Translations The effect of an infinitesimal translation on an arbitrary

The previous discrete spectrum state vector formalism
can be generalized also to continuos cases, in practice, by
replacing
• summations with integrations
• Kronecker’s δ-function with Dirac’s δ-function.
A typical continuous case is the measurement of position:
• the operator x corresponding to the measurement of
the x-coordinate of the position is Hermitean,
• the eigenvalues {x0 } of x are real,
• the eigenvectors {|x0 i} form a complete basis.
So, we have
state can be seen by expanding it using position
eigenstates:
Z
|αi −→ T (dx )|αi = T (dx ) d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 |αi
00 00
Z
= d3 x0 |x0 + dx00 ihx0 |αi
Z
= d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 − dx00 |αi,
because x0 is an ordinary integration variable.
To construct T (dx0 ) explicitely we need extra constraints:
1. it is natural to require that it preserves the
normalization (i.e. the conservation of probability) of
the state vectors:

x|x0 i = x0 |x0 i hα|αi = hα|T † (dx0 )T (dx0 )|αi.

Z ∞
1 = dx0 |x0 ihx0 | This is satisfied if T (dx0 )is unitary, i.e.
−∞
Z ∞
T † (dx0 )T (dx0 ) = 1.
|αi = dx0 |x0 ihx0 |αi,
−∞
2. we require that two consecutive translations are
where |αi is an arbitrary state vector. The quantity equivalent to a single combined transformation:
hx0 |αi is called a wave function and is usually written
down using the function notation T (dx0 )T (dx00 ) = T (dx0 + dx00 ).

hx0 |αi = ψα (x0 ). 3. the translation to the opposite direction is equivalent

to the inverse of the original translation:
Obviously, looking at the expansion
Z ∞ T (−dx0 ) = T −1 (dx0 ).
|αi = dx0 |x0 ihx0 |αi,
−∞ 4. we end up with the identity operator when dx0 → 0:
the quantity |ψα (x0 )|2 dx0 can be interpreted according to lim T (dx0 ) = 1.
the postulate 3 as the probability for the state being dx0 →0
0 0 0 0
localized in the neighborhood (x , x + dx ) of the point x .
The position can be generalized to three dimension. We It is easy to see that the operator
0
denote by |x i the simultaneous eigenvector of the
T (dx0 ) = 1 − iK · dx0 ,
operators x, y and z, i.e.
where the components Kx , Ky and Kz of the vector K
|x0 i ≡ |x0 , y 0 , z 0 i are Hermitean operators, satisfies all four conditions.
x|x0 i = x0 |x0 i, y|x0 i = y 0 |x0 i, z|x0 i = z 0 |x0 i. Using the definition
The exsistence of the common eigenvector requires T (dx0 )|x0 i = |x0 + dx0 i
commutativity of the corresponding operators:
we can show that
[xi , xj ] = 0.
[x, T (dx0 )] = dx0 .
Let us suppose that the state of the system is localized at
the point x0 . We consider an operation which transforms Substituting the explicit reprersentation
this state to another state, this time localized at the point
T (dx0 ) = 1 − iK · dx0
x0 + dx0 , all other observables keeping their values. This
operation is called an infinitesimal translation. The it is now easy to prove the commutation relation
corresponding operator is denoted by T (dx0 ):
[xi , Kj ] = iδij .
T (dx0 )|x0 i = |x0 + dx0 i.
The equations
The state vector on the right hand side is again an
eigenstate of the position operator. Quite obviously, the T (dx0 ) = 1 − iK · dx0
vector |x0 i is not an eigenstate of the operator T (dx0 ). T (dx0 )|x0 i = |x0 + dx0 i
can be considered as the definition of K. So, we have derived the canonical commutation relations
One would expect the operator K to have something to or fundamental commutation relations
do with the momentum. It is, however, not quite the
momentum, because its dimension is 1/length. Writing [xi , xj ] = 0, [pi , pj ] = 0, [xi , pj ] = ih̄δij .

p = h̄K Recall, that the projection of the state |αi along the state
vector |x0 i was called the wave function and was denoted
we get an operator p, with dimension of momentum. We like ψα (x0 ). Since the vectors |x0 i form a complete basis
take this as the definition of the momemtum. The the scalar product between the states |αi and |βi can be
commutation relation written with the help of the wave functions as
Z Z
[xi , Kj ] = iδij
hβ|αi = dx0 hβ|x0 ihx0 |αi = dx0 ψβ∗ (x0 )ψα (x0 ),
can now be written in a familiar form like
i.e. hβ|αi tells how much the wave functions overlap. If
[xi , pj ] = ih̄δij . |a0 i is an eigenstate of A we define the corresponding
eigenfunction ua0 (x0 ) like
Finite translations ua0 (x0 ) = hx0 |a0 i.
0
Consider translation of the distance ∆x along the x-axis:
An arbitrary wave function ψα (x0 ) can be expanded using
T (∆x0 x̂)|x0 i = |x0 + ∆x0 x̂i. eigenfunctions as
We construct this translation combining infinitesimal
X
ψα (x0 ) = ca0 ua0 (x0 ).
translations of distance ∆x0 /N letting N → ∞: a0
N
ipx ∆x0

The matrix element hβ|A|αi of an operator A can also be
T (∆x0 x̂) = lim 1 −
N →∞ N h̄ expressed with the help of eigenfunctions like
ipx ∆x0
  Z Z
= exp − . hβ|A|αi = dx0 dx00 hβ|x0 ihx0 |A|x00 ihx00 |αi
h̄
Z Z
It is relatively easy to show that the translation operators = dx0
dx00 ψβ∗ (x0 )hx0 |A|x00 iψα (x00 ).
satisfy
[T (∆y 0 ŷ), T (∆x0 x̂)] = 0,
To apply this formula we have to evaluate the matrix
so it follows that elements hx0 |A|x00 i, which in general are functions of the
[py , px ] = 0. two variables x0 and x00 . When A depends only on the
position operator x,
Generally
[pi , pj ] = 0. A = f (x),
This commutation relation tells that it is possible to
construct a state vector which is a simultaneous the calculations are much simpler:
eigenvector of all components of the momentum operator, Z
i.e. there exists a vector hβ|f (x)|αi = dx0 ψβ∗ (x0 )f (x0 )ψα (x0 ).

|p0 i ≡ |p0x , p0y , p0z i, Note f (x) on the left hand side is an operator while f (x0 )
on the right hand side is an ordinary number.
so that

px |p0 i = p0x |p0 i, py |p0 i = p0y |p0 i, pz |p0 i = p0z |p0 i. Momentum operator p in position basis {|x0 i}
For simplicity we consider the one dimensional case.
The effect of the translation T (dx0 ) on an eigenstate of According to the equation
the momentum operator is Z
T (dx00 )|αi = T (dx00 ) d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 |αi
ip · dx0 ip0 · dx0
   
0 0
0
T (dx )|p i = 1 − |p i = 1 − |p0 i. Z
h̄ h̄
= d3 x0 |x0 + dx00 ihx0 |αi
The state |p0 i is thus an eigenstate of T (dx0 ): a result, Z
which we could have predicted because = d3 x0 |x0 ihx0 − dx00 |αi

[p, T (dx0 )] = 0. we can write

0
Note The eigenvalues of T (dx ) are complex because it is ip dx00
 
not Hermitean. 1− |αi
h̄
 Z
= dx0 T (dx00 )|x0 ihx0 |αi Here the left hand side is simply δ(x0 − x00 ) and the
Z integration of the left hand side gives 2πh̄|C|2 δ(x0 − x00 ).
Thus the transformation function is
= dx0 |x0 ihx0 − dx00 |αi
 0 0
0 0 1 ip x
hx |p i = √
 
exp ,
Z
∂
= dx0 |x0 i hx0 |αi − dx00 0 hx0 |αi . 2πh̄ h̄
∂x
and the relations
In the last step we have expanded hx0 − dx00 |αi as Taylor Z
series. Comparing both sides of the equation we see that 0
ψα (x ) 0
= hx |αi = dp0 hx0 |p0 ihp0 |αi
Z  
∂
p|αi = dx0 |x0 i −ih̄ 0 hx0 |αi ,
Z
∂x φα (p0 ) = hp0 |αi = dx0 hp0 |x0 ihx0 |αi.
or, taking scalar product with a position eigenstate on
both sides, can be written as familiar Fourier transforms
∂ 
1
Z  0 0
ip x
hx0 |p|αi = −ih̄ 0 hx0 |αi. ψα (x0 ) = √ dp0 exp φα (p0 )
∂x h̄
2πh̄
In particular, if we choose |αi = |x0 i we get 
1
Z 
ip0 x0

φα (p0 ) = √ dx0 exp − ψα (x0 ).
∂ 2πh̄ h̄
hx0 |p|x00 i = −ih̄ δ(x0 − x00 ).
∂x0
Taking scalar product with an arbitrary state vector |βi
on both sides of
Z  
∂
p|αi = dx0 |x0 i −ih̄ 0 hx0 |αi
∂x
we get the important relation
Z  
∂
hβ|p|αi = dx0 ψβ∗ (x0 ) −ih̄ 0 ψα (x0 ).
∂x
Just like the position eigenvalues also the momentum
eigenvalues p0 comprise a continuum. Analogically we can
define the momentum space wave function as

hp0 |αi = φα (p0 ).

We can move between the momentum and configuration

space representations with help of the relations
Z
ψα (x0 ) = hx0 |αi = dp0 hx0 |p0 ihp0 |αi
Z
0 0
φα (p ) = hp |αi = dx0 hp0 |x0 ihx0 |αi.

The transformation function hx0 |p0 i can be evaluated by

substituting a momentum eigenvector |p0 i for |αi into
∂
hx0 |p|αi = −ih̄ hx0 |αi.
∂x0
Then
∂
hx0 |p|p0 i = p0 hx0 |p0 i = −ih̄hx0 |p0 i.
∂x0
The solution of this differential equation is
 0 0
ip x
hx0 |p0 i = C exp ,
h̄
where the normalization factor C can be determined from
the identity
Z
hx0 |x00 i = dp0 hx0 |p0 ihp0 |x00 i.