© 2008 AGI-Information Management Consultants

May be used for personal purporses only or by

libraries associated to dandelon.com network.

Geothermal Power Plants:

Principles, Applications and
Case Studies

Ronald DiPippo, Ph.D.

Chancellor Professor Emeritus
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
North Dartmouth, Massachusetts

ELSEVIER
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgements xix

PART ONE RESOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND DEVELOPMENT 1

1. Geology of Geothermal Regions 3

1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 The earth and its atmosphere 4
1.3 Active geothermal regions 7
1.4 Model of a hydrothermal geothermal resource 10
1.5 Other types of geothermal resources 11
1.5.1 Hot dry rock, HDR 12
1.5.2 Geopressure 13
1.5.3 Magma energy 14
References 16
Problems 18
2. Exploration Strategies and Techniques 21
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Objectives of an exploration program 22
2.3 Phases of an exploration program 23
2.3.1 Literature survey 23
2.3.2 Airborne survey 24
2.3.3 Geologic survey 25
2.3.4 Hydrologic survey 26
2.3.5 Geochemical survey 28
2.3.6 Geophysical survey 32
2.4 Synthesis and interpretation 36
2.5 The next step: drilling 38
References 38
Problems 40
3. Geothermal Well Drilling 43
3.1 Introduction 44
viii Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications and Case Studies

3.2 Site preparation and drilling equipment 45

3.3 Drilling operations 46
3.4 Safety precautions 50
References 51

4. Reservoir Engineering 53
4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 Reservoir and well flow 54
4.2.1 Darcy'sLaw 54
4.2.2 • Reservoir-well model: ideal case 55
4.2.3 Reservoir-well model: basic principles 56
4.2.4 Liquid-only flow 58
4.2.5 Location of the flash horizon 58
4.2.6 Two-phase flow in the well 61
4.2.7 Complete model: reservoir to wellhead with wellbore
flashing 62
4.3 Well testing 65
4.3.1 Desired information 65
4.3.2 Pressure and temperature instrumentation 66
4.3.3 Direct mass flow rate measurements 66
4.3.4 Indirect mass flow rate measurements 69
4.3.5 Transient pressure measurements and analysis 71
4.4 Calcite scaling in well casings 72
4.5 Reservoir modeling and simulation 74
4.5.1 Input 74
4.5.2 Architecture 75
4.5.3 Calibration and validation 75
4.5.4 History matching 76
4.5.5 Use of the model 77
4.5.6 Examples of reservoir simulators 77
References 78
Problems 81

PART TWO GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATING SYSTEMS 85

5. Single-Flash Steam Power Plants 87

5.1 Introduction 88
5.2 Gathering system design considerations 88
5.2.1 Piping layouts 88
5.2.2 Pressure losses 90
5.3 Energy conversion system 93
5.4 Thermodynamics of the conversion process 97
5.4.1 Temperature-entropy process diagram 97
5.4.2 Flashing process 97
5.4.3 Separation process 98
5.4.4 Turbine expansion process 98
 Contents ix

5.4.5 Condensing process 100

5.4.6 Cooling tower process 101
5.4.7 Utilization efficiency 103
5.5 Example: Single-flash optimization 104
5.5.1 Choked well flow 104
5.5.2 Non-choked well flow 106
5.6 Optimum separator temperature: An approximate formulation 108
5.7 Environmental aspects for single-flash plants 110
5.7.1 General considerations 110
5.7.2 Considerations pertaining to single-flash plants 110
5.8 Equipment list for single-flash plants 113
5.8.1 Wellhead, brine and steam supply system 113
5.8.2 Turbine-generator and controls 114
5.8.3 Condenser, gas ej ection and pollution control
(where needed) 114
5.8.4 Heat rejection system 114
5.8.5 Back-up systems 115
5.8.6 Noise abatement system (where required) 115
5.8.7 Geofluid disposal system 115
References 115
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 5 116
Problems 117

6. Double-Flash Steam Power Plants 119

6.1 Introduction 120
6.2 Gathering system design considerations 120
6.3 Energy conversion system 122
6.4 Thermodynamics of the conversion process 123
6.4.1 Temperature-entropy process diagram 123
6.4.2 Flash and separation processes 124
6.4.3 HP-and LP-turbine expansion processes 124
6.4.4 Condensing and cooling tower processes; utilization
efficiency 126
6.4.5 Optimization methodology 126
6.5 Example: Double-flash optimization 127
6.6 Scale potential in waste brine 129
6.6.1 Silica chemistry 130
6.6.2 Silica scaling potential in flash plants 132
6.7 Environmental aspects for double-flash plants 134
6.8 Equipment list for double-flash plants 134
6.8.1 Wellhead, brine and steam supply system 134
6.8.2 Turbine-generator and controls 134
6.8.3 Condenser, gas ejection and pollution control
(where needed) 135
6.8.4 Heat rejection system 135
6.8.5 Back-up systems 135
x Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications and Case Studies

6.8.6 Noise abatement system (where required) 135

6.8.7 Geofluid disposal system 135
References 135
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 6 136
Problems 136

7. Dry-Steam Power Plants 141

7.1 Introduction 142
7.2 Origins and nature of dry-steam resources 142
7.3 Steam gathering system 148
7.4 Energy conversion system 148
7.4.1 Turbine expansion process 151
7.4.2 Condensing and cooling tower processes; utilization
efficiency 154
7.5 Example: Optimum wellhead pressure 154
7.6 Environmental aspects of dry-steam plants 157
7.7 Equipment list for dry-steam plants 158
7.7.1 Steam supply system 158
7.7.2 Turbine-generator and controls 158
7.7.3 Condenser, gas ejection and pollution control
(where needed) 158
7.7.4 Heat rejection system 158
7.7.5 Back-up systems 158
7.7.6 Noise abatement system (where required) 159
7.7.7 Condensate Disposal System 159
References 159
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 7 160
Problems 161

8. Binary Cycle Power Plants 163

8.1 Introduction 164
8.2 Basic binary systems 164
8.2.1 Turbine analysis 165
8.2.2 Condenser analysis 166
8.2.3 Feedpump analysis 167
8.2.4 Heat exchanger analysis: preheater and evaporator 167
8.2.5 Overall cycle analysis 170
8.3 Working fluid selection 171
8.3.1 Thermodynamic properties 171
8.3.2 Sonic velocity and turbine size 173
8.3.3 Health, safety and environmental considerations 174
8.4 Advanced binary cycles 175
8.4.1 Ideal binary cycle 175
8.4.2 Dual-pressure binary cycle 176
8.4.3 Dual-fluid binary cycle 179
8.4.4 Kalina binary cycles 182
 Contents xi

8.5 Example of binary cycle analysis 184

8.6 Environmental impact of binary cycles 189
8.7 Equipment list for basic binary plants 189
8.7.1 Downwell pumps and motors 189
8.7.2 Brine supply system 189
8.7.3 Brine/workingfluidheat exchangers 190
8.7.4 Turbine-generator and controls 190
8.7.5 Workingfluidcondenser, accumulator and storage
system 190
8.7.6 Workingfluidfeed pump system 190
8.7.7 Heat rejection system 190
8.7.8 Back-up systems 190
8.7.9 Brine disposal system 190
8.7.10 Fire protection system (if workingfluidis flammable) 191
References 191
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 8 192
Problems 193

9. Advanced Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems 197

9.1 Introduction 198
9.2 Hybrid single-flash and double-flash systems 199
9.2.1 Integrated single-and double-flash plants 200
9.2.2 Combined single- and double-flash plants 201
9.3 Hybridflash-binarysystems 202
9.3.1 Combinedflash-binaryplants 203
9.3.2 Integratedflash-binaryplants 205
9.4 Example: Integratedflash-binaryhybrid system 207
9.5 Total-flow systems 211
9.5.1 Axial-flow impulse turbine 212
9.5.2 Rotary separator turbine 214
9.5.3 Helical screw expander 216
9.5.4 Conclusions 218
9.6 Hybrid fossil-geothermal systems 218
9.6.1 Fossil-superheat systems 218
9.6.2 Geothermal-preheat system 220
9.6.3 Geopressure-geothermal hybrid systems 220
9.7 Combined heat and power plants 222
9.8 Hot dry rock (enhanced geothermal systems) 224
9.8.1 Fenton Hill HDR project 224
9.8.2 Hijiori HDR project 226
9.9 Power plants for hypersaline brines 228
9.9.1 Flash-crystallizer/reactor-clarifier (FCRC) systems 229
9.9.2 pH modification (pH-Mod) systems 230
References 232
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 9 235
Problems 236
xii Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications and Case Studies

10. Exergy Analysis Applied to Geothermal Power Systems 241

10.1 Introduction 242
10.2 First law for open, steady systems 242
10.3 Second law for open, steady systems 243
10.4 Exergy 243
10.4.1 General concept 243
10.4.2 Exergy of fluid streams 244
10.4.3 Exergy for heat transfer 246
10.4.4 Exergy for work transfer 247
10.5 Exergy accounting for open, steady systems 248
10.6 Exergy efficiencies and applications to geothermal plants 248
10.6.1 Definitions of exergy efficiencies 248
10.6.2 Exergy efficiencies for turbines 249
10.6.3 Exergy efficiencies for heat exchangers 251
10.6.4 Exergy efficiencies for flash vessels 255
10.6.5 Exergy efficiencies for compressors 257
References 260
Problems 260

PART THREE GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT CASE STUDIES 263

11. Larderello Dry-Steam Power Plants, Tuscany, Italy 265

11.1 History of development 266
11.2 Geology and reservoir characteristics 267
11.3 Power plants 273
11.3.1 Early power plants 273
11.3.2 Power plants of the modern era 277
11.3.2.1 Direct-intake, exhausting-to-atmosphere
units 278
11.3.2.2 Direct-intake, condensing units 279
11.3.3 Recent power plant designs 280
11.4 Mitigation of environmental impact 282
References 284
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 11 285

12. The Geysers Dry-Steam Power Plants, Sonoma and Lake Counties,
California, U.S.A: 287
12.1 History and early power plants 288
12.2 Geographic and geologic setting 292
12.3 Well drilling 294
12.4 Steam pipeline system 294
12.5 Power plants 295
12.5.1 Plant design under PG&E 298
12.5.2 SMUDGEO#1 plant design 299
12.5.3 Power plant operations under Calpine ownership 301
 Contents xiii

12.6 Recharging the reservoir 301

12.7 Toward sustainability 305
References 306

13. Cerro Prieto Power Station, Baja California Norte, Mexico 309
13.1 Overview of Mexican geothermal development 310
13.2 Cerro Prieto geographical and geological setting 311
13.3 Cerro Prieto power plants 314
13.3.1 Cerro Prieto I-Units 1-5 314
13.3.2 Cerro Prieto II - Units 1-2 and Cerro Prieto III -
Units 1-2 319
13.3.3 Cerro Prieto IV-Units 1-4 321
13.4 Expansion of Cerro Prieto and nearby prospects 321
References 323
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 13 324

14. Hatchobaru Power Station, Oita Prefecture, Kyushu, Japan 325

14.1 Overview of Japanese geothermal development 326
14.2 Hatchobaru geothermal field 327
14.2.1 Geological setting 327
14.2.2 Production and reinjection 329
14.3 Hatchobaru power units 330
14.3.1 Double-flash units 331
14.3.2 Binary unit 335
14.4 Conclusion and forecast 336
References 337
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 14 338

15. Mutnovsky Flash-Steam Power Plant, Kamchakta Peninsula, Russia 339

15.1 Setting, exploration, and early developments 340
15.2 Conceptual model of Mutnovsky geothermal field 342
15.3 Verkhne-Mutnovsky 12 MW power plant 343
15.4 Mutnovsky first-stage 50 MW power plant 346
15.5 Future power units at Mutnovsky 348
15.5.1 Verkhne-Mutnovsky IV 348
15.5.2 Mutnovsky second stage 348
References 350

16. Miravalles Power Station, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica 353

16.1 Traveling to Miravalles 354
16.2 History of Geothermal Development 356
16.3 Wells 357
16.4 Power generation 359
16.5 Calcite inhibition system 366
16.6 Acid neutralization system 367
xiv Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications and Case Studies

16.7 Environmental protection and monitoring 368

References 369

17. Heber Binary Plants, Imperial Valley, California, USA 371

17.1 Introduction 372
17.2 Exploration and discovery 3 72
17.3 The first Heber binary plant 3 73
17.4 The second Heber binary plant 376
References 3 79
Nomenclature for figures in Chapter 17 380

18. Magmamax Binary Power Plant, East Mesa, Imperial Valley California,
USA 381
18.1 Setting and exploration 382
18.2 Magmamax binary power plant 383
18.3 Modified Magmamax binary power plant 390
18.4 Conclusion 392
References 393

APPENDICES
Appendix A. Worldwide State of Geothermal Power Plant Development
as of July 2004 397
Appendix B. Units Conversions 421
Appendix C. Energy Equivalents 42 3
Appendix D. Elements of Thermodynamics 42 5
Appendix E. Answers to Selected Practice Problems 437

INDEX 441