Module:1 Elemental and

Compound semiconductors

Prof. A.Jabeena
• Band structure
• direct band gap and indirect
semiconductors
• transmission media
• choice of materials
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL DEVICES

Immunity to electromagnetic Can be transmitted without

interference distortion due to electrical storms,
etc
Non-interference of two or more Unlike electrical signals, optical
crossed beams signals can cross each other
without distortion
High speed High data rate
High bandwidth High capacity

Special Functions Interference or diffraction of light

can be used for special
applications
 Important semiconductor materials for optoelectronics
Materials Type Substrate Devices Wavelength range(mm)
Si IV Si Detectors, Solar cells 0.5-1
SiC IV SiC Blue LEDs 0.4
Ge IV Ge Detectors 1-1.8
GaAs III-V GaAS LEDs, Lasers, Detectors, Solar 0.85
Cells, Imagers, Intensifiers
AlGaAs III-V GaAS LEDs, Lasers, 0.67-0.98
Solar Cells, Imagers
GaInP III-V GaAs Visible Lasers, LEDs 0.5-0.7
GaAlInP III-V GaAS Visible Lasers, LEDs 0.5-0.7
GaP III-V GaP Visible LEDs 0.5-0.7
GaAsP III-V GaP Visible LEDs 0.5-0.7
InP III-V InP Solar Cells 0.9
InGaAs III-V InP Detectors 1-1.67
InGaAsP III-V InP Lasers, LEDS 1-1.6
InAlAs III-V InP Lasers, Detectors 1-2.5
InAlGaAs III-V InP Lasers, Detectors 1-2.5
GaSb/GaAlSb II-VI GaSb Lasers, Detectors 2-3.5
CdHgTe II-VI] CdTe Long wavelength Detectors 3-5 and 8-12
ZnSe II-VI ZnSe Short wavelength LEDs 0.4-0.6
ZnS II-VI ZnS Short wavelength LEDs 0.4-0.6
Commercial Applications of Optoelectronic Devices
Materials Devices Applications
GaAs/AlGaAs Detectors, Infrared Remote control TV, etc., video disk
LEDs and Lasers players, range-finding, solar energy
conversion, optical fiber communication
systems (local networks), image
intensifiers
InP/InP Solar cell Space solar cell
InP/InGaP Infrared LEDs, Optical fiber communications
Lasers (1-1.6mm) (long-haul and local loop)
InP/InGaAs 1-1.67mm Detectors Optical fiber communications, instrumentation
InGaAlAs/InGaAs 1.67-2.4mm Detectors Military applications, medicine, sensor
GaAs/GaInP/ 0.5-0.7mm LEDs Displays, control, compact disk players, laser
GaInAlP and Lasers printers/scanners, optical disk memories,
laser medicine equipment
Si Detectors and Solar energy conversions, e.g. watches,
Solar Cells calculators, cooling, heating, detectors
Ge Detectors Detectors
SiC Blue LEDs Displays, optical disk memories, etc.
GaSb/GaAlSb/InSb Long wavelength Infrared imaging, night vision sights, missile
detectors/smitters seekers, other military applications
ZnSe/ZnS Visible LEDs Commercial applications (R&D stages only)
 Fig. 1. Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is made up of many different types of electromagnetic
waves. The frequency and wavelengths of these waves determine the type of
electromagnetic wave. Figure 1 shows the electromagnetic spectrum and its waves.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Includes the following types of waves
– Radio
– Microwaves
– Radar
– Infrared
– Visible Light
– Ultraviolet
– X-Rays
– Gamma Rays
 Light Waves
– Characteristics of waves and particles
– Ttravel at 3 x 108 m/s (Speed of Light)
– It takes 8 minutes for light to come from the Sun
to Earth
– It takes 3 seconds for radio signals to get from
Earth to the Moon
• Which of the following is NOT an
example of an electromagnetic
wave?
• A. X-ray
• B. Microwave
• C. Visible light
• D. Sound wave
 Behavior and Color of Light
• When light strikes a new medium or
substance, the light can be
reflected, absorbed, or transmitted.
• When light is transmitted it can be
refracted, polarized or scattered.
 Scattering and Refraction
• Why is the sky blue?
 Scattering and Refraction
 Have you ever wondered why
the sky is blue during the day and
reddish orange at dusk?

 It is due to the scattering of the

light rays (REFRACTION).

 The sunlight gets scattered by

the molecules of the
atmosphere.

 Particles in the atmosphere

scatter shorter wavelength blue
light more than the longer
wavelength red light.
 Light Paths in our Atmosphere
• Red light goes straight • Blue light scatters all over.
through the atmosphere.• Thus, you see the sky as blue.
If blue light did not scatter,
the sky would be black
 Sunset in our Atmosphere
• Larger particles like dust and water droplets
reflect red light causing dusk and dawn to look
red and orange.
 Refraction
• Refraction is the bending of
light that is caused by a change
in speed when the light wave
goes from one medium into
another.
 Refraction
• Refraction is the bending of
light that is caused by a change
in speed when the light wave
goes from one medium into
another.

• That is why things appear to

be somewhere they are not
underwater.
 Reflection
Reflection of a light
wave occurs when the
light wave bounces off
an object.
The Angle of Incidence
is equal to the angle of
reflection.
These angles are
always measured from
a line perpendicular to
the surface.
 Light Producers
• An object that produces light is
called a luminous object.
Luminous objects include the sun,
light bulbs, lightning, and hot
objects, etc.
• All objects produce electro-
magnetic waves.
• Most produce low frequency radio
waves. Only very hot or energetic
objects produce wavelengths that
can be seen by our eyes.
 Light Reflectors
• Most objects that we see
with our eyes do not produce
their own light and must rely
on the reflection of light in
order for us to see them.
• For example, as light hits
your shirt the color your eye
detects is the color of light
that has been reflected or re-
emitted by your shirt.
• Most of the other colors
were absorbed by the
materials.
 Light Sources

• Objects that give off their own light are

said to be luminous. Some common
luminous objects that you are aware of
are the sun, incandescent light bulbs,
fluorescent light bulbs, lasers, and neon
lights.
 Glowing Objects
• Incandescent light is light that
is produced as a result of a
glowing hot object.
• Light bulbs that have filaments
in them have an electric current
pass through them. As a result
of this electric current, the
filament heats up and begins to
glow, giving off light.
 Flourescence
• Fluorescent light is created by a process called fluorescence. In a
fluorescent light there are two electrodes, one on each end of the
tube, phosphor powder, and mercury vapor.
• The electric current comes in at one electrode and transmit the
electrons into the gases.
• The mercury atom electrons get excited, jump to a higher energy
level, and then drop back down to their original energy state. When
the electrons return to their original state they emit photons, seen
as visible light of all different frequencies and wavelengths.
 Mercury

• Fluorescent bulbs do not get

very hot and they are more
energy efficient than
incandescent bulbs;
• However, the proper disposal of
a fluorescent light bulb requires
attention because it contains
toxic mercury.
• A fluorescent bulb that has
burned out should be brought a
recycle center.
 Visible Light
• Our eyes detect
electromagnetic energy in a
small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
called the visible light region.

• The visible light region

corresponds the wavelengths
and frequencies of red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet light.
 Ultraviolet Waves
• UV Light that is at a higher frequency and energy than
violet light.
• UV light can kill micro-organisms.
• Too much exposure can cause:
– Sunburn, Wrinkles, and skin cancer
– As it damages cell DNA
 Insulators, Conductors, Semiconductors
from energy band structures
E
E E
conduction band conduction
empty band
-
Band
electron partially-filled
Forbidden gap Band
gap Eg < band
5eV hole
region Eg > 5eV +
valence
valence band band
filled
Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
Si: Eg = 1.1 eV
SiO2: Eg = 9 eV
Ge: Eg = 0.75 eV
GaAs: Eg = 1.42 eV
 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductor
N type

P type

Intrinsic semiconductor
Carriers come from valence
electron excitation

Key: Effective control

of charge carriers Doped semiconductor
 Light Emission in Semiconductors
E
conduction electron
band -

Band
h
gap Electron-hole
recombination
+
valence
band hole
Si: Eg = 1.1 eV,  = 1100 nm
GaAs: Eg = 1.4 eV,  = 873 nm
AlAs: Eg = 2.23 eV,  = 556 nm

Si: indirect bandgap, ineffective

GaAs: direct bandgap, effective
 Choice of Materials
• Free Space- Medium – Air
• Long distance – Optical Fibers
» - 1.55μm [α=0.25dBkm-1]
» - 1.31 μm[D=0 ps/nm/km]
» - InP based lattice matched
material
» - GaAs, InP based lattice
mismatched material
• GaAs/AlGaAs-0.8μm; Short- distance
• III-V, GaP, GaAsxP1-x Visible LEDs
• AlN, GaN and InN- Blue LEDs
• GaAs, AlAs, AlxGa1-xAs – Near IR Apps
• GaInAsP/InP and AlGaInAs/AlInAs-
Lasers,LED’s, detectors, modulators and solar
clls.
 Homo junction and Hetero junction
• The p-n junction of the basic GaAs LED/laser described before is called a
homo junction because only one type of semiconductor material is used in
the junction with different dopants to produce the junction itself.
• The index of refraction of the material depends upon the impurity used and
the doping level.
• The Hetero junction region is actually lightly doped with p-type material
and has the highest index of refraction.
• The n-type material and the more heavily doped p-type material both have
lower indices of refraction.
• This produces a light pipe effect that helps to confine the laser light to the
active junction region. In the homo junction, however, this index difference
is low and much light is lost.
Double-hetero structure configuration
Double-Hetero structure Device
 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 For fiber-optics, the LED should have a
high radiance (light intensity), fast response
time and a high quantum efficiency
 Double or single hetero-structure devices
 Surface emitting (diffused radiation) Vs
Edge emitting (more directional) LED’s
 Emitted wavelength depends on bandgap
energy
Eg  h  hc / 
LED Wavelength

1.2399
 ( mm) 
E (eV)

 = hc/E(eV)

 = wavelength in microns
h = Planks constant
C = speed of light
E = Photon energy in eV
 Wavelength Semiconductor
Color Name
(Nanometers) Composition
Infrared 880 GaAlAs/GaAs
Ultra Red 660 GaAlAs/GaAlAs
Super Red 633 AlGaInP
Super Orange 612 AlGaInP
Orange 605 GaAsP/GaP
Yellow 585 GaAsP/GaP
Incandescent
4500K (CT) InGaN/SiC
White
Pale White 6500K (CT) InGaN/SiC
Cool White 8000K (CT) InGaN/SiC
Pure Green 555 GaP/GaP
Super Blue 470 GaN/SiC

Blue Violet 430 GaN/SiC

Ultraviolet 395 InGaN/SiC

 Wavelength Wavelength
Material Material
(µm) (µm)
ZnS 0.33 GaAs 0.84-0.95
ZnO 0.37 InP 0.91
Gan 0.40 GaSb 1.55
ZnSe 0.46 InAs 3.1
CdS 0.49 Te 3.72
ZnTe 0.53 PbS 4.3
GaSe 0.59 InSb 5.2
CdSe 0.675 PbTe 6.5
CdTe 0.785 PbSe 8.5
Bandgap Energy and Possible Wavelength
Ranges in Various Materials
 Problems

1. A Quarternary alloy In1-xGaxAsyP1-y grown on InP substrate is suitable for

commercial LEDs and Lasers. The device requires InGaAsP layer is lattice

matched with InP crystal substrate to avoid crystal defects in the layer which

requires y = 2.2x. Calculate the composition of InGaAsP for a peak emission

wavelength at 1.3µm. Empirical relation for bandgap energy in eV is given by

Eg = 1.35-0.72y+0.12y2 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.47

[Ans: x= 0.277 and y= 0.61, In0.72Ga0.28xAs0.61P0.39]

2. A simple empirical relation that gives the band gap energy in eV for In1-xGaxAsyP1-y

in terms of x and y, is given by Eg = 1.35+0.668x-1.17y+0.758x2+0.18y2-0.069xy-

0.322x2y+0.33xy2 eV. Find the band gap energy and the peak emission wavelength for

In0.65Ga0.35As0.52P0.48. [Ans: 1.115 eV and 1126 nm]

3. Calculate the wavelength of photons emitted from GaAs crystal as a result of

electron-hole recombination. Is this wavelength is visible? Will a silicon

photodetector be sensitive to the radiation from a GaAs laser and why?

[Consider Eg = 1.42eV for GaAs and1.1 eV for Si].

[Ans: 873nm (invisible IR)for silicon 1120nm, can detect]

Bandgap and photodetection
 Reference
Text Book (s)

1. Pallab Bhattacharya, “Semiconductor Optoelectronic

Devices”, 2017, 2nd edition, Pearson Education, India.

2. John M Senior, “Optical Fiber Communication –

principle and practices”, 2014, 3rd edition, PHI, India.