DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

SUBJECT CODE: 342

 UNIT I
V- BELT &PULLEYS

DEFINITION:
V - Belts are another type of flexible connectors for transmitting power
from one pulley to another whose centre distances are approximately up to 3 metres.
Their cross-section is trapezoidal or similar to a wedge.

Ø Generally V-Belts are made endless (i.e., each belt is made in a circular form)
with various cross section which may be differentiated by various grades.

Ø The belts are operated on grooved pulley, grooves being V-shaped or having two
inclined sides with flat bottom.

Ø The contact between the belts and pulleys is obtained in the inclined surfaces of
pulley in contrast with flat belt where contact is obtained at the top surface of the
pulley.

Ø A properly installed V-belt should fit tightly against the sides of the pulley
grooves without projecting beyond the rim or touching the bottom of the groove.
Ø The correct method of mounting a wedge-shaped belt in a grooved pulley is
shown in figure.
Ø In any grade belt, the included angle between the inclined surfaces is about 40°.
Comparing with flat belt, V-belt is adopted for positive drive (i.e., drive without
slip).about 40°.
Ø Comparing with flat belt, V-belt is adopted for positive
Ø drive (i.e., drive without slip).

MATERIALS USED :-

Usually V-belts are made of the following items

Ø Cord and fabric
Ø Impregnated with rubber
Ø The cord
Ø Material being cotton or rayon.
Some of the companies, where V-belts are manufactured, are Goodyear India Ltd., and
Fenner India Ltd.

TYPES OF V-BELTS:-

Ø Generally V-belts are classified into various grades based on their power
transmitting capacity as A,B,C,D and E.
Ø The cross-sectional areas are in increasing order from A to E. Depending upon the
places of applications, V-belts are manufactured into single V-belts, multiple V-
belts, and ribbed belts.
The multiple V-belt and ribbed belt are manufactured in such a way that they
Ø may have a number of separate single V-belts joined together to act as a single
unit.For transmitting very high power, a calculated number of single V-belts or a
suitable multiple V-belt can be used.
Ø It may be noted that in a multi-belt drive (i.e., drive with many number of single
V-belts), all the belts should be stretched at the same rate.
Ø Then only we can say that the load (or power) is distributed evenly between the
belts.
Ø If anyone belt is worn-out, all the belts should be replaced by new belts instead of
changing the broken belt alone so as to have the even distribution of load and
constant velocity of all belts.
Ø Such a deficiency may be avoided in the case of multiple V-belt drive. For getting
clear positive drive, toothed or timing belt is generally preferred.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF V-BELTS :-

Advantages :-

1. V-Belts can be employed for higher velocity ratio (upto 10)

2. They are used to employ with small centre distance.

3. They can be operated at any position of the drive (i.e., horizontal, vertical or
inclined) and even with vertical shaft.

4. In this drive, the tight side of the belt need not compulsorily be at the bottom
side of the pulley, like in flat belt drive.

5. They can take up shocks especially at starting.

6. High smoothness of operation is' obtained owing to the absence of laced joints
and other belt fasteners which may produce noise as in the case of flat belts.

7. The space required for this drive will be comparatively less.

8. During operation, the belt will not come out from pulley at any cost which may
sometimes happened in flat belt drive if the shaft's parallelism is slightly changed.
Disadvantages:-

1. V-belts are not so durable as flat ones, because of formation of high bending
stresses in V-belts due to higher ratio of belt section height to the pulley
diameter comparing to flat belts.

2. The design of pulleys for V-belts are more complicated than the design of
pulleys for flat belts.

3. The power transmitting capacity of V-belts is in lower range than flat belt.

4. V-belts cannot be used with large centre distance.

5. They can not be used for cross-belt drive (or) Quarter-turn drive.

DESIGNATION OF V-BELTS:-

Ø As per Indian standards (IS 2494-1964), V-belt is recognised by a 'letter' which

represents the size of cross-section/followed by the nominal inside length (i.e.,
inner circumferential length) of the belt.
Ø For example, a V-belt of cross-section D and of nominal inside length 3048 mm
shall be designated as D 3048 - IS: 2494 : 1964 or simply D 3048. Some times the
belt length may be represented in inches as D 120.

Ø Also there is another length caned pitch length which is the neutral
circumferential line where there is no tensile to compressive stress acting when
the belt is operated.
Ø This pitch line coincides with pitch circle diameter of the grooved pulley and also
this pitch length is mainly used for designing the V-belts.
Ø Generally there may be a constant difference between pitch length and the inside
length.
Ø For A-type belt, pitch length is more than inside length by 36 mm similarly for B,
C, D and E type belts, pitch lengths are more than their inside lengths by 43 mm,
56mm 19 mm and 92 mm respectively.
Ø Some times V-belts are manufactured in "over and under sizes." Usually the belt
having nominal pitch length is denoted by a grading number 50.
Ø A deviation of 2.5 mm in length from nominal pitch length is represented as one
unit and the grading number will increase or decrease from 50 as the length is
more or less. For

Examples:

Ø A belt of designation D 3048 having actual pitch length of 3127 mm should be

represented as D 3048-50.
Ø If the actual pitch length is 3122 mm, then it may be marked as D 3048-48.
Ø If the actual pitch length is 3132 mm, then it is denoted as D 3048 - 52.
DESIGN OF V-BELTS :-

V-belts are also designed based on

1) Fundamental formulas
2) Manufactures catalogues.
Ø Since V-belts vary considerably in cross-section and amount of reinforcement, the
design of V-belts is usually based on the tables given by the manufactures than
the first method

Ø Any how, before learning in detail about the design using manufacturer's tables, it
is better to have some basic ideas about the design using fundamental formulas.

1) Ratio of driving tensions

where Tl and T2 are tensions at tight side and slack side respectively.
= Angle of contact in radians
.= Angle subtended by sides of V-belts

2) Power transmitted by a belt in SI or M.K.S. unit as

P = (T1 - T2) v N - m/s (or watts)

DESIGN OF V-BELTS USING MANUFACTURES' TABLES :-

The manufacturers produce V-belts in different grades as A, B, C, D, E which can be

tised to transmit different ranges of power, the range being in increasing order from
A to E because of increasing order of area of cross-section in the same series.

One important point is that when selecting flat belt, we should give preference
to thin wider belt for optimum power transmission because the area of contact between
belt and pulley is more in thin wider belt than thick narrow belt. But in the case of V-belt,
thick belt is more preferred to thin belt which may reduce the total number of belts to be
operated for transmitting a particular quantity of power.

Here also, the design of V-belt depends on two concepts.

1. Design Power (i.e., Total power after considering safety factors or correction factors)

2. Belt Rating (i.e., Power transmitting capacity of one .belt)

Consider a V-belt, required to transmit the power of 'P' from one pulley of diameter 'd' to
another pulley of diameter 'D' the pulleys being situated at a distance of 'C'. The work
may be intermittent or continuous.

For designing such a belt, we may follow certain steps.

1). At first based on amount of power to be transmitted, select the type of belt
from A to E grades (Table 4.1) (PSG 7.58)

2) Calculate design power using the relation as

Design power = (Rated power x service factor)./ (Arc of contact x Belts pitch length
factor)
Ø For obtaining the above correction factors, find out the service conditions, arc of
contact and pitch length and then choose suitable factors from tables respectively.
Ø Since the V-belt can be operated as open-belt type we can make use of the
following formula for finding pitch length and arc of contact.

3) Note the inside length corresponding to pitch length from table 4.4 ft1rbelt
specification.

4) Determine the belt rating (i.e., power transmitting capacity of one belt) using
suitable formula adopted by the manufacturers given in table 4.5 or from
table 4.6 (a) to 4.6 (e) .
5) Obtain number of belts required to transmit the entire design power as
Number of belts = ( Design power/ Belt rating)
6) Correct the centre distance according to the selected pitch length Using the
formulas which have been given below of table 4.7 and give initial tension
to belt.
7). Also determine parameters of V-groove pulleys using table.

Formule for Transmitting capacities:

where

kW - max. power
S Belt speed
de - equivalent pitch dia.
dp - pitch dia of smalle pulley
Fb - the small dia to account
for variation of arc of contact.
Formula for calculating the centre distance :

Cmin = 0.55 (D+d) + T T, nominal belt thickness in mm

Cmax = 2(D+d) L, nominal pitch length of belt, in mm

π ( D − d )2
L = 2C + (D + d ) + C, Centre diatance, in mm
2 4C

Centre distance for a given belt length and diameters of pulleys is given by

C = A + (A2-B)1/2

W h e re
L D + d
A = − π
4 8
2
(D -d )
B =
8

Where allowances for the adjustment of the centres for two transmission pulleys:

Lower limiting value = Nominal centre distance minus, 1.5 % of L

Higher limiting value = Nominal centre distance plus 3% of L

Initial Tension:
In order to give the initial tension, the belts may be stretched to 0.5% to 1% of L.
Problem 1
Design a V-belt drive to the following specifications.
Power to be transmitted 7.5 kW
Speed of driving wheel 1440 rpm
Speed of driven wheel 400 rpm
Diameter of driving wheel 300 mm
Centre distance 2500 mm
Service 16 hours/day
Solution:
For the given power of 7.5 kW, 'D' type (or) 'E' type belts are suited.

Let us select 'D' type belt. (From Table 4.1) (PSG 7.58)

Rated power X Service factor

Design factor =
Length factor X Arc of contact factor

Service factor = 1.5 (for heavy duty and 16 hours/day with A.C. motor high torque)
(Table 4.2) (PSG 7.69)

π ( D − d )2
Pitch length of the belt L = 2C + ( D + d ) +
2 4C
Now d = 300 mm
D = 1080 mm
C = 2500 mm
From the formula by substituting the values we get the value of L = 7229 mm.

The next standard pitch length = 7648 mm

Corresponding inside length = 7569 mm (Table 4.4) (PSG 7.60)
Length factor = 1.05
The next standard pitch length =7648 mm

Arc of contact factor = 0.955

Now Design factor = (75 X 1.5)/ (1.05 X 0.955) = 112 Kw

Power rating for ‘D’ type belt

506.7
Power transmitting capacity of one belt = (3.22 S -0.09
− − 4.78 x 10-4 S 2 ) S
de
d e = d p x Fb = 300 X 1.14 = 342 mm<d e(max)

S = 22.6m/s
 Therefore the Belt capacity = 15.96 Kw at 180° arc of contact

Therefore Belt capacity for 161.3° arc of contact = 14.3 kW.

Number of belts required = ( Design power / Belt rating)

= (112/14.3)
= 7.82 belts.

Total number of belts = 8

Since the pitch length is changed from 7229 mm to 7648 mm, the centre distance should
also be increased in order to place the belt property over the pulley.

New centre distance

Initial tension = 0.75 to 1% of L

Specifications :

Type of belts D 7569 50 IS2494 (V-Belt)

Number of belts 8
Pitch diameter of smaller pulley = 300 mm
Pitch diameter of bigger pulley = 1080 mm
Centre distance = 2788 mm

Problem 2:
Ribbed V- Belts:

Ø Ribbed V-Belts are the combination of the V-Belts.

Ø Having the shape of the V-belts which are attached together.
Ø And in the pulley also the groove are taken in the form of the V shape.
 Sheave on Ribbed V-Belt
Design of Pulleys:
Bending moment on each arm is equal to the maximum torque (due to belt pull) over the
number of arms.
a = major axis of elliptical section near the boss

Where
w= width of pulley .
D = diameter of pulley rim
n = No. of arms

e) Minimum size of the pulley is limited by the elongation of belt fibres due to bending
over the pulley.
 FLAT BELT & PULLEYS
Definition :

The power or energy produced in one machine can be transmitted to another

machine or between two members of a machine by means of some intermediate
mechanisms called drives.

Classification of Flat belt drives:

Depending upon the use, the flat belt drives are classified into the following
categories:

1) Open belt drive:

In this type, the shafts of driving and driven members are kept parallel and the
direction of rotations of both pulleys are same. The line joining the centres of pulleys
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.

Open Belt Drive

2) Cross or twist belt drive:
Here the shafts are kept parallel but the directions of rotations of pulleys are opposite to
each other.

(3) Quarter-turn drive:

In this case, the axes of pulleys are arranged at right angles to each other. The drive is
sometimes provided with an idler pulley so as to maintain the required arc of contact.
(4) Belt drive with an idler pulley :
Here .a small extra pulley is operated in the slack side of the belt drive apart from the
usual pulleys (i.e., driving and driven pulleys) for increasing the arc of contact and thus
the power transmission is properly maintained.

(5) Belt drives with many pulleys:

Here many pulleys are operated by a single belt so that many operations are carried out at
a time.

DESIGN OF FLAT BELTS:

The essential parameters of flat belt like width, thickness, length and the type
of belt are determined based on two methods.
 1. Using Fundamental formulas.
2. Using Manufacturers catalogs

1. Using fundamental formulas :

Ø When the driving pulley rotates the driven pulley by belt, the belt pulling side is
known as tight side and the belt releasing side is known as slack side.

Ø If the centre distance and the selected materials of belt and pulleys are kept
proper, the belts can have sufficient grip over the pulley without any slip and the
power transmission is properly maintained.

Ø For designing the belt based on fundamental formulae, we should know the
tensions (i.e,. loads) on tight side and slack side of the pulleys, power-torque
relationship, coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces of pulleys and
belt, diameters of pulleys and so on.

Some of such useful formulas are;

Ratio between the tensions of tight side and slack side,
T1
= e µθ
T2
where µ = Coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces of pulley and belt.
θ = Arc of contact in radians.

2. Using Manufacturer's catalogues:

Ø In this method, the manufacturers are producing certain types of belts whose
widths and thickness have already been standardised by them.
Ø Their loading capacity (i.e., belt rating) are also experimentally determined by the
concerned manufacturers.
Ø They may also adopt certain safety factors like service factors, angle of contact
factors for obtaining better design. To meet out our requirement, we may select a
particular belt based on working conditions and it is compared with their available
data in practice.

Design of belts by this method is based mainly on two concepts.

1. How much power (i.e., Maximum power (or) Design power) to be transmitted.

2. What may be the power transmitting capacity (i.e., belt rating) of the selected
belt.

Arc of contact:
Consider the driving pulley and the driven pulley are connected by a flat belt as shown in
fig. The angle subtended by the overlaying belt on the pulley is known as angle of contact
or arc of contact ( ).

Let d = Diameter of smaller pulley

D = Diameter of bigger pulley
C = Centre distance between pulleys.
Problem 1

Select a flat belt to drive a mill at 250 rpm from a 10 kW, 730 rpm motor. Centre
distance is to be around 2m. The mill shaft pulley is of 1 m diameter.
Solution :
Design power =Rated power x Service factor x Arc. of contact factor.
Rated power =10kW
Service factor = 1.3 (Assuming heavy duty intermittent load).

 D-d 
Arc of contact = 180° -   60°
 C 
D = 1m = 1000mm
i = 730/250 = 2.92
d = 1000/2.92 = 342.46 mm

From the formula the arc of contact is 1.08

now

Design power = 10 x 1.3 x 1.08 = 14.04 Kw

Select the Dunlop fort 949g fabric belting. For finding the number of plies, let us find the
belt speed.
Specification :

Dunlop fort 949 g fabric belting of 112 mm width may be selected.

Pulley width = 125 mm
Length of belt = 6100 mm
Problem 2:
 CHAINS AND PULLEYS

Definition:
A chain drive is a mechanical drive which belongs to the category of drives
with intermediate link, like belt drives, in which the intermediate link is obtained by
chains.

Ø It may also be considered to be intermediate between belt and gear drives in that it
has features in common with both.
Ø A chain is a flexible connector like a belt and is used when a positive drive is
required, but its action is such that it can not be used where precise timing is the
requirement.
Ø Chains are suitable for long as well as short centre-distance drives and give a
more compact drive than is possible with belts.
Ø The alignment of the shaft must be more accurate than for belts, while the centre-
distance is not as critical as for gear-drives.
Ø Chain drives are similar to gear drives in that proper lubrication must be provided
for a satisfactory service-life.
Ø The chains are operated between toothed wheels called as sprockets as shown in
figure.

Applications:

Ø Modern chain-drives are employed in those places where we require the velocity
ratios upto 10, chain velocities upto 25 m/s, and power ratings upto 150 kW.

Ø The chain drives are quite extensively utilised in transportation machineries like
motor-cycles, bicycles, automobiles and conveyors, and in technological
machines like agricultural machinery, oil-well drilling rings, machine-tools etc.

Ø They are usually served in such places where we require medium centre-
distance, overall compact size and positive power transmission without slippage
and so on.
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Chain Drives:

Advantages:

1. The chain drives are having more power transmitting capacities compared with belt
drives when the centre-distance between the shafts is large (i.e., 5 to 8 metres).
2. Their efficiency is higher (i.e., about 98%)
3. Their small size compared with V-belt for a particular power transmission provides a
compact set-up.
4. The chain drives exert less load on shafts' since no initial tension is required as
compared with belt-drives.
5. They can be operated for a wide range of centre distances of power transmitting
sprockets.
6. One chain can be operated to transmit power to several number of sprockets.
7. Maintenance is very easy because the chains can easily be required or replaced.

Disadvantages:

1. The design of chain drive is more complicated as compared with belt drives.
2. The operation of chain drive is noisy.
3. Their production cost is high.
4. They need careful maintenance by providing housing to the chains to save them form
the dust and dirt.
5. They require more accurate assembly of shafts than for belts. Otherwise the chains
may disengage from the sprockets during running.

Classifications of chains:
The chains can be classified from the functional point into three group such as

(i) Power transmitting chains, treated for transmitting mechanical energy from
one shaft to another.
(ii) Hauling chains used for carrying loads in conveying machinery.
(iii) Loading chains or lifting chains served for suspending, hoisting and lowering
loads, mainly in material handling machinery.

The power transmitting chains, also known as driving chains, which are dealt
in this chapter, are classified according to

1. The type of chain employed such as roller, bush and silent (or inverted tooth)
chains.
2. The number of chains required to transmit the load as single row and multi-row chains
(For example, chains of simplex, duplex and triplex. Types etc. Sometimes chains of
four, five and six rows are operated).
3. The number of driven sprockets such as
(a) Normal type drive (i.e., one driven sprocket)
(b) Special type drive (i.e., several driven sprockets)
Components Of Chain Drive :
The essential components of a chain drive are
(a) Chains,
(b) Sprockets,
(c) Chain housing and
(d) Slack adjusters.

(a) Chains:

Ø A chain, consisting of hinge-jointed links, is the main element of drive which

determine its reliability and service life.
Ø The design, dimensions and mechanical characteristics of chains are standardised.
Ø The strength of chain is determined by its ultimate strength established by the
manufacturers.
Ø The schematic diagram for various types of chains is shown in figure.
Ø Regarding the design parameters, the pitch, p, which is linear distance between
the centres of consecutive rollers and the width, b, which is the space between the
inner link plates are considered as the main geometrical characteristics of chains.
Ø Usually the driving chains such as roller, bush and silent chains are made in
various standards.
Ø Among them, the simplex, duplex and triplex chains are commonly used.
Ø Sometimes chains of four, five and six rows are made.

(b) Sprockets:

Ø The operating capacity of a chain drive largely depends on the quality of the
sprockets. The sprockets are made of cast-iron or hardened steel.
Ø The teeth of a sprocket are shaped depending on the type of chain.
Ø The small size sprocket is known as pinion-sprocket and the big size sprocket is
known as wheel sprocket.
Ø The detailed sketch of a sprocket engaged with chains is shown in figure.
(c) Chain housing:

Ø The housing is a cover made of thin plates and it protects the drive from dust
and dirt, preserves grease and damps the noise of the drive.
Ø The housing should be as small as possible but should not interfere with
adjustment of the distance between the shafts when the chain becomes stretched.

(d) Slack adjusters:

Ø Chain sag is regulated and the required tensions are ensured by means of movable
bearings known as slack adjusters.
Ø The movable bearings are in the form of slides in which sprocket shaft is
installed.

Failures of chain drives:

The chain drive may fail due to the following causes

(i) Wear in the joints leading to elongation of the chain and its faulty engagement
with the sprockets. The allowable elongation is 1.5 to 2.5%.
(ii) Wear of the sprocket teeth.
(iii) Turning of pins and bushings in the plates where they are press fitted is a
frequently encountered reason for the failure of roller chains.
(iv) Fatigue failure of the plates at the eyes.
(v) Chipping and breaking of the rollers.
(vi) Poor lubrication and improper maintenance.
Design criteria of chain drives:

Ø The chain drives can be employed to transmit from a fraction of kilowatt to

3500 KW, but in most cased upto 100 kW.
Ø When selecting a suitable chain to transmit the design power, we should consider
the characteristics of certain parameters which are essential in the design point of
view.
The following are some of such parameters.

1. Chain velocity :
Ø The velocity of chain and the speed of rotation of sprockets are limited by chain
wear which may increase with velocity.
Ø Hence the optimum chain velocity may be taken about 15 m/s. For high speed
drives with high quality chains and proper lubrication, the velocity may be
adopted upto 30 m/s.
The average velocity of chain (v) is given by

Where Z = Number of teeth of a sprocket

n =Sprocket speed in rpm
p = Pitch of chain in mm
d = Pitch circle diameter of sprocket
The speed of rotation of the sprockets is limited by the impact stresses of the
chain on the sprockets.

2. Speed ratio:

Ø The speed ratio is decided by the allowable overall size of the drive, angle of
contact (arc of meshing the chain on the smaller sprocket) and the number of
teeth.
Ø Usually the speed ratio may be taken upto 10.

It is found out from the condition of equality of average velocities of the chain on the
sprockets as

where
n1, Zl = Speed and number of teeth of small sprocket (i.e., pinion sprocket)
n2, Z2 = Speed and number of teeth of big sprocket (i.e., wheel sprocket)
3. Number of teeth of sprockets:

Ø The number of teeth of sprockets is limited by the wear of chain joints, dynamic
(impact) loads and also the noise made by the drive.
Ø The less the number of teeth, the greater the wear of the chain because the angle
of chain engagement with sprocket is (360/Z)° and hence more impact load on
less numbered teeth sprocket.
Ø The minimum number of teeth on sprockets in power drives with roller chains is
Zmin =19 to 23 for high speeds, 17 to 19 for medium speeds and 13 to 15 for low
speeds.
Ø Due to chain wear, the chain may elongate and hence it may shift outward
upon the sprocket teeth profiles.
Ø The smaller the angular pitch of the sprocket (angle between adjacent teeth), the
greater the outward shift.
Ø This outward shift limits the maximum number of teeth on sprocket, which for
roller chain is taken from 100 to 120.

4. Distance between the sprocket axes :

Ø The minimum centre distance is determined from the condition that the angle of
contact of the chain with the small sprocket should be at least 120°.
Ø Usually, the centre distance may be specified in terms of pitches.
The optimum centre distance is given by
a =(30 to 50) p where p = chain pitch
and the maximum centre distance is
amax 80p

6. Arrangement of chain drives:

Ø Chain drives are arranged so that the chain travels in a vertical plane, the
relative height position of the driving and driven sprockets being arbitrary.
Ø The optimum a position of the line of centres is horizontal or inclined at an angle
up to 45° to the horizontal.
Ø Vertical arrangement of the chain drive requires more careful adjustment of the
chain tension because the sagging of the chain in this case does not provide for
self tensioning.

Selection of chains:

Ø In accordance with the principal criterion of chain drive performance-wear

resistance of the chain joints.
Ø The load carrying capacity of a chain can be determined from the condition that
the pressure developed in the joints must not exceed the allowable value.
Ø Usually chains are manufactured in different sizes with different structures such
as simplex, duplex and triplex chains and so on.
 Ø Each chains is having a certain amount of load carrying capacity. Among these
various chains, for transmitting the given power, a suitable chains is selected
based on its minimum breaking strength required and the induced stress on the
bearing area of the selected chain.
Ø To overcome the chain failure, the selected chains should have more strength than
the breaking load and the induced stress should be less than the allowable value.

Formulae for chain and sprockets:

where kl = Load factor

k2 = Factor for distance regulation
k3 = Factor for centre distance of sprockets.
k4 = Factor for the position of the sprockets.
K5 = Lubrication factor
K6 = Rating factor
Problem 1
Silent Chains:

Ø Silent chains consists of special-profile plates corresponding to the profile of

sprocket teeth.
Ø As the name implies they are relatively quieter in operation.
Ø Silent chains are also known as inverted tooth chains.

Silent chain
 WIRE ROPES & PULLEYS

Definition :

Wire-rope is a flexible element, like belt and chain, used for transmitting large amount of
power from one pulley to another pulley when their centre distance is very long of about
500 metres sometimes upto 2000 meters.

Ø They are mainly employed in hoisting machineries such as mine hoists, lifts and
material handling equipments like cranes, conveyors, elevators etc.

Ø Sometimes, wire-ropes are used for people to travel between two mountains by
means of cable cars and winches. They can also be serviced in suspension bridges.

Steel wire rope:

When compared with hemp, cotton or man-made fiber ropes, steel wire ropes have
greater strength and reliability.

Failure of wire ropes:

Ø Failure in chain occurs suddenly while in wire ropes the outer wires break due to
wear before the inner wires.
Ø The wire rope becomes fuzzy before rupture and they can be replaced
immediately.
Ø Wire ropes cost less than chains but they require larger drums and heavier
hoisting mechanism.

Construction:

Ø Steel wire is drawn cold and given heat treatment as well as chemical treatment
between drawing stages in order to obtain required strength, structure, appearance
and surface finish.
Ø The wires are first twisted into strands and the strands are twisted about a core of
soft steel or hemp.
Ø This type of construction makes the rope highly pliable and it can be Wrapped
around a sheave without inducing undue bending stress in the wire.
Number of wires :

Ø The number of wires in each strand is generally 7,19 or 37 and number of strands
is usually 6.
Ø Wire rope is designated by the number of strands and the number of wires in each
strand (e.g. 6 x 7 - 6 strands and 7 wires in each strand).

Classifications:
Wire-ropes are classified based on
Ø Number of strands and number of wires in each strand as
a) 6 x 7
b) 6 x 19
c) 6 x 37
d) 8 x 19 ropes.

Ø Direction of twist of wires and strands as

a) Cross-lay ropes.
b) Composite lay ropes.
c)Parallel lay ropes.

Ø Direction of strand bending

a) Right-hand lay (strand bend round to the right side)
b)Left-hand lay (strand bend round to the left side)

The various types of wire-ropes are shown as.

Steel wire ropes of various constructions

Advantages:

1. The wire-ropes are lighter in weight.

2. Their operations are silent and smooth.
3. They can withstand heavy shock loads.
4. They can transmit power for very long distance of about 1000 metres which is not
possible by other flexible drives such as belt drives.
5. Apart from power transmission, wire-ropes are employed as fastening elements as used
in suspension bridges and load carrying devices as used in cranes and hoists etc.
6. They do not fail suddenly due to its complicated self-winding.
7. They can be operated at different speeds, pliable in all directions.
8. They have long, reliable service life and more efficient.

Disadvantages:

1. The wire ropes can not be employed for low power transmission and also for short
centre distance.
2. They need careful maintenance than other flexible drives such as belt drives.
3. The cost of manufacturing of wire-ropes is high.
4. They should be kept away from electrical power connections in order to safeguard the
wire-ropes from current leakage to them.

Selections of wire-ropes:

Ø When selecting steel wire-ropes, we must consider the induced stresses in tension,
bending and twisting.
Ø Numerous factors control the magnitudes of the stresses set up in the material of
the wire-ropes.
Ø One of such factors is the static load which is composed of the following items
a) Dead weight (i.e., known given weight)
b) Additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops.
c) Shock loads.
d) Sheave bearing friction.

Ø For safe operation, the total of the above loads should be for less than the ultimate
strength of rope.
Ø The design factor, which is the ratio of the nominal strength of wire-rope to the
maximum load it is advised to carry, may be taken from 5 to 20 depending upon
the nature of applications.

The other factors which affect the selection of wire-ropes are

(i) Type of duty.
(ii) Operating speed.
(iii) Place of applications.
Type of duty :

Ø All types of cranes and hoists are classified into four groups in accordance with
operating conditions such as magnitude of loads acting on the ropes, their daily or
annual utilisation etc.
The four groups are
1. Light duty (L)
2. Medium duty (M)
3. Heavy duty (H)
4. Very heavy duty (VH)

The usual number of switching on operations per hour for electric drive of above groups
are given in table.

The normal operating speeds of cranes are given as

1. Hoisting speed - 25 to 30 m/min.
2. Trolly travel speed - 35 to 50 m/min.
3. Bridge travel speed - 100 to 120 m/min.

Stresses in hoisting ropes:

The hoisting rope is subjected to following stresses during operation. They are
1. Direct tensile stress due to hoisting load and weight of the rope.
2. Bending stress due to bending of ropes over the sheaves or drum.
3. Stress due to acceleration or change of speed including stops.
4. Stress due to starting.

Design procedure:

For designing a wire-rope, the following procedure may be adopted.

1. Based on the given data, like, nature of application, duty etc, select a suitable
type of rope from the table.
2. Estimate the design load by multiplying the dead weight by three times the design
factor using the table in order to satisfy all working conditions of rope such as
during acceleration, starting etc.
3. Determine the net cross-sectional area of the rope, by choosing specific tensile
Strength of wire, using the formula,
A = Pd u
Where Pd =Design load
u = Tensile strength of wire.
4. Find out the diameter of rope using the relation given in table.
5. Select next standard diameter of rope given in table and note down the maximum
breaking strength of that rope from the same table.
6. Compute the load applied at normal working, acceleration and starting etc. and find out
the actual factor of safety by dividing the breaking strength by above loads.
7. For safe design, the actual factor of safety should not be less than 5 at any
circumstances.
8. Then calculate the drum and pulley dimensions.

Problem 1:
Select a wire-rope for a vertical mine hoist to lift a load of 20 KN from a depth of
500metres. A rope speed of 3m/s is to attained in 10 seconds.

Solution:

Load to be lifted, W= 20 KN = 20,000 N

Depth, h = 500 m
Rope speed, v = 3 m/ s
Time, t= 10 s
Let us select 6 x 19 rope for mine hoist. (Refer table 11.3)
Let d= Diameter of rope in mm.
Then, wire diameter, dw= 0.07 d
Optimum pulley diameter D =100 d
Net area of cross-section of rope A =0.4 d2
Approximate weight of rope per metre length =0.0375 d2
Tensile strength of rope-wire, u= 1800 N/mm2 (Assumed)
Since the diameter of rope is not known now, the design load may be calculated from the
dead weight (W) only, by assuming suitable factor of safety, without considering the rope
weight.

Minimum factor of safety = 10 (for mine hoist)

Design factor of safety, n = 2.5 x 10 = 25
Design load, Pd = 25 x W = 25 x 20,000
= 500 x 103 N
 Its breaking strength, P = 472 kN (PSG 9.5)
Next standard diameter of rope, d = 29 mm.
Weight of rope per metre length =30.5 N
The actual factor of safety for various working conditions is determined as
follows.

During Normal working:

During acceleration:
During starting :

Since the calculated factor of safety in all the working conditions are almost sufficient,
our design is safe. i.e., 29 mm diameter rope is satisfactory.

If we require further safe operation, then next higher size rope (i.e., 32 mm diameter
rope) may be selected, whose breaking strength is 584 KN.
Important questions:

1) What is a power drive? Mention their types.

2) State the "Law of Belting"
3) Explain the term crowning of pulley .
4) Define Co-efficient of' friction'
5) State the materials by which the belts are made of?
6) Indicate some merits and demerits of belt-drives.
7) What is meant by the ply of belt?
8) Mention the different types of joints employed for joining flat-belts.
9) Why tight-side of the belt should be at the bottom side of the pulley?
10) Differentiate open-belt drive and cross-belt drive.
11) What is belt rating?
12) Briefly explain about initial tension in belts.
13) What factors should be considered during the selection of a belt drive?
14) What are the commercial types of flat belts.
15) What are the factors on which the co-efficient of friction between the belt and
pulley depends?
16) Explain briefly about creep .in belts.
17) How are the V-belts designated?
18) Define a) Pitch length, b) Inside length, c) Initial tension of V-belt.
19) Describe the method of selecting V-belt using manufacture's catalogues.
20) When do we prefer a V-belt to a flat-belt?
21) In what ways, timing belts are superior to ordinary V-belts?
22) Write the features of a chain drive.
23) Mention the applications of chain drives.
24) Indicate the types of chains.
25) What are the advantages of chain drives?

1. Design a fabric belt to transmit 15 HP. at 450 rpm from an engine to a line
shaft at 1200 rpm. The diameter of the engine pulley is 600 mm. and the
centre distance between the shafts is 2 metres.

2. Design a flat belt drive to transmit 20 kW at 730 rpm. to a rolling machine

with a speed ratio of 3. The centre distance is nearly 3.5 m. The diameter
of rolling machine pulley is 1.2. m.

3. A centrifugal water pump is driven by a 30 kW motor running at 1440 rpm.

The speed of the pump is to be 360 rpm. The maximum size 0 the pulley
permitted is 1 m and approximate centre distance is 2.2 m. Design the V-belt
drive.

4. Power of 60 kW at 730 rpm. from an electric motor is to be transmitted to a

compressor shaft at 300 rpm. by V-belts. Approximate larger pulley diameter
is 1500 mm. Approximate centre distance is 1650 mm. Overload factor is 1.5. Design
the V-belts.
5. A 50 kW motor running at 1000 rpm. is required to drive a pump pulley at 400 rpm.
Motor pulley diameter is limited to 0.3 m. Centre distance is to be around 2.5. m. Select
a suitable V-belt and design the drive.

6. A 50 kW, 1160 rpm. AC split phase motor is to be used to drive a reciprocating pump
at a speed of 330 rpm. The pump is for .12 hour service and normally requires 44 kW,
but is subjected to peak loads of 175% of full load. Determine the details of multiple V-
belt drive for. this application.

7. Select suitable V-belt for the following data:

Power to be transmitted' =50 kW
Speed of the driving pulley =960 rpm
Velocity ratio desired =3
Specify all the details

8. Select a suitable V-Belt and design the drive for a wet grinder. Power is available from
a 0.5 kW motor running at 950 rpm. Drum speed is to be about 100. rpm. Drive is to be
compact.

9. A 10 kW, 1440 rpm motor drives a line shaft at 300 rpm by a chain drive. The centre
to centre distance of the shaft is to be approximately 0.5 m. The motor shaft diameter is
40 mm. The starting torque of the motor is 2.5 times the running torque. The load
applied is with moderate shock. Select a suitable roller chain drive.

10. Design a chain drive for the following data.

Motor 5 kW, 3 phase, 1440 rpm.
Transmission ratio - 2.4
Driven member - A transporter of heat treatment furnace.
Rating - continuous with 3 shifts / day
Motor mounting - On auxiliary bed.
Lubrication - Bath type.
Transmission - Horizontal

11. Select a suitable wire-rope to lift 20 KN of debris from a well of 60 m deep. The
weight of the bucket is 4 KN. The weight is being lifted with a maximum speed of 100
m/min and the maximum speed is attained in 2 seconds. Determine also the stress
induced in the rope due to starting with an initial slack of 0.2 m.

12. Select a wire-rope for a vertical mine hoist to lift 1800 tonnes of ore in each 8 hour
shift from a depth of 750 m. Assume a two compartment shaft with the hoisting skips
in balance. Use a maximum velocity of 720 m/min with acceleration and deceleration
of 15 sec each and a rest period of 10 sec for discharging and loading the skips. A
hoisting skip weighs approximately 0.6 of its load capacity. Let the factor of
safety be 6.
 SPUR GEAR

DEFINITION:
Gear drive is a mechanical drive which transmits power through toothed wheels-
called as gears.

Ø In this drive, the driving wheel is in direct contact with driven wheel in contrast with
other mechanical drives such as belt drives and chain drives where an intermediate link,
like belt or chain, is needed to connect the driven wheel with the driving wheel.
Ø Gears are transmitting power from one shaft to another by means of the positive contact
of successively engaging teeth.
Ø Usually gears require more attention to lubrication, cleanliness, shaft alignment etc. and
they may be operated in a closed case with provision for proper lubrication.

APPLICATIONS OF GEAR DRIVES:

Ø The gear transmission system is most widely used because of its high load
carrying capacity, high efficiency and compact layout.
Ø Gears are used in many fields and under a wide range of conditions such as from smaller
watches and instruments to the heaviest and most powerful machineries like lifting
cranes.
Ø Some of the common applications of gears are in all automobiles, hoisting machineries,
rolling mill, machine tools such as lathes, milling machine, shaping machine etc.

ADVANTAGES :
1. Gear drives are more compact than belt drives and chain drives and hence
less space is sufficient for installation.
2. Gear drives are having high efficiency.
3. They have long service life and high reliability.
4. Gear drive can transmit more power than other driven like belt or chain
drives.
5. They have a greater range of speed ratios and power than other drives.
6. They have constant speed ratio owing to the absence of slipping which may
be happened in belt drives.
7. Metal gears do not deteriorate with age, heat, oil and grease.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. The design and manufacturing of gears are more complicated compared to
other drives.
2. It produces noise at high velocities due to inaccurate manufacturing or because of
excessive wear.
3. For "long centre distance - power transmission" such as in rice mill, flourmill etc. gears
cannot be operated.
4. They require careful maintenance .and proper lubrication than belt or chain
drives.
GEAR MATERIALS:

Ø When selecting the materials for toothed gears, it is necessary to ensure sufficient beam
strength of the-teeth and endurance of their surface layers.
Ø Based on the purpose and places of applications, gears made of various types of materials
can be employed.

The most common materials used for making gears are

(1) ferrous metals such as carbon steels, alloy steels of nickel, chromium and vanadium, and
cast-iron of different grades.
(2) Non-ferrous metals such as brass, bronze, titanium etc.
(3) non-metals such as plastic oriented materials like phenolic resins, nylon, bakelite, mica etc.

GEAR FAILURES:

The gear drives can be designed in such a way that the mating gears should overcome the
following gear failures.
Typical failures of gear tooth are
(1) Tooth breakage
(2) Pitting of tooth surface
(3) Abrasive wear
(4) seizing of teeth.

1. Tooth Breakage:
Ø Tooth breakage is the most dangerous kind of gear failure which may be the
result of high overloads of either impact or static action, repeated overloads causing
low-endurance fatigue.
Ø In order to escape from the gear tooth breakage, gear material
of sufficient beam strength may be selected.

2. Pitting:
Ø Pitting of tooth surface may happen to gears which are enclosed, well lubricated and
protected against dirt.
Ø This kind of failure occurs due to over pressing of the tooth of one gear to the tooth of
mating gear.
Ø During the continuous operation, a crack may be formed which may increase in size and
changed into the form of pits.
Ø To prevent pitting, the teeth are checked for surface endurance.

3. Abrasive wear:
Ø Abrasive wear is the principal reason for the failure of open gearing and the closed
gearing of machinery operated in a media, polluted by abrasive materials.
Ø Wear increases dynamic loads and noise, weakens the teeth and finally, leads to
tooth breakage.
Ø To prevent abrasive wear, the gears can be protected from corrosive atmospheres.
4.Seizing:
Ø Seizing of the teeth is due to the crushing of oil film on the tooth surface under high
pressure.
Ø When the surfaces, which are tightly meshed by the oil film, are in relative motion, the
particles of softer material are detached from the tooth, leaving scores and scratches on
its surfaces.
Ø To event this, the operating temperatures and the properties of lubricants are properly
maintained.

GEAR TERMINOLOGY:

There are many parameters to be considered during the gear design. Some of such parameters
common to all kinds of gears are specified as follows.

1. Tooth Profile:
Ø It is the shape of any side of a gear tooth in its cross-section.
Ø Usually two kinds of profile may be adopted which are involute profile and cycloidal
profile but involute profile toothed gears are widely used.
2. Base circle:
It is the circle of gear from which the involute profile is derived.
Base circle diameter - Pitch circle diameter x cosine of pressure angle of gear.

3. Pitch circle:
It is the imaginary circle of a gear that rolls with out slipping over the pitch circle of its mating
gear. The diameter of this circle is the most predominant parameter for the gear design.

4.Gear centre: It is the centre of pitch circle.

5.Line of centres: It is the line connecting the centres of the pitch circles of two
engaging gears.

6. Addendum circle (or) Tip circle:

The circle coincides with the crests (or) tops of teeth and the diameter of this circle is the
maximum diameter of gear.

7. Dedendum circle (or) Root circle:

This circle coincides with the roots (or) bottoms of teeth and the diameter of this circle is the
minimum diameter of gear.

8. Point of contact:
It is a point at which two profiles touch each other. It is also called as pitch point.

9. Path of contact: It is the path of the. point of contact of two engaging tooth profiles.

10. Line of action: It is the path of contact in involute gears. It is the straight line passing
through the pitch point and tangent to the base circles.

11.Pressure angle: It is the angle making by the line of action with the common tangent to the
pitch circles of mating gears. For involute system of gears, the pressure angle is constant and it
may be 14 ½ (or) 20°.

12. Module (m) : It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to the number of teeth.
i.e., m =d/Z
Where d = Pitch circle diameter
Z = Number of teeth

13. Circular pitch: It is the distance along the pitch circle between corresponding
points of adjacent teeth.
Pc = d/Z

14. Base pitch This is the circular pitch measured on the base circle.

15. Diametral pitch: It is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to the unit
length of diameter of the pitch circle. This is the reverse ratio of module.

The product of the circular pitch and the diametral pitch is equal to .

16. Addendum: It is the radial distance between tip circle and pitch circle. That is, it is the
difference of tip circle radius from pitch circle radius.
Usually the addendum value may be taken equal to one module.
17. Dedendum : It is the radial distance between pitch circle and root circle. That
is, it is the difference of pitch circle radius from root circle radius. Its value is slightly
more than one module (i.e.) it is equal to 1.25 X module.

18. Clearance (c): It is the amount of distance made by the tip of one gear with
the root of mating gear during operation. It is also defined as the difference of
dedendum and addendum values.

19. Tooth height (or) whole depth: It is equal to the sum of addendum and
debendum heights which is approximately equal to 2.25 modules.

20. Working depth: It is the depth of engagement of two gears. That is, the sum
of their addendum, and is equal to 2 modules.

21.Face width: It is the length of the tooth in an axial plane.

22. Face: This is the part of the tooth in the axial plane lying between tip circle
and pitch circle.

23. Flank: This is the part of the tooth lying between pitch circle and root circle,
in the axial plane.

24. Top land: This is the top surface of a tooth.

25. Bottom land: This is the bottom surface between adjacent teeth.

26. Centre distance: It is the distance between the axes of mating gears. That is,
this is the length of the line of centres for gears whose axes are parallel.

27. Height factor (fo):

Ø This factor determines the gear as full depth teeth gear or stub teeth gear.
Ø For stub teeth gear, the basic rack has a tooth about 18 percent
Ø shorter than the full depth gear.
Usually, the height factor may be assumed as
fo = 1 for full depth gear system.
=0.8 for stub gear system.

28. Tooth thickness: This is the width of tooth measured along the pitch circle.

29. Width of space: This is the space between the successive teeth, measured on
the pitch circle.

30 Back-lash: This is the difference between the tooth thickness and the space
into which it meshes, measured on the pitch circle.
FORCE ANALYSIS:

Ø Force on a gear pair varies during engagement (Fig. 1.1) and also there is no load on the
teeth when there is no engagement
Ø The periodical effect of this load may lead to the development of fatigue cracks at tooth
base.
Ø Tooth can also be fractured by a considerable short time overload (momentary peak
load) when induced stress exceeds the ultimate strength.

Ø Let us consider the force (F n) normal to the gear profile acting at the tip of tooth as
shown in figure.
Ø Since this force is at an angle of a with the common tangent to pitch circles (i.e., pressure
angle), this force can be resolved into two components.

Tangential (or) peripheral force

Normal (or) radial force.
Now, tangential force, Ft = Fn cos α
and radial force, Fr = Fn sin α
TOOTH STRESS:

Surface strength is proportional to the surface hardness.

The teeth are considered as two contacting cylinders.

DYNAMIC EFFECTS:

Dynamic Loading in the tooth is due to

(a) profile errors
(b) circular pitch errors and
(c) deflection of teeth under load.
FATIGUE STRENGTH:

Ø It is assumed that the tooth is a cantilever with tip load.

Ø In the actual case maximum load occurs in the middle.
Ø It is also assumed that only a single pair takes the load.
Ø Actually a second pair will also be sharing the load

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Ø For the design of spur gear drive, the following steps may be observed.
Ø From the statement of problem, note down the power to be transmitted, pinion speed,
gear ratio, life of gear drive and other working conditions.
Ø Based on the transmitting power and gear ratio, select a suitable material.
Usually the pinion is subjected to more loading cycles than gear and hence
the material selected for pinion should be stronger than gear material (PSG 8.4 or 8.5)
Note the design surface compressive stress and bending stress for the selected
material from the table (or) find them by using the formula.
Ø
Problem 1
Two spur gears are to be used for a rock crusher drive and are to be of minimum size. Gears are
to be designed for the following requirements. Power to be transmitted 18 kW, speed of pinion
1200 rpm, angular velocity ratio 3.5 : 1, tooth profile 20° stub. Assume that gears are made of
case hardened alloy steel. Design the drive.
Problem 2
Questions:
1. Explain the types of failure.
2. Define Module.
3. State the “Law of Gearing”
4. What is interference in gears?
5. What is Form factor?
6. Define involute and cycloidal gears.

Big Questions:
1. In a non-reversible type rolling mill drive, a gear is designed to run 24 hours per day,
transmitting power in the following manner. (1) 1104 kW normally (2) 4516 kW for 3
seconds, 600 times a day (3) 5888 kW maximum . (momentary peak load) all at a
constant speed of 40 rpm. The life of the gears is to be 10 years. Determine Neq.

2. Design a pair of spur gears to transmit 20 hp. At a pinion speed of 2000 rpm.
Transmission ratio is to be 3. select proper materials for the drive.

3. Design a pair of spur gear to transmit 10kw at a pinion speed of 2000 rpm. The driven
gear is to run at 500 rpm. Selecting suitable materials, decide upon the dimensions of the
gear pair.
 HELICAL GEARS
Definition:
Ø One prime disadvantages of spur gears is that their initial contact upon meshing is
a line contact.
Ø Instantaneous line contact produces shock effect which results in reduced load
capacity and noisy operation.
Ø The problem is alleviated when helical gears are used because the initial contact is
a point which becomes a line of increasing length as contact continues.

Crossed Helical gears:

Force analysis of Helical Gears:

Fn is resolved into F' and Fr' F' is resolved into Ft and Fa' Eliminating Fn from the expressions for
component forces we obtain the following formulas.
DESIGN FORMULAS :
In general, the design of all the common gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel
gears and worm gears are carried out through two parameters which are
(1) required minimum centre distance based on surface compressive stress and
(2) required minimum module based on bending stress.

Ø Since the structure of helical gear is slightly varied from spur gear, there is not
much difference between their design.
Ø Consider a helical gear, whose teeth are cut, at the helix angle.
Ø Since the teeth are cut at an angle three pitches have been taken into account.
Ø Pc, the circular pitch which is the distance. between the corresponding points of
successive teeth, measured along the plane perpendicular to the axis of gear.
Ø Pn' the normal circular pitch which is the distance between two successive teeth,
measured along the plane perpendicular (i.e., normal) to teeth. This plane is at the
angle of degrees to the axis of gear.
Ø Pa' the axial pitch which is distance between two successive teeth, measured
along the plane parallel to the axis of the gear.
DESIGN PROCEDURE :

The steps given below may be observed for the design of helical and herring-bone
gear drives.
1.From the given problem find the amount of power to be transmitted, pinion speed, gear
ratio, life of gear drive and other working conditions. Then select proper material and
determine their design stresses and young’s modulus similar to spur gear drive.
WORM GEAR DRIVE:

DESIGN PARAMETERS:

Ø Since the worm gear drive transmit power through sliding contact, we should
consider the friction effect when designing.
Ø Let us consider a worm gear drive as shown in figure for which the essential
parameters regarding the design point of view are given below.

DESIGN PROCEDURE :
BEVEL GEAR DRIVE

Kinematics of Bevel Gears:

DESIGN PARAMETERS:

Ø The teeth for bevel gears are cut on the pitch surfaces of their conical blanks .
Ø The design of bevel gears is based on cone distance, which is the distance
between the apex and the outer extreme point of teeth situated in the outer pitch
circle, in stead of centre distance as followed in spur or helical gear design.
Questions:

1) Write short notes on herringbone gears.

2) Discuss in detail about the design procedure for a helical gear drive.
3) What is equivalent spur gear and how this can be used for helical gear design.
4) What is a worm gear and where is it used?
5) What is meant by self-locking? At which gear it is available?
6) Why is worm gear operated inside an oil reservoir?
7) What is the significant of using heterogeneous materials in worm gear drive?
8) What is a bevel gear and where is it employed?
9) When are we using bevel gears?
10) By what parameters, bevel gear is classified and how?

1. Design a pair of double helical gear to drive a lobe-blower from a 120 kW motor
running at 2880 rpm with a reduction ratio of 1.6. The pitch diameter of the pinion is not
to be more than 80 mm. Drive is an enclosed one with proper lubrication. Life to be
indefinite. Light shock loads are likely.

2.A pair of helical gears subjected to moderate shock loading is to transmit 40 kW at

1440 rpm of the pinion. The speed reduction is 4.25 and the helix angle is 15°. The
service is continuous and teeth are 20° full depth in the normal plane. Design the gears,
assuming a life of 10,000 hours.

3. Design a worm-gear speed reducer for transmitting 6 kW. at 960 rpm. of the worm
with a transmission ratio of .15. Allowable variation of ratio is 3%. Load is almost
constant. Rating is, continuous. Reducer is used to operate a transporter in a furnace
which is to work for :2 shifts/day, 310 days per year and for 2 years.

4. Design a worm gear reducer to transmit 10 hp. from the input shaft running at 1800
rpm. to the output shaft which is to run at 100 rpm. Calculate the efficiency of the drive.

5. Design a pair of straight bevel gears for a transmission ratio of 4. The drive is from a
10 hp. 960 rpm. motor.
 DESIGN OF GEAR BOXES

GEAR BOX DEFINITION:

Ø Gear box which contains a number of gears arranged in a specific format and by
changing the positions of some gears with respect to other gears, many speeds can
be received.
Ø Another important applications of gear box is in automobiles where low speed is
required at starting and stopping and high speed during running.

FUNCTION OF GEAR BOX:

Ø A gear box is containing many gears of different numbers of teeth, arranged in

different shafts which may be solid shafts or splined shafts.
Ø In the solid shafts, the gears are fitted in such a way that they can rotate only and
cannot move in the axial directions and also some gap is provided in between two
gears.
Ø whereas in splined shafts two or three gears, which are already meshed together to
act as a single unit, are fitted in such a way that they can rotate and also move in
the axial directions.

PROGRESSION RATIO:

Ø We know that by using gear-box, we can obtain a number of different speeds

from a single motor speed.
Ø These speeds can be decided by employing a constant, known as 'Progression
ratio which is the ratio of one speed to the next lower speed.
Ø Let N1 be the minimum speed, N2, N3, N4 be the successive higher speeds, and
N5 the maximum speed, so that the total number of speeds may be 5, then
SPEED DIAGRAM :

Ø Suppose we require 'r' number , 'spindle-speeds' 'form a single motor-speed'

practically it is at possible to attach 'r' pairs of 'gears in the above two shafts to
obtain the above 'r' speeds.
Ø The maximum number of speeds that can be obtained between any two shafts is 3,
because the maximum number of gears to be meshed together may be three as
shown in figure.
Ø Hence, if number of speeds is more than three, then, we should employ some
intermittent shafts between the motor shaft and spindle shaft as shown in figure.
Ø And the required number of speeds may be obtained in multiplies of 2 and 3.

Ø Consider the total number of spindle speeds required is 18 from the single
motor speed.
Ø This 18 speeds may be splitted as 18 = 1 x 2 x 3 x 3. In order to obtain
these 18 speeds, we require two intermittent shafts apart from two main
shafts such as motor shaft and spindle shaft.
Ø That is, the total number of shafts required is four. Among these four
shafts, the motor shaft is, rotating with only one speed.
Ø The first intermittent shaft is rotating with two (Ix 2 = 2) speeds.
Ø The second intermittent shaft is rotating with six (1 x 2 x 3 = 6) speeds, the
spindle shaft is rotating with eighteen (1 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 18) speeds as shown
in figure.
The diagram shown in figure which represents the different number of speeds in different
shafts is called as 'Speed-diagram or Ray diagram or Structural diagram'.

KINEMATIC ARRANGEMENT:

Ø The kinematic arrangement of gears is nothing but the actual arrangement of gears
in various shafts for obtaining the required 'r' speeds.
Ø The kinematic arrangement for 18 output speeds as shown in figure is described
as follows.
DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Ø The gears operated in a gear box may be mostly the spur-gear type or helical
gear type.
Ø Combined form of spur with bevel or helical with bevel are very rarely used
especially for specific functions such as to transmit power in an angular directions
in different speeds.
Ø Gear box with a number of worm-gear drive is not usually made. Among all the
above types of gears, the use of spur-gears is immensive.
1. From the given problem, decide the amount of power to be transmitted, motor speed,
number of speeds required, maximum and minimum speeds, available space etc. For
compact drive stronger materials such as alloy steels may be selected, usually all the
gears may be made of same material
2.

3. Draw the speed diagram for which the number of shafts are selected based on the gear
ratio which should not be more than four in a single step. The speeds of intermediate
shafts should be marked on them.
4. Draw the kinematic arrangement according to speed diagram.
5. Compute the minimum centre distance between the shafts based on surface
compressive stress considering the worst condition (i.e.., maximum power and lowest
speed condition). Usually, the determination of centre distance should be started from
the spindle shaft, and then the design is proceeded to other shafts successively and
finally to the motor shaft.
6. Calculate the minimum module based on design bending stress and standardise it using
the table(PSG 8.2).
7. Using the same module, find out the number of teeth of all the gears for that centre
distance. It should be remembered that the total number of teeth of engaging pair is
equal for the same module and same distance. For easy calculation, refer the tables
(PSG 8.6 to 8.12).
8. Using similar procedure, find out the teeth of other gears fitted in other shafts.
9. Calculate the actual spindle speeds based on the designed number of teeth
of all gears and their variation from the required speeds are tabulated for comparison.
10. Design the other elements of gear-box such as shafts, keys, bearings and gear
changing levers etc and then draw arrangement of gear box neatly.
Questions:

1) What is the function of spacers in a gear-box?

2) What purpose does the housing of gear-box serve?
3) What is a speed diagram?
4) For what purpose we are using gear-box?
5) Name the types of speed reducers.
6) What does the ray-diagram of gear-box indicate?
7) What is step ratio?
8) What are the main components of a gear-box?
9) Design a gear box to give 9 output speeds ranging from 75 to 710 rpm. The input
shaft speed is 3000 rpm.
10) Design a 12 speed gear box for the head-stock of a machine tool, speed ranging
from about 30 to 1000 rpm. Machine-tool motor is a 5 hp. 1440 rpm. unit.
11) Design a six speed gear box for the following details.
Motor power 5 kW at 1440 rpm.
Maximum speed 1440 rpm.
Minimum speed 460 rpm
 CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Ø Clutch is a coupling that permits the smooth connection and disconnection of two
shafts during rotation, at the operator's will.
Ø Clutches are indispensable where frequent starts, stops, changes in mode of
operation, and reversal of direction are required, as in the case of vehicles,
machine tools, and similar equipments.

TYPES OF CLUTCHES:

Clutches can be classified based on the control method as

(a) Mechanical,
(b) Pneumatic and hydraulic
(c) Electrical.
They can also be classified, based on the coupling methods by which the clutch element
are engaged as,
(a) Positive contact,
(b) Friction,
(c) Overrunning,
(d) Magnetic
(e) Fluid coupling.

Plate or Disc Clutches :

Ø In a plate clutch the torque is transmitted by friction between one or more pairs of
co-axial annular plates maintained in contact by an axial thrust.
Ø Both faces of each plate are normally effective so that a single plate-clutch has
two pairs of surfaces in contact. A car clutch consists of a single plate effective on
both sides. Figure shows the simplified form of a single- plate clutch. The plates
shown as S are usually steel and are inserted on the splines of shaft C to permit
axial movement (except for the last disc).
Ø The plates shown as B are usually bronze and are inserted in the splines of
member D.
Multiple Disc Clutch :

Ø Higher torque capacity can be obtained by means of multiple disc clutches.

Ø The plates shown as S are usually steel and are inserted on the splines of shaft C
to permit axial movement (except for the last disc).
Ø The plates shown as B are usually bronze and are inserted in the splines of
member D.

Friction Materials for Clutches :

Ø A friction material suitable for clutches should provide a high coefficient of

friction, resist seizing of the mating surfaces and have a low wear rate to
guarantee a long life.
Ø When a clutch operates "dry", coefficient of friction is high and the torque
capacity is high.
Ø However, the absence of a lubriciant makes heat dissipation, more difficult.
 Ø When a clutch operates "wet",coefficient of friction and hence torque capacity are
low. Since the coefficient of friction is reduced, there is a need for larger actuating
force, more clutch plates or larger clutch plates to provide an adequate torque
capacity.
Ø These disadvantages are offset Shifting groove by the reduced wear and increased
heat dissipation.

Cone Clutches :

Ø Cone clutches were extensively used in automobiles.

Ø Recently they have been replaced by disc clutches, except in synchronizing device
in automobile transmission.
Ø The smaller the semi-cone angle, a, the lower is the clamping force required.
Problem 2

A leather faced conical clutch has cone angle of 30°. The pressure between the contact
surfaces is limited to 0.35N/mm and the breadth of the conical surface is not to exceed 1/3
of the mean radius. Find the dimensions of the contact surfaces to transmit 22kWat
2000rpm. Also calculate the force required to engage the clutch.. Take coefficient of
friction as 0.15.
Problem 3

A single plate clutch, both sides being effective, is required to connect a machine shaft to
a driver shaft which runs at 500 rpm. The moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the
machine is 1 kgm2. The inner and outer radii of the friction discs are 50 mm and 100 mm
respectively. Assuming uniform pressure of 0.1 N/mm2 and coefficient of friction of 0.25,
determine the time taken for the machine to reach full speed when the clutch is suddenly
engaged. Also determine the power transmitted by the clutch, the energy dissipated
during engagement.
 BRAKES

Ø Brake is a device which is used to bring to rest or slow down a moving body. Safe
operation of vehicles demands dependable brakes.
Ø Brake is required to absorb the kinetic energy of the moving parts or the potential
energy of the objects being lowered by hoist when the rate of descent is
controlled.
Ø The absorbed energy is dissipated in the form of heat.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES:

(a) Caliper disc brake,

(b) Block brake,
(c) Band brake,
(d) Block and band Brake and
(e) external and internal shoe brakes.

Caliper Disc Brake :

Ø This brake is capable of a high torque capacity in a small space and can be easily
controlled. The heat can be dissipated rapidly.
Ø Mechanical fade (reduction in friction coefficient at elevated temperature) is
absent.
Ø For the above reasons disc brakes find widespread use in front axles of passenger
cars and motor cycles.
Ø Bicycle brakes are the best known examples in which the wheel rim constitutes
the disc.
Ø Friction lining on the pads contacts only a small portion of the disc surface
leaving the remainder exposed to dissipate heat.
Ø In the case of drum brakes the heat dissipation area is in such small as shoes
(friction lining) contact the drum over a large area.
Heat Dissipation in Brakes :

A brake absorbs energy (kinetic and potential) and dissipates the resulting heat without
developing high temperatures that destroy (burn) brake itself.
Heat dissipation capacity can be increased by
(a) increasing the exposed surface areas by providing fins,
(b) increasing the air flaw past these surfaces, by increasing the air pumping action of the
rotating parts and by removing air flaw restrictions and
(c) increasing the mass and specific heat of parts that are in immediate contact with
friction surfaces so. That heat star age capacity is increased.

Braking Capacity :

Ø It depends upon unit pressure between the braking surfaces, the coefficient of
friction and ability to.
Ø Dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.
Brake Lining Materials:

(a) Should have high coefficient of friction

(b) should retain braking capacity at temperatures up to 300°C; should have resistance to.
(c) should have high heat conductivity.

Construction Details of Block Brake:

Ø External shoe or block brakes consist of shoes or blacks pressed against the
surface of the rotating cylinder called brake drum.
Ø The black may be rigidly mounted to a pivot lever. Block (shoe) is made of cast
iron provided with brake lining which may be secured with rivets or countersink
screws.
Ø Brake lever is of forged or cast steel
Ø Brake drum is of cast iron. Width of the drum should be 5 to 10 mm greater than
the width of the shoe.
Ø If pivot Q is located at the intersection of the resultants of the normal and
frictional forces acting on the shoe there is no tendency of the shoe to rotate about
pivot, so that the wear is equalized.
Ø As wear occurs, the pivot moves progressively closer to the drum.
Ø This, increases the tendency of the shoe to rotate about Q and hence rapid wear
occurs on either the toe of the shoe (edge farthest from pivot 0) or heel (edge
nearest to pivot 0).
Questions:

1. Explain the types of clutches.

2. Explain the types of brakes.
3. Explain Disc Clutches.
4. Explain Multiple Plate clutches.
5. Explain Heat dissipation in brakes.

6. Calculate the average bearing pressure and the initial and average braking powers
for the block shoe .The diameter of the drum is 400mm and it rotates at 200 rpm.
Coefficient of friction is 0.2 and drum width is 75 mm.