact force. A positive
sign means that a supplementary axial force is
This phase is described by solid mechanics laws. The
applied in order to maintain the original axial
normal distance between the spline chamfer surfaces
velocity of the sleeve. This supplementary force
(Fig. 11) is given by the following equations [3, 22]:
increases the second bump peak. The original axial
for the rear side of the gear chamfer
velocity increases the axial force needed in the
h = √[(1−j)p−L +dPF ]2+(h −dB)2 following phase. For more information, see [22].
1 d d
C A BD
h −dB
×cos b−arctan d (23) 2.6 Equations for turning the gear
(1−j)p−L +dPF
d This phase is also described by classical mechanics
For the front side of the gear chamfer laws. The axial force needed for turning is
h = √(jp−L −dPF )2+(h −dB)2
A B
2 d d h e mT f +tan b
F = m e r tan b+ R R losses 3
ax ax R 2
C A BD
h −dB r
2
1−f tan b
3
×cos b−arctan d (24)
jp−L −dPF (31)
d
where Here, the negative sign means that turning is in the
dB=v t (25) opposite direction to that of the angular velocity
ax
of the gear. This slows down the gear and requires
is the axial displacement of the sleeve
lower axial force. The positive sign means that the
dPF=(v −v )r t (26) turning direction is that of the angular velocity. This
R C 2
is the tangential displacement of the gear, p is the accelerates the gear, and needs higher axial force.
When angular acceleration e becomes zero, the axial
pitch of the splines, j is the random coefficient of R
the relative position of the synchro ring and gear force has to compensate only the torque of gearbox
power losses.
chamfers.
In this phase, the forces are in equilibrium on the
spline chamfers. The equilibrium equations are given 2.7 Equation describing the stick-slip motion
as follows. The equation of motion for the system is the
Tangential direction following
F r =(N cos b−f N sin b)r =h e (27) d2x dx

tg 2 3 2 R R m +c +kx+f (v )F=0 (32)
dt2 dt r
where F is the tangential force, f is the friction
tg 3
coefficient on the chamfer surfaces where m is the mass, x is the displacement of the
dh mass, F is the normal force on the surface, f (v ) is
N=k h+c (28) r
c c dt the friction coefficient depending on the relative
sliding velocity, c is the damping coefficient, k is the
is the normal force on the chamfer surface elasticity coefficient.
Axial direction Note that the value of the excitation velocity v is
b
constant (Fig. 12). Various oscillations are as a result
F +F∞ =N sin b+f N cos b−N sin x+f N cos x of Coulomb friction taking place between the two
ax ax 3 2 2 2
(29) moving surfaces. The friction coefficient between
the mass and the sliding surface is modelled by the
where F∞ is the axial force needed to compensate following equation (Fig. 29)
ax
friction losses during sleeve movement, x is the
second chamfer angle (Fig. 20). f (v )=sign(v ) f −k v +k v3 (33)
r r s 1 r 3 r
From the above equation, the axial force for
where v =dx/dt−v is the relative sliding velocity
separation is r b
3 f −f
F =N sin b±ma (30) k = s m (34)
ax ax 1 2 v
where m is the mass of parts of gear-changing m
mechanism, including the sleeve, a is the axial 1 f −f
ax k = s m (35)
acceleration of the parts of gear-changing mechanism. 3 2 v3
m
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2.8 Simulation results of a transaxle car gearbox

Gear-changing simulations of a five-speed JH car
transaxle gearbox (Fig. 30).
The following figures show certain results. When
simulating the effect of a given parameter, only this
parameter changes; all the other parameters are kept
constant. Fig. 31 shows that changing time increases
Fig. 29 Friction coefficient function model with initial angular velocity inertia.
Tables 1 and 2 illustrate that changing time is pro-
The parameters of the friction coefficient function portional to synchronized inertia. The higher the
are: f being the static friction coefficient; f , the inertia, the longer the changing time. The tables also
s m
minimum friction coefficient; and v , the relative show that for a given inertia, downshifting requires
m
sliding velocity at the moment of the friction more time than upshifting. This is attributed to the
coefficient minimum. effect of energy dissipation. In the case studied,
Stick-slip phenomenon can also appear in rotating energy dissipation slows down the turning gear and
motion. Equation (32) can be changed and applied power losses can be evaluated. When upshifting, it
for rotating motion. decreases the changing time as this slowing down
Fig. 30 General drawing of the five-speed Renault JH gearbox
Table 1 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear upshift

Gear speed changing 01 12 23 34 45
Synchronized inertia [kgm2] 0.061 237 0.018 798 0.009 451 0.005 736 0.005 412
Changing time [s] 0.4 498 0.2 495 0.1 998 0.1 739 0.1 709
Table 2 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear downshift

Changing 54 43 32 21
Synchronized inertia [kgm2] 0.005 736 0.009 451 0.018 798 0.061 237
Changing time [s] 0.1 804 0.2 071 0.2 581 0.4 896
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Fig. 31 Changing time variation versus angular velocity difference variation, upshift 12
Fig. 32 Changing time versus changing force during gear upshift 12
effect is superposed to the effect coming from the Figure 32 shows that the changing time decreases
changing force. When downshifting, the slowing down when the changing force increases. Note that the
effect increases the time needed for accelerating relation is not linear.
gears. Thus, downshift needs more time.
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1

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech

Keywords: manual gearbox, synchronization, second bump, numerical simulation

1 INTRODUCTION 1. To make the angular velocity diﬀerence between

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Fig. 1 Main parts of a gearbox transmission

2 STATE OF THE ART eﬀects of diﬀerent linings on cone surfaces and

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cone friction coeﬃcients, spline chamfer angle, 3 A STUDY OF SYNCHRONIZER WORKING

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Fig. 2 Deﬁnition of working phases during the gear-changing process

Fig. 3 Presentation of the main parts of splines

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separation less than 10−5 mm). Contact damping c

3.2.5 A gear-turning model

Fig. 11 Spline chamfer contact geometry

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(Fig. 14). As both normal forces and sliding velocities

3.3 A brief survey of the numerical simulation

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Fig. 15 Structure of the simulation software

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Fig. 20 Forces on the sleeve during synchronization with stick-slip

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Fig. 21 Geometric position and photo of the splines

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Fig. 22 Turning force distribution versus turning angle

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Fig. 23 Synchronized angular velocity variation in two directions

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The gear-changing process was studied, and eight

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Supposing that oil viscosity varies linearly with the

where Each free ﬂy phase is described by solid mechanics

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F r =(N cos b−f N sin b)r =h e (27) d2x dx

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2.8 Simulation results of a transaxle car gearbox

Fig. 30 General drawing of the ﬁve-speed Renault JH gearbox

Table 1 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear upshift

Table 2 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear downshift

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