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Consumer behaviour of pre-teen and teenage youth in China

Article · September 2013

DOI: 10.1080/20932685.2013.817141

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Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 2013
Vol. 4, No. 4, 247–265, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2013.817141

Consumer behaviour of pre-teen and teenage youth in China

中国青少年的消费行为
Osmud Rahmana, Xiaopeng Chenb and Raymond Auc*
a
School of Fashion, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada; bClothing Department, Zhongyuan
University of Technology, Zhengzhou Henan, China; cInstitute of Textiles & Clothing, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
(Received 15 April 2013; final version received 25 May 2013)

The purpose of this study is to investigate how age, gender, information sources and
parent-child communication may influence Chinese pre-teen (9 – 12 years old)
and teenage (13– 18 years old) shopping behaviour. A quantitative research method
and a self-administered questionnaire was employed to measure the significance
of clothing evaluative cues, parent-child communication and shopping behaviour of
pre-teens and teens in the People’s Republic of China. In total, 273 usable data
were collected for this study. It is evident that peer influence was considered by
respondents as an important information source, followed by store displays. Parent –
child communication also played an important role on clothing consumption. In
order to meet the needs and aspirations of these young consumers, fashion designers
should pay attention to material selection and usage. In addition, fashion retailers
should focus on the visual and experiential aspects of the store environment in
order to build a stronger connection and resonance with these young consumer
groups.
Keywords: Chinese children; consumer socialization; shopping behaviour; parent –
child communication; information source

这项研究的目的是探讨年龄，性别，信息来源和父母子女沟通是如何影响青少年的购物行为。在
成长过程中，一 个人的童年，知识程度，通过社交获得经验和知识。通常通过家长，同事，名人和媒
体传达和建立加固社会交流的态度，动机和行为规范 (Lachance et al. 2003; Yoh 2005)。很明
显，塑造一 个人的消费观念，家庭沟通起着重要和普遍的作用，并且这种影响因素已经被概念
化为两个不同的尺度 (Hsieh et al. 2006; Moschis 1987)。第一 个，“社会取向”，重点在家长控制
和尊重孩子的权威，而第二个是，“理念为导向”，没有父母介入，强调由个人作出独立评估。在
中国传统文化中，“社会取向”非对抗性的交流模式似乎是鼓励或维护 (Hong 1989)，以及保护家
庭关系和谐。传统的价值观念，如家庭，爱国主义，相互依存，谦虚，毅力，和节俭（Wong and
Ahuvia 1997）也是一种极力强调文化习俗的部分。孩子要服从长辈和权威。然而，中国的年轻
消费者通过接触大众媒体，已经越来越受西方个人主义和个人自由价值观的影响 (Sun and
Collins 2002)。因此，传统的价值观和西方的意识形态在今天的中国青年文化共存。

随着瞬息万变的中国文化和社会景观，现在更重要的是调查并更好地理解今天的年轻消费者
行为。虽然之前的研究人员都以孩子为基础的研究，作出了重大贡献，但是，以青少年的”小皇帝/
皇后”购物行为，以及在中国的亲子沟通的研究相对较少。为了拓宽我们的理解，目前的研究解答
了一些问题，关于年龄，性别和信息源如何影响青少年消费者的购物行为，服装采购，尤其是在当
前国内人口结构。因此，我们特意选了一些与儿童有关的产品，包括服装，车辆，来调查儿童
(9-12岁）和青少年（13-18岁）的消费行为。以自填问卷来衡量服装的评价线索，亲子沟通和购物
行为对青少年的意义。这项研究总共收集了273个可用的数据。根据本研究的结果，很明显，受
访者认为，朋辈影响是最重要的信息来源，其次是店面陈列。因此，时装零售商在以视觉和体验

*Corresponding author. Email: orahman@ryerson.ca

q 2013 Korean Scholars of Marketing Science

248 O. Rahman et al.

形势的卖场环境方面应付出极大的关注，与他们的客户建立一 个更强大的连接和共振 (Dam-

mminga et al. 2012)。要注意，商店的浏览在中国是一 个重要的休闲活动。儿童与父母购物
时，因为他们都很年幼，随着他们长大更多的是与朋友。因此，店内的颜色，装饰，所有环境对
购物体验产生重要影响。许多以前的研究发现，视觉形象比书面资料（基于文本的广告/广告）
或标识（如品牌）相比更容易记忆 (Wheeler 2003)。根据调查结果，一 个产品的实用性和它的功
能是很重要的。然而，随着孩子进入他们的少年时期，他们购买的产品，他们更注重抽象的或不
可见的的概念性的意义（例如，品味和衣柜协调） ，根据具体或可观察到的影响（例如，颜色和形
状）。

此外，在服装消费亲子沟通也起到了重要作用。我们的研究结果表明，十几岁的女孩比起
男孩与父母有更紧密的沟通与联系。Dotson 和Hyatt在他们的研究中指出，“女生比男生看起来
更多地受人际交往影响，如父母和朋友 (2005, p. 39)。这一发现与Grossbart et al. (1991)
的研究不一致。

为了成功细分青少年的市场，时尚从业者和营销人员应该注重亲子关系，以及中国现代年
轻消费者不断变化的需求和愿望。此外，为了在这个快速变化的环境监测和预测变化，他们应
该开发搜索工具和方法。在未来的研究方面，在其他城市或地区，需要进一步的测试和验
证。互联网的影响力应该包括以成长的青少年群体。此外，父母子女反应的比较研究可能
产生额外的洞察力/信息，并提供稳定的结论。

关键词：中国儿童; 消费社会化; 购物行为; 亲子沟通; 信息源

1. Introduction
The economy of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter referred to as China) has
expanded remarkably since the launch of Economic Reform and the one-child-per-family
policy of the late 1970s. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, retail
sales have seen tremendous growth of about 18.1% year-on-year, to 18.1 trillion RMB
(about 2.9 trillion US dollars) in 2011 (China Daily, 2012). With increased disposable
income and declining fertility rates, children have been repositioned as the focus of family
life, and familial consumption is often oriented towards one’s child/children. According to
Lu (2006), about 30% of total household expenditures in China were spent on child-related
products and services, as many Chinese parents are now willing to spend a substantial
amount of money on their only child. Many marketers predict that Chinese children will
become one of the most powerful driving forces in the global consumer market within the
next twenty years (Yi, 2006). This market has enormous potential in China. Children not
only spend their own money on consumer products to satisfy their needs and aspirations in
the current market; they also exert influence on parental expenditure, and represent the
future market for a company’s offering (McNeal & Yeh, 1997).
Due to this rapid socio-economic transformation, parents and grandparents have tried
to provide their “little emperor/empress” (xiao huangdi or “spoiled child”) a happy life
with the best possible opportunities, which were often unattainable to many of them when
they were children. Indeed, there is a desire to fulfil dreams or to compensate for a lost past
through their offspring (Shao & Herbig, 1994). What has transpired within this construct is
the “six pockets, one mouth” syndrome (Goll, 1995), or the perilous “4-2-1 indulgence”
phenomenon: four grandparents and two parents indulging one child (Cutler, 1988;
Debnam & Svinos, 2007). This parental pampering has greatly fostered self-centred
attitudes among these young individuals. As a result, they have become highly focused on
their own personal needs, wants, and rights.
Although researchers (such as James McNeal, Kara Chan, Deborah John and Barrie
Gunter) have made significant contributions to child-based research, there have been
relatively few studies (as shown in Table 1), which have dealt with both pre-teen and
Table 1. Prior research studies on Chinese children’s consumer behaviour.
Author Year Country/City Sample: Age/Size Research area Product
McNeal and Yeh 1997 China: Beijing and 4 – 12 years old: 45% Consumer behaviour Bakery items, books, bread, candy, gum, clothing,
Tianjin girls and 55% boys patterns cookies, deli items, fruits, fruit juices, hair care items,
ice cream, imported candy, meats, milk, movies, nuts,
seafood, soft drinks, shoes, stationary, toys,
vegetables, toothpaste/brush, video games
McNeal and Ji 1999 China: Beijing 8 to 13 years old, New product Cassette players, clothing, shoes, bicycles, compu-
(n ¼ 409): 195 girls and information sources ters, books, toothpaste, soap, candy, shampoo, gum,
214 boys ice cream, soft drinks, cookies, sports equipment,
toys, video games
McNeal and Yeh 2003 China: Beijing 7 – 11 years old, (n ¼ 352) Consumer behaviour Bakery, books, bread, candy, car, chips, clothing,
computer, fruits, fruit juice, gum, hair care, ice
cream, imported candy, meats, milk, movie-CDs,
noodles, nuts, seafood, shoes, soft drinks, toothpaste,
toys, television set, vegetables, video games, writing
paper
St-Maurice 2006 China 12 to 17 years old, Consumer behaviour, Beverages, food, clothing, education, personal-care
and Wu (n ¼ 793) influence in purchase products, health care, transportation, consumer
decision electronics, real estate
Chan and 2007 China: Beijing, 6 – 13 years old: urban Communication chan- n/a
McNeal Shanghai, Nanjing, (n ¼ 965) and rural nels and information
Guangzhou, Hubei, (n ¼ 1012) sources
Heilongjiang
Hunan, Yunnan,
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing

Chan and Hu 2008 China: Guangzhou 9 – 14 years old, Attitudes toward Toys: computer, Gameboy, Lego blocks, remote
(n ¼ 268): 45% girls and material possessions controlled car, books, badminton bat, marbles, rope
55% boys
Flurry and Veeck 2009 China: Yangzhou 819 families: 27% in pre- Influence in purchase Shoes, fruit, cookies, chocolate, candy, meat,
school, 36% in elementary decision making vegetable, movie, toothpaste, shampoo, television
school, 37% in secondary
school
Fan and Li 2010 China: Beijing 10 – 13 years old, Information sources Candy, biscuit, milk, chocolate, chips, ice cream, soft
(n ¼ 145): 43.4% girls drinks, fast-food restaurant
and 56.6% boys
249
250 O. Rahman et al.

teenage “little emperor/empress” shopping behaviours as well as parent – child

communication in China. To broaden our understanding, the current study was structured
to answer the following research questions regarding how age, gender and information
sources can influence young consumers’ shopping behaviours in general and clothing
purchases in particular among this demographic:
RQ1: Do teenagers pay more attention to symbolic meanings such as brand name and
style than pre-teens when they shop for personal-use products?
RQ2: Does parental influence play a less important role in teenage children’s shopping
behaviour than in that of pre-teen children?
RQ3: Do parents listen and accept their child’s requests and suggestions in regard to
shopping?
RQ4: Does peer influence play a significant role in pre-teens’ and teenagers’ shopping
behaviour?
RQ5: Does television play a less significant role as an information source among
teenagers than pre-teens?
RQ6: Do girls exert a greater influence on clothing purchases than boys? Are there any
differences between pre-teens and teenagers?
RQ7: Are there any differences between pre-teen boys and girls regarding parent –child
communication on shopping and buying?

1.1. Consumer socialization and family communication

The model of consumer socialization suggests that young people of various ages have
different levels of knowledge, consumption values and motivations (John, 1999). John states
that learning to be a mature consumer is a three-part developmental process encompassing the
perceptual (3–7 years), analytical (7–11 years) and reflective stages (11–16 years). Over the
course of one’s childhood, an individual will gain knowledge through divergent socializing
agents or sources. Family, peers, celebrities and television are often considered to be powerful
means to transmit norms, attitudes, motivations and behaviours through modelling
reinforcement and social exchange (Lachance et al., 2003; Yoh, 2005).
Family communication plays an important and pervasive role in shaping one’s values
towards consumption, and this influence factor has been conceptualized into two
uncorrelated dimensions (Hsieh et al., 2006; Moschis, 1987). The first dimension, “socio-
orientation”, focuses on parental control and a child’s deference to authority while the
second dimension is “concept-orientation”, which emphasizes an independent evaluation
made by the individual without parental input. In traditional Chinese culture, “socio-
orientation” or non-confrontational communication patterns seem to be encouraged or
upheld to prevent losing face (Hong, 1989), as well as to protect family ties and harmony.
Traditional values such as family, patriotism, interdependence, modesty, perseverance and
frugality (Wong & Ahuvia, 1997) are also strongly emphasized as part of cultural
practices. Children are expected to obey elders and authoritarian figures. However, young
consumers in China have been increasingly influenced by the western values of
individualism and personal liberty (Sun & Collins, 2002) through exposure to a wider
range of mass media. Thus, it is not uncommon to see traditional values and western
ideologies coexisting in today’s Chinese youth culture.
With this rapidly changing cultural and social landscape, it is now even more
important to investigate and gain a better understanding of today’s young consumer
behaviour and parent-child communication practices in China. As such, we deliberately
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 251

chose a number of child-related products including clothing as the vehicle to investigate

both pre-teen (9 –12 years old) and teenage (13 – 18 years old) consumer behaviours.

2. Relevant literature
Although children exert a considerable amount of influence on many family purchases (4 –
12 years old; McNeal & Yeh, 1997) and leisure activities (9 –11 years old; McNeal &
Mindy, 1996), young people in their earlier years are still learning to become independent
decision-makers regarding their own needs. However, by the time they reach the pre-teen
age of approximately nine years, they are beginning to understand consumer symbolism
(Belk et al., 1984; Chaplin & John, 2005), brand image (Chaplin & John, 2005),
materialistic values and product-self concepts. Recent research conducted by Sidin et al.
(2008) in Malaysia found that 9- and 10-year-old pre-teens showed high preferences for
specific brands, retail stores and price when purchasing reading materials and food products.
In addition, Seiman (1980) found that at the age of 10, young people are able to
understand and consider another person’s opinions or motives, and may allow greater
outside influence when making purchasing decisions as they enter the pre-teen phase.
However, they lack metacognitive knowledge and possess fewer experiences when facing
complex decision-making tasks, making them far less adaptive than their older counterparts
(Davidson, 1991). On the contrary, teenagers are more aware of new products and brands,
and spend relatively more hours on shopping (Gunter & Furnham, 1998). According to
Geen (1995) and Chaplin and John (2005), teenagers often use brand name and publicly
consumed products (e.g., clothing) as symbols to express peer identification and affiliation.

2.1. Parental influence and response

Parents can be regarded as the most influential source and pervasive agent in the process of
children’s decision-making (Caruana & Vassallo, 2003; North & Kotzé, 2001). According to
a study conducted in Beijing and surrounding areas by Anderson and Meyer (2000), younger
pre-teens (9–10 years) preferred to actively interact with their parents and seek their input
when contemplating clothing purchases. However, older pre-teens (11–12 years) based their
information more on the opinions of friends and peers rather than parents in similar
circumstances. It is evident that peer influences become increasingly important to individuals
in the older age group (Zhang, 2005). Regardless of the peer influence, many pre-teens do
prefer buying clothes with one or both of their parents. In addition, anecdotal evidence shows
that pre-teens have higher levels of proximity to their parents than do teenagers. Thus, parental
influence on pre-teens still plays a significant role in clothing consumption (May & Koester,
1985), especially in the areas of brand equity, style, price, quality and practicality (Darian,
1998; Moore et al., 2002; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004). However, as children grow older, they
become more socially acquainted with their peers; peer-group influences usually increase,
while overall parental influence often decreases (Zhang, 2005).
As mentioned earlier, due to the rapid economic growth and the “4-2-1 indulgence”
phenomenon in China, it is reasonable to suggest that Chinese children exert a strong
influence on household purchases. In addition to this, some prior studies (Chan & McNeal,
2006; Gong et al., 2004) indicated that many parents of the “Little Emperor/Empress”
generation were born in the 1970s, and had suffered from material shortages. As such,
their sophistication levels towards modern consumption are considered low as compared
to their western counterparts. With this perspective, we believe that today’s Chinese
parents are willing to listen to, and accept, their child’s suggestions. However, to the best
252 O. Rahman et al.

of our knowledge, there is no clear empirical evidence to support this viewpoint. In order
to understand this particular aspect, a parent – child communication instrument was
employed for this study.

2.2. Peer influences

As children enter adolescence, peer influence begins to play a more important role in the
purchasing decision process (Chavda et al., 2005; Mourali et al., 2005). Koester and May
(1985) found that as adolescents grow older, parental influence on clothing selection
decreases while peer group and media influences increase. In general, it is evident that peer
influence significantly increases during the teen years (Bearden & Randall, 1990);
furthermore, a study conducted by Wilson and MacGillivray (1998) in the United States
indicated that peer-group influences on adolescent clothing choices become more important
as school grade increases (i.e., 6th, 9th and 12th). According to another study on clothing
purchases in China (Anderson & Meyer, 2000), adolescents tend to shop more frequently
with friends, particularly on less expensive items. Although peer influence plays a vital role
on adolescent clothing choice, this may not apply to the younger age group – pre-teens.
According to some studies (May & Koester, 1985; Moore et al., 2002; Schiffman & Kanuk,
2004), parental influence still exerts a strong influence on pre-teen children.

2.3. Influence of television

In addition to parental and peer influences, many prior consumer research studies (Chan &
McNeal, 2007; Fan & Li, 2010; McNeal & Ji 1999) have identified television to be a major
source of influence for both pre-teens and teenagers. Research shows that children who
watch a lot of television commercials have more favourable opinions towards the
advertising messages (Buijzen & Valkenburg, 2000). Chan and McNeal (2007) reported
that television was the most useful information source for new products among Chinese
urban and rural children aged 6– 13. On average, Chinese urban children (6 – 14 years old)
watch television for 193 min per week (Sun, 2009). Similar to this finding, a study of
obesity research (Waller et al., 2003) reported that Chinese youth (ages 6– 18 years)
watched less than an hour of television per day on average, and television was a important
source of information about snacks. In addition, another study conducted by McNeal and
Ji (1999) found that those who were 8 –13 years old ranked their parents and television as
the two most important sources of product information.
According to St-Maurice and Wu (2006), television plays an important role for
teenagers, not only in shaping their worldviews, but also in influencing perceptions
towards products and brands. However, other studies (Berry & Asamen, 1993; Moschis &
Moore, 1979) found that adolescents relied less on mass media for information than their
younger counterparts. Although the findings of prior research are inconsistent, it is
reasonable to suggest that teenagers depend less on television for information than pre-
teens do (Van Evra, 1990), as the latter spend more time viewing television and may be
less skeptical about the advertising content (Hota & McGuiggan, 2006).

2.4. Gender factors

Gender is a significant factor when it comes to an individual’s choice of consumer
products. In general, compared to boys, girls are more fashion-oriented (Beaudoin et al.,
2003) and conscious of specific brand names (Shim & Koh, 1997). In a similar vein, young
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 253

females are more involved in shopping than are their male counterparts. Another study of
young Chinese (4 – 12 years old) consumer behaviour, conducted by McNeal and Yeh
(1997) in Beijing and Tianjin, found that boys significantly more often requested books
and toys, whereas girls predominantly sought clothing. Regarding spending habits for
personal items (including clothing), Bachman (1983) reported that high-school girls spent
44% and boys 36% of their earned income, and the former shopped more frequently than
their male counterparts (Chen-Yu & Seock, 2002). With this perspective, we assumed that
choices in clothing purchases are related more to gender difference than to age difference.
According to the results of a study (Fan & Li, 2010) conducted in Beijing among
children aged 10– 13, the vast majority (79.3%) of the children went shopping with their
parents frequently. Co-shopping not only allows parents to introduce products to their
children but also serves as a means of training. For example, parents may talk to their child
about a product and discuss price – quality relationships, content labelling and expiration
dates. Due to the prevalence of the single-child family in China, it is logical to suggest that
co-shopping and parent –child communication on clothing are deemed to be important
regardless of a child’s gender. In order to understand these relationships, clothing was used
as a vehicle for the present study.

3. Research methodology
In this study, the quantitative research method was used for greater objectivity and
accuracy. Subjects aged 9 – 18 were recruited from two urban public schools in
Zhengzhou, Henan province. The questionnaire was conducted and completed in the
classroom under the guidance of the research assistant without parental influence on
responses. Participation in this study was on a voluntary basis with parental consent, and
the students received no compensation for their participation.
A self-administered questionnaire consisting of two sections was developed for both
pre-teens and teenagers. In the first section, questions were designed to measure and
investigate clothing information sources, purchasing motives and evaluative criteria. A
total of seven product information sources (parents, peers, celebrities, advertisement,
television, store displays, others) were used to examine the significance of their influences
on the young participants. The items of information source were drawn from the prior
literature as well as from children’s own description in the pilot study. Regarding their
purchasing motives, participants were asked to select a minimum of one reason from six
possible areas such as “replacement”, “sale or promotion” and “changing seasons”. To
complete this section, 4-point scale questions (anchored by “very important” to “very
unimportant”) were used to measure the significance of four product-specific cues
encompassing three intrinsic cues (colour, style, comfort) and one extrinsic cue (brand
name). The selection of these product cues was based on the appropriateness and
frequency of use by apparel studies historically (Chen et al., 2004; Chu & Rahman, 2012;
Hsu & Burns, 2002; Zhang et al., 2002). For example, brand name was chosen because
children consider clothing brands to be most relevant to their self-concept description
(Chaplin & John, 2005). We believe that the adoption of fewer product cues was more
appropriate for the current study, as too many variables could create confusion among the
participants, especially those within the pre-teen age group. Additionally, participants
were asked in terms of buying products for personal use, including snacks/candies, food/
beverage, music, stationery, books, magazines, clothing and toys.
In the second section, questions were formulated to elicit demographic data, parent –
child communication patterns and clothing expenditures. As to the questions concerning
254 O. Rahman et al.

parent – child communications, six statements were adopted and modified from prior
studies (Caruana & Vassallo, 2003; Rose et al., 1998), and five were developed by the
authors. We utilize the communication measures from Caruana and Vassallo (2003) and
Rose et al. (1998) because they are commonly used scales in the marketing and consumer
literature examining parent –child communication. Wording for some items was changed
to suit the topic of the present study. For example, item six as shown in Table 7, “my
parents will usually buy me the clothing that I want”, was modified from “my mother
usually buys me the toy that I want” (Caruana & Vassallo, 2003). New items were
developed to incorporate additional concerns currently relevant to parent – child
communication within the context of a collectivistic society, such as “my parents decide
all my shopping needs”. The participants were asked to rate each statement on a 4-point
scale (anchored by “very often” to “very seldom”) in order to measure both child and
parental influences on shopping in general and clothing in particular. In terms of the data
analysis, SPSS statistical software was used, and t-test, correlation and descriptive analysis
were employed for this study.

4. Results
A total of 281 respondents took part in this study; eight participants were eliminated from
the data set due to incomplete or improper responses, leaving a total of 273 usable
questionnaires. Of these, 135 respondents fell into the “pre-teen” segment ranging from 9
to 12 years of age (54.8% male, 45.2% female, X
¼ 10.7), and 138 respondents belonged
to the ‘teenager/adolescent’ segment of ages 13 – 18 years (44.9% male, 55.1% female,
X
¼ 15.2). The demographic distribution was almost even.
As indicated in Table 2, pre-teens had less money for consumer spending than
teenagers. On average, pre-teens received 118.9 RMB and spent approximately 76.4% of
this amount per month, while teenagers received 233.6 RMB and spent about 86.2% per
month. According to the percentage of monthly expenditures, it is obvious that pre-teens
spent less but saved more money than their older counterparts.

4.1. Autonomy of shopping and purchasing

Our results in relation to decision-making found that 36.3% of pre-teens and 65.9% of
teenagers reported they made purchasing decisions independently without parental
assistance and approval. Only 31.1% of pre-teens and 21% of teenagers agreed with the
statement, “I am only allowed to use my pocket money to buy things while I shop with my
parents”. These findings indicated that the majority of our respondents from both age
groups were allowed to spend their own money without the presence of their parents, and

Table 2. Sample profile.

Age 9 – 12 13 to 18
Sample size 135 138
Male n ¼ 74, 54.8% n ¼ 62, 44.9%
Female n ¼ 61, 45.2% n ¼ 76, 55.1%
Mean age 10.7 15.2
Average pocket money per month RMB 118.9 RMB 233.6
Average expenditure per month RMB 90.8 or 76.4% RMB 201.4 or 86.2%
Average saving per month RMB 28.1 or 23.6% RMB 32.2 or 13.8%
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 255

Table 3. Reasons for purchasing new clothes.

Reasons for Pre-teen: 9 – 12 Teenagei: 13 – 18
purchasing new
clothes Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) % Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) %
Replacement 48 34 82 60.7 40 35 75 54.3
Sales or special 18 18 36 26.7 9 24 33 23.9
promotion
Special occasions 44 34 78 57.8 28 38 66 47.8
and festivals
Changing seasons 37 41 78 57.8 31 55 86 62.3
Parents want me to 31 17 48 35.6 12 10 22 15.9
dress nice
I want to look good/ 41 33 74 54.8 40 49 89 64.5
smart

teenagers in particular had more autonomy over spending than did their younger
counterparts. This result is consistent with a prior study of consumer behaviour patterns
among Chinese children (McNeal & Yeh, 1997). In addition, teenagers stated that they
shopped for new clothes to make them “look good/smart” much more often than did their
younger counterparts (as shown in Table 3). In other words, “buying new clothes” or
deciding “what to wear” was more about children’s desires than their parents’ decisions.

4.2. Pre-teens’ and teenagers’ preferences

In terms of products for personal use, pre-teens were more inclined to spend money on
food/beverages (76.3%), stationery (61.5%) and snacks/candy (54.1%) to satisfy their
needs than were teenagers. It appears that immediate and concrete benefits play a more
significant role in the consumption habits in this group than abstract values such as
symbolic meaning and psychological value. Teenagers were more inclined to spend their
money on food/beverages (74.6%), magazines (49.3%) and music (46.4%). According to
this study, teenagers clearly spent more money on music, magazines and clothing than did
pre-teens (as shown in Table 4). These findings are consistent with the findings of Koester
and May (1985), who found that adolescents became more engaged in clothing
consumption as they grew older. Indeed, an individual’s maturing process is closely
related to progression in buying responsibility and accountability. For example, a young

Table 4. Spending preferences by age group and gender.

Pre-teen: 9 – 12 Teenager: 13 – 18
Item Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) % Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) %
Snacks/Candies 32 41 73 54.1 9 28 38 27.5
Food/Beverage 62 62 103 76.3 46 57 103 74.6
Music 12 12 23 17.0 31 33 64 46.4
Stationery 44 44 83 61.5 21 36 57 41.3
Books 29 29 52 38.5 23 33 56 40.6
Magazines 13 14 27 20.0 31 37 68 49.3
Clothing 15 8 23 17.0 21 27 48 34.8
Toys 23 7 55 40.7 7 2 9 6.5
256 O. Rahman et al.

Table 5. Significance of clothing evaluative cues.

Pre-teen: 9 – 12 Teenager: 13 – 18
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Quality 3.06 0.870 3.07 0.837
Brand name 2.04 0.964 2.52 1.023
Style 3.13 0.885 3.41 0.753
Comfort 3.28 0.835 3.39 0.816

consumer may begin by buying snacks and candy, progress to books and magazines and
then proceed to more expensive items such as clothing.
The findings of the current study also clearly indicate that teenagers are more
concerned with trends and pop culture than pre-teens are, likely as part of their
development and construction of their identity and self-image. As Martin and Bush (2000,
p. 441) assert, “ . . . teenagers are more involved with trends than probably any other age
group. They are not only trendsetters for one another, but are also trendsetters for the
population at large”.
The mean differences between the two groups regarding the significance of clothing cues
were examined by using t-test. The results indicated that there were significant differences
between teenagers and pre-teens in terms of using style (t ¼ 2.9, df ¼ 269, p ¼ 0.0) and brand
name (t ¼ 23.95, df ¼ 266, p ¼ 0.0) for product evaluation and selection. Clearly, teenagers
were relatively more concerned with style (aesthetic/visual appeal) and brand name (symbolic
meaning) than pre-teens (as shown in Table 5). As previously stated, teenagers reported that
they shopped for new clothes to make them look “good/smart” significantly more often than
did their younger counterparts (as shown in Table 3). These findings clearly indicated that
teenagers pay more attention to symbolic meanings such as brand name and style than
pre-teens do when they shop for personal-use products (RQ1).

4.3. Parental influence and parent-child communication

In terms of differences by age, only 33.3% of pre-teens and 17.4% of teenagers cited
parents as important information sources when purchasing personal products (as shown in
Table 6). In Table 7, the measurement of parent – child communication indicated that
teenagers were less dependent on parental guidance. Regarding their agreement with the
statement “My parents decide all my shopping needs” the mean score of pre-teens
(X
¼ 2.61) was higher than that of the teenagers (X
¼ 2.28). In addition, the results of t-test

Table 6. Significance of information source.

Pre-teen: 9 – 12 Teenager: 13 – 18
Information source Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) % Male (n) Female (n) Total (n) %
Parents 26 19 45 33.3 11 13 24 17.4
Peers 48 36 84 62.2 45 54 99 71.7
Celebrities 18 19 37 27.4 33 34 67 48.6
Advertisement 26 24 50 37.0 32 33 65 47.1
Television 32 26 58 43.0 18 24 42 30.4
Store displays 40 28 68 50.4 25 45 70 50.7
Others 16 13 29 21.4 10 25 35 25.4
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 257

Table 7. Child– parent communication.

Pre-teen Teenager
Child-Parent Communication n mean S.D. n mean S.D.
(c) 1. My parents and I talk 135 2.99 0.603 138 3.11 0.600
about buying clothes
(c) 2. I tell my parents which 134 3.16 0.603 138 3.24 0.657
clothes to buy
(c) 3. My parents usually tell me 134 3.01 0.637 138 3.02 0.585
what clothes to buy
(c) 4. I tell my parents where 133 3.02 0.753 138 3.19 0.769
I want to go when buying
clothes
(c) 5. Parents take me where I 135 2.94 0.710 138 3.00 0.792
want to go when buying clothes
(c) 6. My parents will usually buy 135 2.87 0.796 138 2.75 0.755
me the clothing that I want
(c) 7. 1 like what my parents 134 2.66 0.794 138 2.57 0.827
want me to wear
(g) 8. I tell my parents what 135 2.57 0.675 135 2.90 0.752
things to buy for the family
(g) 9. What, where, and which 134 2.81 0.815 138 2.41 0.893
brand I buy are very much
determined by my parents
(g) 10. I always shop with my 133 2.98 0.783 138 2.70 0.798
parents
(g) 11. My parents decide all my 134 2.61 0.822 138 2.28 0.854
shopping needs
(c): Clothing-related statement; (g): General shopping statement

for both pre-teens and teenagers indicated that there were significant differences between
age cohorts in a few instances of parent – child communication, including “What, where, and
which brand I buy are very much determined by my parents” (t ¼ 3.929, df ¼ 270,
p ¼ 0.000), “I always shop with my parents” (t ¼ 3.933, df ¼ 269, p ¼ 0.004) and “My
parents decide all my shopping needs” (t ¼ 3.239, df ¼ 270, p ¼ 0.001). Thus, it is
reasonable to suggest that parental influence plays a less important role in teenage children’s
shopping behaviour than for pre-teen children, and these findings addressed RQ2.
In order to gain a deeper understanding of parent – child communication, a correlation
analysis was used. As indicated in Tables 8 and 9, the correlation among responses to “My
parents and I talk about buying clothes”, “I tell my parents where I want to go when buying
clothes”, “My parents take me where I want to go when buying clothes” and “My parents
will usually buy me the clothing that I want” was strong for both age groups. This means
that Chinese parents not only listened to their children’s suggestions but also acted upon
them. These findings answered RQ3. The possible explanation is that today’s Chinese
parents are more open-minded and willing to provide material goods (both needs and
aspirations) to their “Little Emperor/Empress”.

4.4. Peer and television influence

As indicated in Table 6, peer influences were the most significant information source for
both pre-teens and teenagers. This result is in line with several prior studies of consumer
 258

Table 8. Correlation matrix of parent –pre-teen communication.

1 2 3 4 5 .6 7 8 9 10 11
1. My parents and I talk about buying 1 .291* .020 .281* .295* .231* .166 .120 2 .036 .095 2 .021
clothes p 5 .001 p ¼ .816 p 5 .001 p 5 .00l p 5 .007 p ¼ .055 p ¼ .l65 p ¼ .676 p ¼ .277 p ¼ .810
2. I tell my parents which clothes to .291* 1 .150 .396* .220 .172 .036 2.067 .107 .334* .019
buy p 5 .00l p ¼ .085 p 5 .000 p ¼ .011 p ¼ .047 p ¼ .682 p ¼ .441 p ¼ .220 p 5 .000 p ¼ .832
3. My parents usually tell me what .020 .150 1 .000 .035 .094 .142 .137 .149 2.015 .151
clothes to buy p ¼ .8l6 p ¼ .085 p ¼ .998 p ¼ .687 p ¼ .280 p ¼ .104 p ¼ .114 p ¼ .086 p ¼ .865 p ¼ .083
4. I tell my parents where I want to go .281* .396* .000 1 .256* .005 .038 .035 2 .114 .185 .148
when buying clothes p 5 .00l p 5 .000 p ¼ .998 p 5 .003 p ¼ 953 p ¼ .664 p ¼ .688 p ¼ .19l p ¼ .035 p ¼ .090
5. My parents take me where I want to .295* .220 .035 .256* 1 .528* .187 .102 .022 .202 2 .071
go when buying clothes p 5 .00l p ¼ .011 p ¼ .687 p 5 .003 p 5 .000 p ¼ .030 p ¼ .238 p ¼ .800 p ¼ .020 p ¼ .414
6. My parents will usually buy me .231* .172 .094 .005 .528* 1 .252* .204 .093 .081 2 .034
clothing that I want p 5 .007 p ¼ .047 p ¼ .280 p ¼ .953 p 5 .000 p 5 .003 p ¼ .018 p ¼ .285 p ¼ .355 p ¼ .693
7. I like what my parents want me to .166 .036 .142 .038 .187 .252* I .088 .139 .204 .051
O. Rahman et al.

wear p ¼ .055 p ¼ .682 p ¼ .l04 p ¼ .664 p ¼ .030 p 5 .003 p ¼ .312 p ¼ .ll2 p ¼ .019 p ¼ .561
8. I tell my mother what things to buy .120 2 .067 .137 .035 .102 .204 .088 1 .043 .024 .115
for the family p ¼ .165 p ¼ .441 p ¼ .114 p ¼ .688 p ¼ .238 p ¼ .0l8 p ¼ .312 p ¼ .6l9 p ¼ .783 p ¼ .l86
9. What, where, and which brand I buy 2 .036 .107 .149 2 .144 .022 .093 .139 .043 1 .139 .261*
are very much determined by my p ¼ .676 p ¼ .220 p ¼ .086 p ¼ .191 p ¼ .800 p ¼ .285 p ¼ .112 p ¼ .619 p ¼ .111 p 5 .002
parents.
10. I always shop with my parents .095 .334* 2 .015 .185 .202 .081 .204 .024 .139 1 .209
p ¼ .277 p 5 .000 p ¼ .865 p ¼ .035 p ¼ .020 p ¼ .355 p ¼ .019 p ¼ .783 p ¼ .111 p ¼ .016
11. My parents decide all my shopping 2 .021 .019 .151 .148 2.071 2 .034 .051 .115 .261* .209 1
needs p ¼ .8l0 p ¼ .832 p ¼ .083 p ¼ .090 p ¼ .414 p ¼ .693 p ¼ .56l p ¼ .l86 p 5 .002 p ¼ .016

*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), also indicated in bold.

Table 9. Correlation matrix of parent –teenager communication.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. My parents and I talk about buying 1 .268* .137 .287* .303* .406* .290* .297* .004 .320* .001
clothes p 5 .001 p ¼ .108 p 5 .001 p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p 5 .001 p 5 .000 p ¼ .096 p ¼ .000 p ¼ .994
2. I tell my parents which clothes to .268* 1 .138 .430* .154 .241* .109 .353* .045 .084 .009
buy p 5 .001 p ¼ .106 p 5 .000 p ¼ .071 p 5 .004 p ¼ .204 p 5 .000 p ¼ .60l p ¼ .326 p ¼ .919
3. My parents usually tell me what .137 .138 1 .104 .173 .211 .110 .139 .262* 0.124 .177
clothes to buy p ¼ .108 p ¼ .108 p ¼ .223 p ¼ .042 p ¼ .0l3 p ¼ .200 p ¼ .109 p 5 .002 p ¼ .148 p ¼ .037
4. I tell my parents where I want to go .287* .430* .104 1 467* .208 .265* .446* 2 .070 2 .013 2.048
when buying clothes p 5 .001 p 5 .000 p ¼ .223 p 5 .000 p ¼ .014 p 5 .002 p 5 .000 p ¼ .417 p ¼ .880 p ¼ .574
5. My parents take me where I want to .303* .154 .173 .467* 1 .500* .301* .236* 2 .041 .196 .043
go when buying clothes p 5 .000 p ¼ .071 p ¼ .042 p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p 5 .006 p ¼ .631 p ¼ .021 P ¼ .615
6. My parents will usually buy me .406* .241* .211 .208 .500* 1 .363* .205 .089 .198 .078
clothing that I want p 5 .000 p 5 .004 p ¼ .013 p ¼ .014 p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p ¼ .017 p ¼ .300 P ¼ .020 p ¼ .363
7. I Like what my parents want me to .290* .109 .110 .265* .301* .363* 1 .221 .276* .288* .079
wear p 5 .001 p ¼ .204 p ¼ .200 p 5 .002 p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p ¼ .010 p 5 .001 p5 .001 p ¼ .355
8. I tell my mother what things to buy .297* .353* .139 .446* .236* .205 .221 1 2 086 .198 2.053
for the family p 5 .000 p 5 .000 p ¼ .109 p 5 .000 p 5 .006 p ¼ .017 p ¼ .010 p ¼ .321 p ¼ .021 p ¼ .541
9. What, where, and which brand I buy .004 .045 .262* 2 .070 2.041 .089 .276* 2.086 1 .349* .327*
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing

are very much determined by my p ¼ .960 p ¼ .601 p 5 .002 p ¼ .417 p ¼ .631 p ¼ .300 p 5 .001 p ¼ .321 p 5 .000 p 5 .000
parents.
10. I always shop with my parents .320* .084 .124 2 .013 .196 .198 .288* .198 .349* 1 .138
p 5 .000 p ¼ .326 p ¼ .148 p ¼ .880 p ¼ .021 p ¼ .020 p 5 .001 p ¼ .021 p 5 .000 p ¼ .107
11. My parents decide all my shopping .001 .009 .177 2 .048 .043 .078 .079 2.053 .327* .138 1
needs p ¼ .994 p ¼ .919 p ¼ .037 p ¼ .574 p ¼ .615 p ¼ .363 p ¼ .355 p ¼ .541 p 5 .000 p ¼ .107
259
260 O. Rahman et al.

behaviour on pre-teens and teenagers (Anderson & Meyer, 2000; Wilson & MacGillivray,
1998). Thus, RQ4 was addressed. According to the present study, parental influence
clearly plays a less significant role than peer influence for both age groups.
There were no significant differences among other sources of information except for
television and celebrities. As indicated in Table 6, television played a more important role
for pre-teens, whereas celebrities played a more influential role for teenagers. As a result,
RQ5 was answered. However, our finding does not correspond with a study conducted by
Dotson and Hyatt (2005): they found that the commercial influence of television did not
vary with age (8 – 16 years old).
It is worthwhile to point out that store displays were considered to be the second most
important information source for both age groups, which was an unexpected finding.

4.5. Gender factors

Two group mean differences of parent-child communication were examined by using the
t-test. In terms of RQ6, exerting influence over their parents on personal-use clothing
purchases, the results indicated that there was no significant difference between girls and
boys for both age groups.
The t-test analysis suggested that there was no significant difference between the mean
scores for pre-teen boys and girls in parent – child communication. In other words, Chinese
parents treated their sons and daughters in a similar manner when communicating
shopping strategies and offering guidance. Thus, RQ7 was addressed, and this finding is
consistent with a study conducted by Demo and Cox (2000) and another study of parent –
child communication conducted in Delhi, India by Verma and Kapoor (2004).
However, the results of t-test for both teenage boys and teenage girls indicated that
there were significant differences between genders in a few instances of parent-child
communication. These included “My parents and I talk about buying clothes”
(t ¼ 2 2.374, df ¼ 136, p ¼ 0.019), “My parents usually tell me what clothes to buy”
(t ¼ 2 1.873, df ¼ 136, p ¼ 0.063) and “I always shop with my parents” (t ¼ 2 1.979,
df ¼ 136, p ¼ 0.050). In addition, when examining the significance of various information
sources, girls were more likely to perceive parents as a useful information source than boys
(as shown in Table 6), and co-shopping with parents was more common with girls than
boys.
These findings suggest that teenage girls had closer ties and communicated with their
parents more often than did boys. As Dotson and Hyatt pointed out in their study, “It looks
like girls are more influenced by interpersonal interactions, with friends and parents, and
boys are more influenced by non-personal communication” (2005, p. 39). However, this
finding is inconsistent with a study conducted by Grossbart et al. (1991).

5. Conclusion
In a socio-oriented culture such as China, parent –child communication is important to
sustain harmony and respect within a family. Members of the younger generation often
discuss purchases and co-shop with their parents during their childhood. In other words, a
two-way flow of product information is strong between parents and children. However,
there may not always be agreement between young people and parental choices and
decisions; as indicated in Table 7, many pre-teens and teenagers disagreed with the
statement: “I like what my parents want me to wear”. There is ample evidence that today’s
children often exert a strong influence regardless of parental acceptance. It is reasonable to
 Journal of Global Fashion Marketing 261

suggest that the one-child generation is more individualistic, knowledgeable and assertive
than the previous generations. As Gong et al. (2004, p. 49) described, “Chinese youths
hold a set of values strikingly different from those of their parents . . . they are more
focused on their personal wants, needs, and rights than the older generations, whose
perceived roles in society overshadow all personal desires”. In order to understand this
changing consumer culture, fashion practitioners should focus not only on their products,
but also on socio-economic issues in general and parent – child relationships in particular.
Fashion retailers may offer some online/offline activities to engage both parents and
children. In particular, “edutainment” products and activities have been welcomed by
many Chinese parents (McNeal & Ji, 1999; Wong & McKercher, 2012). For example,
mobile apps such as word search games can be used to learn about the attributes of a
product through the games, as well as to offer an opportunity for parents and children to
engage in the same activity. Openness to communication and mutual understanding are
important for parent –child communication and co-shopping activities. As revealed in the
correlation matrix (Tables 8 and 9), parents not only listened to their children’s
suggestions, but also accompanied them when shopping at their desired stores and
sometimes even made the purchases. This finding is consistent with a prior study by
McNeal and Yeh (1997) who found that Beijing pre-teens (4 – 12 years old) often
accompany their parents to the marketplace.
In terms of product-information sources, other than the salient effect of peer influence,
store displays were the second most important source. Thus, fashion retailers should pay
maximal attention to the visual and experiential aspects of the store environment in order
to build a stronger connection and resonance with their customers (Damminga et al.,
2012). It is important to note that browsing in stores is an important leisure activity in
China. Children often shop with their parents when they are young, but more with friends
as they grow older. Thus, the relevant store’s colour, display, decoration and even the
atmosphere (i.e., interactive kiosks, music, etc.) could have an important impact on the
shopping experience. Many prior studies have found that it is easier for a person to
recognize, recall and remember a visual image than written information (text-based
advertisements/ads) or a logo (e.g., brand name; Wheeler, 2003).
As indicated in Table 5, both pre-teens and teenagers cited “comfort” as the most
important evaluative product cue for clothing purchases. This finding is consistent with
several Chinese consumer studies (Rahman et al., 2008; 2009). In order to meet the needs
of these consumers, clothing designers and practitioners should pay extra attention to
material selection and usage. Without a doubt, the practicality of a product and how it
functions are important. However, as children enter their teenage years, they pay more
attention to abstract or less visible conceptual cues (e.g., taste and wardrobe coordination)
along with the concrete or observable ones (e.g., colour and shape) in the products they
buy. For example, teenagers seldom consume clothing merely based on its functional or
concrete benefits; they often strive for higher-order goals or abstract values (through style
and brand name) to construct self-identity, express individual ideology and gain social
approval (Park & Yang, 2010; Rahman et al., 2010). It may not be relevant to simply
replicate products that are sold in other age groups. Belk et al. (1984) and John (1999)
suggest that teenagers are more capable of drawing inferences from consumption
symbolism than are younger pre-teens. Therefore, socio-cultural values and symbols
should be considered in order to most effectively communicate with this age group. With
this perspective, it is not difficult to understand why teen magazines (e.g., Seventeen/青春
一族; COCO.薇; Hi-Low) and celebrity endorsements (e.g., Chinese athletes such as Guo
Jing Jing/郭晶晶 and Zhao Rui Rui/赵蕊蕊) play an important and influential role in modern
262 O. Rahman et al.

Chinese youth culture. However, it is important to note that celebrity endorsement may not
produce the same impact across product types. For example, Fan and Li reported that
“Among all the sources, celebrity endorsement was perceived to be the least important
factor for choosing food products” (2010, p. 179).
In order to successfully capture both pre-teen and teenage market segments, fashion
practitioners and marketers should pay attention to the parent – child relationship as well as
the changing needs and aspirations of modern young consumers in China. In addition, they
should develop tools and methods to monitor and anticipate changes in this fast-moving
environment.

6. Limitations and future research

Clearly, the present study has several limitations or shortcomings, as is true of most
research studies. First, the current data was collected exclusively from an urban, second-
tier city, and due to the great diversity across provinces in China, further testing and
validation is needed in other cities or regions. Second, the influence of the Internet should
be included for the older pre-teen and teenage demographic groups in future studies.
According to a biannual survey conducted by China Internet Network Information Centre,
31.8% of Internet users in China were those ranging from 10 to 19 years in age (China
Today, 2010). It is evident that the number of Internet users or “netizens” is growing
tremendously in China. We believe that this trend will continue, and online information
search will play an increasingly important role in the future. Third, the measures are self-
reported and have not been tested and retested to yield a higher reliability and predictive
validity therefore, the results of those measures should be approached with caution.
Fourth, a comparative study of parent/child responses may generate additional insight/
information and provide stability for the conclusions. Fifth, qualitative research methods
can be employed to gain a deeper understanding of consumers’ perceptions and
preferences. Sixth, a single study should not form the basis for generalizations. Therefore,
more replication is needed to strengthen the data validity and reliability. In addition to this
point, cross-national/-cultural replication of this type of study would be interesting.

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