THE BLOOD
CHARLES DREW:
2 COMPONENTS:
1. Blood or blood vessels
2. Plasma (55% of the blood)
FORMED ELEMENTS (45% of the total vol of blood):
1. RBCs (erythrocytes)
2. WBCs (leukocytes)
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
 Average woman: 5L of blood
 Average man: 6L of blood
 Total body weight: 8% blood
FUNCTIONS
1. Transport oxygen from the lungs (wherein it enters
the RBCs to all cells)
2. Transports CO2 from the cell to the lungs
3. Carries nutrients, ions, and water from digestive
tract to all cells of the body
4. Transports waste products from the body’s cells to
the sweat glands and kidneys
5. Transports hormones from endocrine glands to
target organs in the body
6. Transports enzymes to body cells to regulate
chemical processes and reactions
7. Helps regulate body pH through buffers and amino
acids
- Normal pH: 7.35 to 7.45
8. Helps regulate the water content of cells
9. Protects the body against foreign microorganisms
and toxins through leukocytes (WBC)
CLASSIFICATION OF BLOOD CELLS AND THE COMPOSITION
OF PLASMA
A. Erythrocytes make up 95% of the vol of blood cells
B. Leukocytes (divided into 2 categories): granular
leukocytes & agranular or nongranular leukocytes
1. Granular leukocytes have granules in their
cytoplasm when stained with Wright’s stain
1a. 3 types:
 NEUTROPHILS: make up 60- 70% of WBCs
 EOSINOPHILS: 2-4% of WBCs
 BASOPHILS: 0.5%-1% of WBCs
2. Agranular leukocytes do not show granules in
their cytoplasm
2a. 2 types:
 MONOCYTES: 3-8% of WBCs
 LYMPHOCYTES: 20-25% WBCs
C. Thrombocytes
o There are 700 times more RBCs in blood than WBCs and
at least 17 times more RBCs than platelets
PLASMA:
- Fluid component of blood
- 91% is water
- 7% are the proteins albumin (maintains osmotic
pressure and water balance between blood and
tissues), globulins (ex: antibodies & complement,
which are important in the immune response of the
body), & fibrinogen (clotting mechanism)
- 2% consist of solutes such as ions, nutrients, waste
products, gases, enzymes, and hormones
DR.
- African American scientist; developed blood storage
techniques
- Led to the formation of blood banks in the US
- Director of the first American Red Cross Blood Bank
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS: HEMATOPOIESIS
o Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid tissue)
o All blood cells develop from undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells called stem cells or
hematocytoblasts
o Some stem cells will differentiate into proerythroblasts,
which will eventually lose their nuclei and become
mature RBCs
o Some will become myeoblasts which will develop into
basophilic myelocytes and will mature into basophils
o Others develop into eosinophilic myelocytes and will
mature into neutrophils
o Other cells will become lymphoblasts and will mature
into lymphocytes
o Some will become monoblasts and will mature into
monocytes
o Some will become megakaryoblasts and will undergo
multipolar mitosis of the nucleus to mature into blood
platelets.
o All stages of blood cell development will be found in red
bone marrow tissue
BLOOD CELL ANATOMY AND FUNCTIONS
Erythrocytes
- appear as biconcave disks with edges that are thicker
than the center of the cell; doughnut shaped
- no nucleus
- simple in structure
- composed of stroma, cytoplasm and some lipid
substances including cholesterol and hemoglobin
- hemoglobin: 33% of the cell’s volume
- contain about 280 million molecs of hemoglobin per
erythrocyte
- do not divide (since they have lost their nuclei)
- LIFE SPAN: 120 days
- FUNCTION: O2 and CO2 transport
Hemoglobin
- hemoglobin is made of a protein called globin and a
pigment called heme
- heme contains 4 iron atoms which combine with the
O2 in the lungs
- hemoglobin that carries O2: bright red in color
- hemoglobin not carrying O2: darker red
- healthy man: 5.4 million RBCs/mm^3
- healthy woman: 4.8 million RBC/mm^3
Leukocytes
- have nuclei and no pigment (hemoglobin)
- FUNCTION: combat inflammation and infection
- larger in size than RBCs
Neutrophils
- most active WBCs in response to tissue destruction by
bacteria
- LIFE SPAN: stays in the blood for about 12 hrs
- FUNCTION: ecrete the enzyme lysozyme which
destroys certain bacteria; phagocytosis
Eosinophils
- combat irritants such as pollen or cat hair that cause
allergies
- produce antihistamines
- their chemical secretion attacks some worm parasites
in the body
Basophils
- involved in allergic reactions
- release heparin (an anticoagulant), histamine
(inflammatory substance), and serotonin (a
vasoconstrictor) into tissues
Monocytes
- phagocytic
- phagocytize bacteria and any dead cells
- largest leukocytes
- when they leave the blood and enter tissues, they
increase in size and are called macrophages
Lymphocytes
- involved in the production of antibodies
- play a crucial role in the body’s immune response
- smallest of the leukocytes
- 2 types: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
- involved in controlling cancer cells, destroying
microorganisms and parasites, and rejecting foreign
tissue implants
Leukocytes
- less numerous than RBCs
- ave of 5000-9000 per mm^3 of blood
- can phagocytize only a certain number of substances
- lifespan is quite short
- in a healthy body: will live for a few days
- during infections: only for a few hours
Thrombocytes / platelets
- disk-shaped cellular fragments with a nucleus
- 2-4 micrometers in diameter
- FUNCTION: prevent fluid loss when blood vessels are
damaged
- LIFE SPAN: a week
- are produced in red bone marrow from large
megakaryocytes
THE CLOTTING MECHANISM
- process that the body uses to stop the loss of blood
- when small blood vessels are damaged, smooth
muscles in the vessel’s walls contract
- when larger vessels are damaged, the constriction of
the smooth muscles in the vessel walls only slows
down blood loss and the mechanism takes over
1st stage
- the roughened surface of the cut vessel causes the
platelets or thrombocytes to aggregate at the site of
energy
- the damaged tissues release thromboplastin which
causes a series of reactions that result in the
production of prothrombin activator
2nd stage
- prothrombin (a plasma protein produced by the liver)
is converted into thrombin
3rd stage
- soluble fibrinogen is converted into insoluble
fibrinogen
- thrombin catalyzes the reaction that fragments
fibrinogen into fibrin
- fibrin forms the clot
- CLOT RETRACTION or SYNERESIS: tightening of the
fibrin clot in such a way that the ruptured area of the
blood vessel gets smaller and smaller
- SERUM: the clear yellowish liquid that is seen after the
clot forms; blood plasma without the clotting factors
- Once tissue is repaired, fibrinolysis or dissolution of
the blood clot occurs which is caused by a plasma
protein that digests the fibrin threads
- Unwanted clotting may occur in an undamaged blood
vessel which is brought about by cholesterol -
containing mass called plaque that adheres to the
smooth walls of blood vessels
- THROMBOSIS: clotting in such an unbroken vessel
- THROMBUS: the clot itself
- EMBOLUS: if a piece of a blood clot dislodges and gets
transported by the blood stream
- EMBOLISM: when an embolus becomes lodged in a
vessel and cuts off circulation
- INFARCTION: if the tissues are killed; often fatal
THE BLOOD GROUPS - ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS: then the child’s RBCs are
destroyed due to the crossing of the antibodies
- AGGLUTINATION: if the blood groups are mismatched through the placenta
 Called a transfusion reaction and is caused by
a reaction between protein antibodies in the
blood plasma and RBC surface molecules
called antigens
 ABO group and Rh group of antigens that can
cause serious transfusion reaction
 The individual will experience headache and
difficulty breathing
 Hemoglobin will be converted to bilirubin
causing jaundice and the kidneys may fail
The ABO Blood Group
- Consists of those individuals who have the presence
or absence of 2 major antigens: antigen A and B
- Antigen combinations, A, B, AB, or neither A or B (O)
- Antibodies are formed during infancy against the ABO
antigens not present in our own RBCs
- Individuals with type A blood have antibody anti- B;
type b blood: anti- A; type AB: neither; and type O:
both anti-A and B
- Type O lacks antigens A and B; aka universal donor
The Rh Blood Group
- Was named after Rhesus monkeys
- If antigen D and other Rh antigens are found on the
RBC membrane, the blood is Rh positive
- If the RBCs lacks antigen, the blood is Rh negative
- Anti-Rh bodies do not develop spontaneously
- They develop only on Rh- negative persons
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The Heart
- Muscular pump that forces the blood through a
system of vessels made of arteries, veins, and
capillaries (transport the blood)
- The function of transportation of blood by the
cardiovascular system occurs 24 hrs a day 7 days per
week, nonstop for 70, 80, or 90 years or more
- Beats about 72 times a minute
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
- Positioned obliquely between the lungs in the
mediastinum
- 2/3 of its bulk likes to the left side of the midline of
the body
- Shaped like a blunt cone
- About the size of a closed fist
- Approx. 5 inches long, 3.5 in wide, and 2.5 in thick
- Enclosed in a loose-fitting serous membrane known
as the pericardial sac aka parietal pericardium
Pericardial sac
TWO LAYERS:
1. Fibrous pericardium: outermost layer
- Made of tough fibrous connective tissue and
connects to the large blood vessel that enter and
leave the heart to the diaphragm muscle, and to the
inside of the sternal wall of the thorax
- Prevents overdistention of the pumping heart by
acting as a tough protective membrane surrounding
the heart
- Anchors the heart in the mediastinum
2. Serous pericardium: innermost layer
- This layer is thin and delicate
- Continuous with the epicardium (outermost layer of
the wall of the heart)
- Also continuous with the large blood vessels of the
heart and is aka the parietal layer of the pericardial
sac
LAYERS OF THE HEART WALL
1. EPICARDIUM OR VISCERAL PERICARDIUM:
outermost layer of the heart
- A thin, transparent layer compose of serous tissue
and mesothelium
- Pericardial cavity: space between the epicardium and
the serous pericardium of the pericardial sac
- Pericardial fluid: watery fluid in the pericardial cavity
 Reduces friction and erosion of tissue
between these membranes as the heart
expands and contracts
- Pericarditis: inflammation of the innermost layer of
the pericardial sac
- Beacause the outermost layer of the heart is the
outermost layer of an organ of the body, this
epicardium can also be referred to as the visceral
peritoneum
2. MYOCARDIUM: second layer; makes up the bulk of
the heart
- Layer of cardiac muscle tissue
- Cells or fibers: involuntary, striated, and branched
- The tissue of this layer is arranged in interlacing
bundles and is the layer responsible for contraction
of the heart
3. ENDOCARDIUM: third/innermost layer
- Thin layer of endothelium that overlies a thin layer of
connective tissue
- Acts as a lining for the myocardium
- Covers the valves of the heart and the chordae
tendineae of the valves
THE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
4 CHAMBERS
1. Two upper chambers: right and left atrium
2. Two lower chambers: right and left ventricle
RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIUM
- Each atrium has an external appendage called an
auricle
- The lining of each atrium is smooth, except for the
anterior atrial walls and the lining of the two auricles,
which contain projecting muscle bundles called the
musculi pectinati that give the auricles their rough
appearance
- The two atria are separated from each other by an
internal interatrial septum
RIGHT AND LEFT VENTRICLE
- Separated from one athoer by an internal
interventricular septum
- TRABECULAE: irregular ridges and folds of the
myocardium of the ventricles
o The two atria contract simultaneously, while the two
ventricles relax and vice versa
 o The muscle tissue of the atria and ventricles is
separated by connective tissue that also forms the
valves
o This connective tissue divides the myocardium into
2 separate muscle masses
a. CORONARY SULCUS: separates the atria from the
ventricles
b. 2 SULCI: Anterior interventricular sulcus &
posterior interventricular sulcus: separate the right
and left ventricles from one another
THE GREAT VESSELS OF THE HEART
o The right atrium receives blood from all parts of
the body EXCEPT THE LUNGS
o It receives blood through three veins
1. SUPERIOR VENA CAVA (anterior): brings blood
from the upper parts of the body, head, neck, and
arms
2. INFERIOR VENA CAVA (posterior): brings blood
from the lower parts of the body, legs, and
abdomen
3. CORONARY SINUS: drains the blood from most of
the vessels that supply the walls of the heart with
blood.
o PULMONARY TRUNK: major vessel; splits into right
and left pulmonary artery (carry blood to a lung)
o The oxygenated blood returns to the heart via four
PULMONARY VEINS
o The left ventricle pumps the blood into the next
great vessel, the ASCENDING AORTA
o From here the aortic blood goes to the CORONARY
ARTERIES (supply the walls of the heart with
oxygenated blood), the ARCH OF THE AORTA
(sends arteries to upper parts of the body), and
the DESCENDING THORACIC AORTA, which
becomes the ABDOMINAL AORTA ; these arteries
transport oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body
o The right atrium (collects blood coming from all
parts of the body except the lungs) is slightly larger
than the left atrium (receives only the blood
coming from the lungs)
o Ventricles have thick walls and the atria are thin
walled
o The left ventricle has walls thicker than the right
ventricle
THE VALVES OF THE HEART
- There are 2 atrioventricular valves between the atria
and their ventricles
- TRICUSPID VALVE: between the right atrium and
ventricle; consists of three flaps
- CHORDAE TENDINEAE: connected the point ends of
the flaps to small conical projections called the
PAPILLARY MUSCLES on the inner surface of the
ventricle
- BISCUSPID VALVE: between the left atrium and
ventricle
- PULMONARY SEMILUNAR VALVE: found in the
opening where the pulmonary trunk exits the right
ventricle
- AORTIC SEMILUNAR VALVE: found in the opening
where the ascending aorta leaves the left ventricle
CARDIAC CYCLE
Normal heartbeat: two atria contract and the two
ventricles relax then vice versa
o SYSTOLE: phase of contraction
o DIASTOLE: phase of relaxation
o Ave. heartbeat: 72 times per minute
o First half of the period: all valves are closed
o Latter half: the tricuspid and bicuspid valves open
to allow blood to start draining into the ventricles
SOME MAJOR BLOOD CIRCULATORY ROUTES
1. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
- Route includes all of the oxygenated blood that
leaves the left ventricle of the heart through the
aortic semilunar valve and goes to the aorta and the
deoxygenated blood that returns to the right atrium
of the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava
- 2 subdivisions
a. Coronary circulation: supplies the myocardium of
the heart
b. Hepatic portal circulation: travels back and forth
from the intestine of the digestive tract to the liver
2. PULMONARY CIRCULATION
- Route that goes from the right ventricle thru the
pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary trunk
that branches into the right and eft pulmonary
arteries which goes to the lungs. Here the
deoxygenated blood loses its CO2 and picks up the
O2 and returns to the left atrium
3. CEREBRAL CIRCULATION
- The blood circulatory route that supplies the brain
with oxygen and nutrients and disposes of waste
 4. FETAL CIRCULATION
- A temporary circulation, that exists only between the
developing fetus and its mother
ANATOMY OF BLOOD VESSELS
- Can be categorized into arteries, arterioles, veins,
venules, and capillaries
- Arteries and veins have walls composed of 3 layers:
1. Tunica intima (single layer of endothelial cells)
2. Tunica media (made of smooth muscle)
3. Tunica adventitia (composed of white fibrous
connective tissue)
VEINS
- Are made of the same three coats as arteries but
have less elastic tissue and smooth muscle
- More white fibrous connective tissue in the outer
layer or adventitia
- Capable of distention to adapt to variations of blood
volume and blood pressure
- Contain valves that ensure blood flow in one
direction
- VENOUS SINUSES: veins with thin walls

ARTERIES
- Have walls made of three coats or tunics known as a
lumen thru which blood flows
- Are thicker and stronger than veins
- Properties: elasticity and contractility
- Anastomosis: the junction of two or more blood
vessels

ARTERIOLES
- Small arteries the deliver blood to capillaries

CAPILLARIES
- Microscopic vessels made of simple squamous
epithelial cells, one cell layer thick, called
endothelium
- Connect arterioles with venules

VENULES
- Small vessels that connect capillaries to veins
- Collect blood from capillaries and drain into veins