User's Manual

HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT

Model : HEX-21
(Rev : 10/07/2015)

Manufactured by:
SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd.
452, Adarsh Nagar, Roorkee-247 667 ISO 9001:2008
Ph.: 01332-272852, Fax: 277118 CERTIFIED COMPANY C
Email: info@sestechno.com
sestechno.india@gmail.com
Website: www.sestechno.com
 CONTENTS

Section Page

1. Copyright, Warranty, and Equipment Return 1

2. Safety Information 2
• General Safety Summary
• Symbols
3. Unpacking and Inspecting the Instrument 4
4. Storing and Shipping the Instrument 4
5. Power Considerations 4
• Replacing the Fuse
• Connecting to Power Line
• Turning Power ON
6. Cleaning the Instrument 6
7. Introduction 7
8. Theory 7
9. Experimental Technique 9
10. Brief Description of the Apparatus 10
11. Procedures 13
12. Observations 14
13. Questions 19
14. References 19
15. Appendix 20
16. Technical support 21
 COPYRIGHT AND WARRANTY

Please – Feel free to duplicate this manual subject to the copyright restriction given below.

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

The SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd Model HEX-21 Hall Effect Experiment manual is copyrighted and
all rights reserved. However, permission is granted to non-profit education institutions for
reproduction of any part of this manual provided the reproduction is used only for their
laboratories and are not sold for profit. Reproduction under any other circumstances, without the
written consent of SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd is prohibited.

LIMITED WARRANTY

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd warrants this product to be free from defects in materials and
workmanship for a period of one year from the date of shipment to the customer. SES Instruments
Pvt. Ltd will repair or replace, at its option, any part of the product which is deemed to be
defective in material or workmanship. This warranty does not cover damage to the product caused
by abuse or improper use. Determination of whether a product failure is the result of
manufacturing defect or improper use by the customer shall be made solely by SES Instruments
Pvt. Ltd. Responsibility for the return of equipment for warranty repair belongs to the customer.
Equipment must be properly packed to prevent damage and shipped postage or freight prepaid.
(Damage caused by improper packaging of the equipment for return shipment will not be covered
by the warranty). Shipping costs for returning the equipment, after repair, will be paid by SES
Instruments Pvt. Ltd.

EQUIPMENT RETURN

Should this product have to be returned to SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd, for whatever reason, notify
SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd BEFORE returning the product. Upon notification, the return
authorization and shipping instructions will be promptly issued.

Note : No equipment will be accepted for return without an authorization.

When returning equipment for repair, the units must be packed properly. Carriers will not accept
responsibility for damage by improper packing. To be certain the unit will not be damaged in
shipment, observe the following rules:
1. The carton must be strong enough for the item shipped.
2. Make certain there is at least two inches of packing material between any point on the
apparatus and the inside walls of the carton.
3. Make certain that the packing material can not displace in the box, or get compressed, thus
letting the instrument come in contact with the edge of the box.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 1

SAFETY INFORMATION

This Section addresses safety considerations and describes symbols that may appear on the
Instrument or in the manual.
A Warning Statement identifies conditions or practices that could result in injury or death. A
Caution statement identifies conditions or practices that could result in damage to the Instrument
or equipment to which it is connected.

Warning
To avoid electric shock, personal injury, or death, carefully read the information in
Table-1, “Safety Information,” before attempting to install, use, or service the
Instrument.

GENERAL SAFETY SUMMARY

This equipment is Class 1 equipment tested in accordance with the European Standard publication
EN 61010-1.
This manual contains information and warnings that must be observed to keep the Instrument in a
safe condition and ensure safe operation.
To use the Instrument correctly and safely, read and follow the precautions in Table 1 and follow
all safety instructions or warnings given throughout this manual that relate to specific
measurement functions. In addition, follow all generally accepted safety practices and procedures
required when working with and around electricity.

SYMBOLS

Table 2 lists safety and electrical symbols that appear on the Instrument or in this manual.
Table 2. Safety and Electrical Symbols

Symbols Description Symbols Description

Risk of danger. Important

Earth ground
information. See Manual.

Hazardous voltage. Voltage

>30Vdc or ac peak might be Potentially hazardous voltage
present.
Do not dispose of this product as
Static awareness. Static unsorted municipal waste.
discharge can damage parts. Contact SES or a qualified
recycle for disposal.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 2

 Table 1. Safety Information

Warning

To avoid possible electric shock, personal injury, or death, read the following before using
the Instrument:

• Use the Instrument only as specified in this manual, or the protection provided by
the Instrument might be impaired.
• Do not use the Instrument in wet environments
• Inspect the Instrument in wet environments.
• Inspect the Instrument before using it. Do not use the Instrument if it appears
damaged.
• Inspect the connecting lead before use. Do not use them if insulation is damaged or
metal is exposed. Check the connecting leads for continuity. Replace damaged
connecting leads before using the Instrument.
• Whenever it is likely that safety protection has been impaired, make the
Instrument inoperative and secure it against any unintended operation.
• Have the Instrument serviced only by qualified service personnel.
• Always use the power cord and connector appropriate for the voltage and outlet of
he country or location in which you are working.
• Never remove the cover or open the case of the Instrument before without first
removing it from the main power source.
• Never operate the Instrument with the cover removed or the case open.
• Use only the replacement fuses specified by the manual.
• Do not operate the Instrument around explosive gas, vapor or dust.
• When servicing the Instrument, use only specified replacement parts.
• The equipment can remain Switched on continuously for five hours
• The equipment must remain Switched off for at lease fifteen minutes before being
switched on again.
• The equipment is only for the intended use
• Use the equipment only as specified in this manual.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 3

Unpacking and Inspecting the Instrument

Every care is taken in the choice of packing material to ensure that your Instrument will reach you
in perfect condition. If the Instrument has been subject to excessive handling in transit, there may
be visible external damage to the shipping container and packing material for the carrier’s
inspection.
Carefully unpack the Instrument from its shipping container and inspect the contents for damaged
or missing items. If the Instrument appears damaged or something is missing, contacts the carrier
and SES immediately. Save the container and packing material in case you have to return the
Instrument.

Storing and Shipping the Instrument

To prepare the Instrument for storage or shipping, if possible, use the original shipping container
along with styrofoam corners, as it provides shock isolation for normal handling operations. If the
original shipping container is not available, use any good cardboard box which is at least 2-3
inches bigger than the instrument on all sides, with cushioning material (thermocoal or styrofoam
etc) that fills the space between the instrument and the side of this box.
To store the Instrument, place the box under cover in a location that complies with the storage
environment specification described in the “Environment Sections” below.

Environment

Temperature
Operating …………………………………. 0°C to 50°C
Storage …………………………………… 40°C to 70°C
Warm Up …………………………………15 min to full uncertainty specification

Relatively Humidity (non-condensing)

Operating ………………………………….Uncontrolled (<10°C)
<90 % (10°C to 30°C)
<75 % (30°C to 40°C)
<45 % (40°C to 50°C)
Storage………………………………….. -10°C to 60°C <95 %

Power Considerations
The Instrument operates on varying power distribution standards found throughout the world and
must be set up to operate on the line voltage that will power it. The Instrument is packed ready for
use with a line voltage determined at the time of ordering.

Replacing the Fuses

The Instrument uses one fuse to protect the line-power input and two fuses to protect current-
measurement inputs.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 4

Line-Power Fuse

The Instrument has a line-power fuse in series with the power supply. Table 3 indicates the proper
fuse for each of the four line-voltage selections. The line-power fuse is accessed through the real
panel.
1. Unplug the power cord.
2. Rotate the fuse holder cap to the right until the fuse POPS out.
3. Remove the fuse and replace it with a fuse of an appropriate rating for the selected line-
power voltage. See Table 3.
Warning
To avoid electric shock or fire, do not use makeshift fuses or short-circuit the fuse holder.
Table 3. Line Voltage to Fuse Rating

Line Voltage Selection Fuse Rating

220/ 240 V 1A, 250V (Slow blow)

100/ 120 V 2A, 250V (Slow blow)

Connecting to Line Power

Warning
To avoid shock hazard, connect the factory supplies three conductor line power cord to a
properly grounded power outlet. Do not use a two-conductor adapter or extension cord, as
this will break the protective ground connection. If a two conductor power cord must be used,
a protective grounding wire must be connected between the ground terminal and earth
ground before connecting the power cord or operating the Instrument.

1. Verify that the Line voltage is set to the correct setting.

2. Verify that the correct fuse for the line voltage is installed.

3. Connect the power cord to a properly grounded three-prong outlet. See Figure 3 for
line-power cord types available from SES. Refer to Table 4 for description of the line-
power cords.

Plug- 1 Plug-2 Plug-3

Figure 3. Line-Power Cord Types Available from SES

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 5

 Table 4. Line-Power Cord Types Available from SES

Type Voltage/Current SES Model Number

India 240 V/ 5 A Plug-1

North America 120 V/15 A Plug-2

Universal Euro 220 V/16 A Plug-3

Turning Power On

The On-Off switch on the front panel when points towards “ON” signs, indicates that the
equipment has been switched on.

Cleaning the Instrument

Warning

To avoid electric shock or damage to the Instrument, never get water inside the Instrument.

Caution

To avoid damaging the Instrument’s housing, do not apply solvents to the Instrument.
If the Instrument requires cleaning, wipe it down with a cloth that is lightly dampened with water
or a mild detergent. Do not use aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohol, chlorinated solvents, or
methanol-based fluids when wiping down the Instrument.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-01 Page 6

 (H into page)
+
+
+

- - + +
- - + + J
- - + +
Electrons Holes
-

-
-

Fig. 1 : Carrier seperation due to a magnetic field

y I
I = J.z.y

z H
x

Fig. 2 : Sample for studying Hall Effect

H I
C' C
B
B'
S N
Electronic Milli-Voltmeter
Constant Current Power Supply
or Potentiometer D'
D
A
A'

Fig. 3
HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT HEX-21

INTRODUCTION
The conductivity measurements cannot reveal whether one or two types of carriers are
present; nor distinguish between them. However, this information can be obtained from Hall
Effect measurements, which are basic tools for the determination of mobility’s. The effect
was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879.

THEORY
As you are undoubtedly aware, a static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless
they are in motion. When the charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this
happens, electrons and holes will be separated by opposite forces. They will in turn produce
an electric field ( E h ) which depends on the cross product of the magnetic intensity, H , and
the current density, J . The situation is demonstrated in Fig. 1.

Eh = R J x H , (1)
where R is called the Hall coefficient.

Now, let us consider a bar of semiconductor, having dimension, x, y and z. Let J is

directed along X and H along Z then E h will be along Y, as in Fig. 2.
Then we could write
Vh /y Vh .z
R= = , (2)
JH IH
where Vh is the Hall voltage appearing between the two surfaces perpendicular to y and
I = Jyz.

In general, the Hall voltage is not a linear function of magnetic field applied, i.e. the
Hall coefficient is not generally a constant, but a function of the applied magnetic field.
Consequently, interpretation of the Hall Voltage is not usually a simple matter. However, it
is easy to calculate this (Hall) voltage if it is assumed that all carriers have the same drift
velocity. We will do this in two steps (a) by assuming that carriers of only one type are
present, and (b) by assuming that carriers of both types are present.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 7

(a) One type of Carriers
Metals and degenerate (doped) semiconductors are the examples of this type where one
carrier dominates.
The magnetic force on the carriers is E m = e ( v × H) and is compensated by the Hall field
Fh = e E h , where v is the drift velocity of the carriers. Assuming the direction of various
vectors as before

v × H = Eh

From simple reasoning, the current density J is the charge q multiplied by the number
of carriers traversing per unit area in unit time, which is equivalent to the carrier density
multiplied by the drift velocity i.e. J = q n v
By putting these values in equation (2)

Eh v.H 1
R= = = (3)
JH qnvH nq
From this equation, it is clear that the sign of Hall coefficient depend upon the sign of
the q. This means, in a p-type specimen the R would be positive, while in n-type it would be
negative. Also for a fixed magnetic field and input current, the Hall voltage is proportional to
1/n or its resistivity. When one carrier dominates, the conductivity of the material is σ = nqµ,
where µ is the mobility of the charge carriers. Thus
µ = Rσ (4)
Equation (4) provides an experimental measurement of mobility; R is expressed in cm3
coulomb-1 thus µ is expressed in units, of cm2. volt-1 sec-1.

(b) Two type of Carriers

Intrinsic and lightly doped semiconductors are the examples of this type. In such
cases, the quantitative interpretation of Hall coefficient is more difficult since both type of
carriers contribute to the Hall field. It is also clear that for the same electric field, the Hall
voltage of p-carriers will be opposite in sign to that from n-carriers. As a result, both
mobilities enter into any calculation of Hall coefficient and a weighted average is the result*
i.e.
µ h 2 p − µ e2 n
R= , (5)
2 (µ h p + µ e n )2
where µh and µn are the mobilities of holes and electrons; p and n are the carrier densities of
holes and electrons. Eq. (5) correctly reduces to equation (3) when only one type of carrier is
present**.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
* From Experiments in Modern Physics by Adrian C.Melissions (Academic Press) p. 86.
** Both Eq. (3) and Eq. (5) have been derived on the assumption that all carriers have same
velocity; this is not true, but the exact calculation modifies the results obtained here by a factor of
only 3π /8.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 8

 Display Panel
Voltage/Current

Display Panel Current Mode

Voltage/Current Indicator
ON/OFF
Voltage Mode Switch
Indicator CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY
Model : DPS-50
On-off
A Switch
HALL EFFECT SETUP ON
mV Model DHE-21A

mA ON

OFFSET CURRENT CURRENT VOLTAGE Current Control

ADJ ADJ.
Current/Voltage Fuse
Selector Switch

Black Red Green Yellow Current Control

Knob

Red

Red Black
Red

Panel Diagram of Hall Effect Experiment, HEX-21

 Since the mobilities µh and µn are not constants but function of temperature (T) the Hall
coefficient given by Eq. (5), is also a function of T and it may become zero, even change
sign. In general µn > µh so that inversion may happen only if p > n; thus 'Hall coefficient
inversion' is characteristic only of p-type semiconductors.
At the point of zero Hall coefficient, it is possible to determine the ratio of mobilities
and their relative concentration.
Thus we see that the Hall coefficient, in conjunction with resistivity measurements, can
provide information on carrier densities, mobilities, impurity concentration and other values.
It must be noted, however, that mobilities obtained from Hall Effect measurements µ = Rσ do
not always agree with directly measured values. The reason being that carriers are distributed
in energy, and those with higher velocities will be deviated to a greater extent for a given
field.

EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

(a) Experimental consideration relevant to all measurements on semiconductors

1. In single crystal material the resistivity may vary smoothly from point to point. In fact
this is generally the case. The question is the amount of this variation rather than its
presence. Often however, it’s conventionally stated that it is a constant within some
percentage and when the variation does in fact fall within this tolerance, it is ignored.
2. High resistance or rectification action appears fairly often in electrical contacts to
semiconductors and in fact is one of the major problem.
3. Soldered probe contacts, though very much desirable may disturb the current flow
(shorting out part of the sample). Soldering directly to the body of the sample can
affect the sample properties due to heat and by contamination unless care is taken.
These problems can be avoided by using pressure contacts as in the present set-up.
The principal draw back of this type of contacts is that they may be noisy. This
problem can, however, be managed by keeping the contacts clean and firm.
4. The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause heating. A further
precaution is necessary to prevent 'injecting effect' from affecting the measurement.
Even good contacts to germanium for example, may have this effect. This can be
minimized by keeping the voltage drop at the contacts low. If the surface near the
contacts is rough and the electric flow in the crystal is low, these injected carriers will
recombine before reaching the measuring probes.
Since Hall coefficient is independent of current, it is possible to determine whether or
not any of these effects are interfering by measuring the Hall coefficient at different
values of current.
(b) Experimental consideration with the measurements of Hall Coefficient.
1. The voltage appearing between the Hall probes is not generally, the Hall voltage
alone. There are other galvanomagnetic and thermomagnetic effects (Nernst effect,
Rhighleduc effect and Ettingshausen effect) which can produce voltages between the
Hall probes. In addition, IR drop due to probe misalignment (zero magnetic field
potential) and thermoelectric voltage due to transverse thermal gradient may be
present. All these except, the Ettingshausen effect are eliminated by the method of
averaging four readings.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 9

 The Ettingshausen effect is negligible in materials in which a high thermal
conductivity is primarily due to lattice conductivity or in which the thermoelectric
power is small.
When the voltage between the Hall probes is measured for both directions of
current, only the Hall voltage and IR drop reverse. Therefore, the average of these
readings eliminates the influence of the other effects. Further, when Hall voltage is
measured for both the directions of the magnetic field, the IR drop does not reverse
and may therefore be eliminated.

2. The Hall probe must be rotated in the field until the position of maximum voltage is
reached. This is the position when direction of current in the probe and magnetic field
would be perpendicular to each other.
3. The resistance of the sample changes when the magnetic field is turned on. This
phenomena called magneto-resistance is due to the fact that the drift velocity of all
carriers is not the same, with magnetic field on, the Hall voltage compensates exactly
the Lorentz force for carriers with average velocity. Slower carriers will be over
compensated and faster ones under compensated, resulting in trajectories that are not
along the applied external field. This results in effective decrease of the mean free
path and hence an increase in resistivity.
Therefore, while taking readings with a varying magnetic field at a particular current
value, it is necessary that current value should be adjusted, every time. The problem
can be eliminated by using a constant current power supply, which would keep the
current constant irrespective of the resistance of the sample.
4. In general, the resistance of the sample is very high and the Hall voltages are very
low. This means that practically there is hardly any current - not more than few micro
amperes. Therefore, the Hall voltage should only be measured with a high input
impedance (≅1M) devices such as electrometer, electronic millivoltmeters or good
potentiometers preferably with lamp and scale arrangements.
5. Although the dimensions of the crystal do not appear in the formula except the
thickness, but the theory assumes that all the carriers are moving only lengthwise.
Practically it has been found that a closer to ideal situation may be obtained if the
length may be taken three times the width of the crystal.

BRIEF DESPRICTION OF THE APPARATUS

1. Hall Probe (Ge Crystal n & p type), HPN-21 & HPP-21 : One each
2. Hall Effect Set-up (Digital),DHE-21A : One
3. Electromagnet, Model EMU-75 or EMU-50V : One
4. Constant Current Power Supply, DPS-175 or DPS-50 : One
5. Digital Gaussmeter, DGM-102 : One

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 10

1. Hall Probe (Ge Crystal)
Ge single crystal with four spring type pressure contacts is mounted on a sunmica
decorated bakelite strip Four leads are provided for connections with measuring devices.
SPECIFICATIONS
Contacts : Spring type (Solid Silver)
Hall Voltage : 0.1 - 1 Volt/100 mA/KG
Thickness of Ge Crystal : 0.4 - 0.5 m.m.
Resistivity : ≅ 10 Ω cm.
The exact value of thickness and resistivity is provided in the test report of the
Hall Probe (Ge) supplied with the set-up. The student after calculating the Hall
Coefficient from this experiment and using the given value of resistivity can also get
valuable information about carrier density and carrier mobilities. A typical example
is provided in the appendix. A further advantage of this type of probe is that the sample
can be changed. A minor draw back of this arrangement is that the it may require zero
adjustment from time to time. This type of probes are specially designed and
recommended for Hall Effect experiment.

2. Hall Effect Set-up (Digital), DHE-21A

It is a high performance instrument of outstanding flexibility. The set-up consists
of an electronic digital millivoltmeter and a constant current power supply. The Hall
Voltage and probe current can be read on the same digital panel meter through the
selector switch.
(a) Digital Millivoltmeter
Intersil 3½ digit single chip A/D Converter ICL 7107 have been used. It has high
accuracy like, auto zero to less than 10 µV, zero drift less than 1 µV/°C, input bias
current of 10 pA and roll over error of less than one count. Since the use of internal
reference causes the degradation in performance due to internal heating, an external
reference has been used. This voltmeter is much more convenient to use in Hall
experiment, because the input of either polarity can be measured.
SPECIFICATIONS
Range : 0 - 200.0 mV
Resolution : 100 µV
Accuracy : ±0.1% of reading ±1 digit
Impedance : 1 ohm
Special Features : Auto Zero & polarity indicator
Offset Adjustment : Minor offset adjustment of Hal Voltage can be done
by potentiometer given on the panel
Overload Indicator : Sign of 1 on the left & blanking of other digits.
(b) Constant Current Generator
This power supply specially designed for Hall Probe provides 100 percent
protection against crystal burn-out due to excessive current. The basic scheme is to use
the feed - back principle to limit the load current of the supply to a pre - set maximum
value. Variations in the current are achieved by a potentiometer. The supply is a highly
regulated and practically ripple free d.c. source. The current is measured by the digital
panel meter.
SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 11
 SPECIFICATIONS
Current Range : (0 - 20mA) or as required for the particular Hall Probe
Resolution : 10µA
Accuracy : ±0.2% of the reading ±1 digit
Load regulation : 0.03% for 0 to full load
Line regulation : 0.05% for 10% changes.

3. (a) Electromagnet, EMU-75

Field intensity : 11,000 ± 5% gauss in an air-gap of 10 mm. Air-gap is
continuously variable upto 100 mm with two way knobbed
wheel screw adjusting system.
Pole pieces : 75mm diameter. Normally flat faced pole pieces are
supplied with the magnet
Energising coils : Two. Each coil is wound on non-magnetic formers and has
a resistance of 12 ohms approx.
Yoke material : Mild steel
Power requirement : 0 - 100V @ 3.5A if connected in series.
0 - 50V @ 7.0A if connected in parallel

(b) Electromagnet, EMU-50V

Field intensity : 7.5Kgauss at 10mm. The air-gap is continuously variable
with two way knobbed wheel screw adjusting system.
Pole pieces : 50mm diameter. Normally flat faced pole pieces are
supplied with the magnet.
Energising coils : Two Each coil is wound on non magnetic formers and has
a resistance of about 3.0ohm
Yoke material : 'U' shaped soft iron
Power requirement : 0-30V @ 4.0A, if coils are connected in series.

4. (a) Constant Current Power Supply, DPS-175

The present constant current power supply was designed to be used with the
electromagnet, Model EMU-75. The current requirement of 3.5 amp/coil, i.e. a total of 7
Amp was met by connecting six closely matched constant current sources in parallel. In
this arrangement the first unit works as the 'master' with current adjustment control. All
others are 'slave' units, generating exactly the same current as the master. All the six
constant current sources are individually IC controlled and hence result in the highest
quality of performance. The supply is protected against transients caused by the load
inductance.

SPECIFICATIONS
Current : Smoothly adjustable from 0 to 3.5A. per coil, i.e. 7A
Regulation (line) : ± 0.1% for 10% mains variation.
Regulation (load) : + 0.1% for load resistance variation from 0 to full load
Open circuit voltage : 50V
Metering : 3½ digit, 7 segment panel meter.
SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 12
 (b) Constant Current Power Supply, DPS-50
The present constant current source is an inexpensive and high performance
unit suitable for small and medium sized electromagnets. Although the equipment was
designed for the electromagnet, model EMU-50, it can be used satisfactorily with any
other electromagnet provided the coil resistance does not exceed 6 ohm.
The current regulation circuit is IC controlled and hence result in the highest
quality of performance. Matched power transistors are used to share the load current. The
supply is protected against transients caused by the inductive load of the magnet.

SPECIFICATIONS
Current range : 0 - 4A (or as desired)
Load regulation : 0.1% for load resistance variation from zero to maximum
Line regulation : 0.1% for ± 10% mains variation
Protected : Electronically protected against overload or short circuit
Display : 3½ digit, 7 segment LCD DPM

5. Digital Gaussmeter, Model DGM-102

The Gaussmeter operates on the principle of Hall Effect in semiconductors. A
semiconductor material carrying current develops an electro-motive force, when placed
in a magnetic field, in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both electric current
and magnetic field. The magnitude of this e.m.f. is proportional to the field intensity if
the current is kept constant, this e.m.f. is called the Hall Voltage. This small Hall
Voltage is amplified through a high stability amplifier so that a millivoltmeter connected
at the output of the amplifier can be calibrated directly in magnetic field unit (gauss).

SPECIFICATIONS
Range : 0 - 2 K gauss & 0 - 20 K gauss
Resolution : 1 gauss at 0 - 2 K gauss range
Accuracy : ± 0.5%
Display : : 3½ digit, 7 segment LED
Detector : Hall probe with an Imported Hall Element
Power : 220V, 50 Hz
Special : Indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

PROCEDURE
1. Place the Hall Probe between pole pieces and adjust their gap to a minimum so that
the poles do not touch the probe. Fix the air gap between the pole pieces of the
electromagnet.
2. Now remove the Hall Probe and place the probe of Gaussmeter in between the gap
such that the probe face is perpendicular to the magnetic field and shows maximum
reading. Orientation of the probe should be such that it shows the +ve reading. Now N
indicated side of the probe indicates North Pole of the electromagnet.

SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 13

 Graph 1

Current Vs. Magnetic Field

(Electromagnet-EMU-50)

12.0

11.0

10.0

9.0
Magnetic Field (KG)

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Current (A)
 3. Take observations for electromagnet power supply current and magnetic field to
calibrate EMU-75/ 50 (as per Table-1 & Graph-1). Use this calibration in further
observations.
4. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe (Ge. Crystal, p type or n-type) to the
terminals marked ‘Voltage’ and lengthwise contacts to terminals marked ‘Current’.
5. Switch 'ON' the Hall Effect set-up and adjust current to few mA.
6. Switch over the display to voltage side. There may be some voltage reading even
outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of
the Hall Probe and is generally known as the 'Zero Field Potential'. In case its value is
comparable to the Hall Voltage it should be adjusted to a minimum possible using
Offset Adj. Knob on the panel (for Hall Probe (Ge) only). In all cases, this error
should be subtracted from the Hall Voltage reading.
8. Now place the Hall Probe Ge. Crystal (p-type or n-type) in calibrated air gap of
electromagnet. It should be perpendicular to the magnetic field (show maximum
reading of Hall Voltage) and the crystal side of the probe should face the North Pole
of electromagnet. The setup is ready for experiments. For n-type probe Hall Voltage
will show –ve sign and for p, +ve sign.
9. Measure Hall voltage as a function of the current keeping suitable values of magnetic
field as constant ( as per Table 2 & 4 and Graph 2 & 4).
10. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of
current as constant ( as per Table 3 & 5 and graph 3 & 5).

OBSERVATIONS

Table 1: Calibration of EMU-50 with Gaussmeter

S.No. EMU-50 Current (A) Magnetic Field (KG)

1 Min 0.217
2 0.25 0.689
3 0.50 1.173
4 0.75 1.762
5 1.00 2.26
6 1.50 3.34
7 2.00 4.45
8 2.50 5.45
9 3.00 6.29
10 3.50 6.94
11 4.00 7.46

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 Graph 2

Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Field

(Probe Current (Fixed) = 3.5mA; Sample: Ge. Crystal (n-type)

200

180

160
Hall Voltage (mV)

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

Magnetic Field (KG)

Slope of the Graph 2

Vh (180 − 20) × 10 −3 160 × 10 −3

= 3
= 3
= 24.62 × 10 − 6 VG −1
H (7.2 − 0.7) × 10 6.5 × 10
Table 2 : Keeping Probe Current constant and varying the Magnetic Field
Probe Current = 3.5mA
Sample: Ge. Crystal (n-type)

Hall Voltage (mV)

EMU-50 Current (A) Magnetic Field (KG)
(-ve)
Minimum 0.217 5.90
0.25 0.689 18.50
0.5 1.173 31.50
0.75 1.762 45.00
1 2.26 58.80
1.5 3.34 87.40
2 4.45 113.70
2.5 5.45 138.10
3 6.29 157.80
3.5 6.94 172.80
4 7.46 184.50

CALULATIONS

Sample Details
Sample : Ge crystal n- type
Thickness (z) : 5 X 10-2cm
Resistivity (ρ) : 10 ohm. cm. or 10 volt coulomb-1 sec cm
Conductivity (σ) : 0.1 coulomb volt-1 sec-1 cm-1

Experimental Data
Probe current I = 3.5mA
Vh
Slope of the Graph-2 = 24.62 x10 − 6 VG −1
H
Hall Coefficient (R)
We know from Eq. 2 of the text
V .z
R= h
IH
5.0 × 10 − 2
= 24.62 × 10 -6 × −3
= 35.2 × 10 − 5 volt.cm.amp. -1 G -1
3.5 × 10
= 35.2 × 10 × 10 8 cm 3 coulomb -1 = 35.2 × 10 3 cm 3 coulomb -1
-5

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 Graph 3

Hall Voltage vs. Probe Current

(Fixed Mag. Field 2.26KG; Sample: Ge. Crystal, n-type)

320

280

240
Hall Voltage (mV)

200

160

120

80

40

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Probe Current (mA)

Slope of the Graph-3

Vh (192 − 20) × 10 −3 172 × 10 −3

= = = 15.09 × 10 − 6 VA −1
I (12 − 0.6) × 103 11.4 × 103
Table 3 : Keeping Magnetic Field constant and vary Probe Current
Mag. Field 2.26 KG (at 1.00A current); Sample: Ge. Crystal (n-type)

Hall Voltage (mV)

S. No. Current (mA)
(+ve )
1 Minimum 00.0
2 1 19.6
3 2 38.6
4 3 57.2
5 4 75.5
6 5 92.7
7 6 108.4
8 7 124.4
9 8 138.4
10 9 151.6
11 10 164.1
12 11 174.9
13 12 185.3
14 13 193.8

CALCULATION
Sample Details
Sample : Ge crystal n- type
Thickness (z) : 5 x 10-2cm.
Resistivity (ρ) : 10 ohm. cm. or 10 volt coulomb-1 sec cm
Conductivity (σ) : 0.1 coulomb volt-1 sec-1 cm-1
Experimental Data
Magnetic Field H = 2.26 KGauss
Vh
Slope of the Graph-3: = 15.1 × 10 − 6 VA −1
I
Hall Coefficient (R)
We know from Eq.2 of the text
Vh .z
R=
IH
5.0 × 10 − 2
= 15.1 × 10 -6 × = 33.4 x10 − 5 volt.cm.amp.-1 G -1
2.26 × 10 3
= 33.4 × 10 -5 × 10 8 cm 3 coulomb -1 = 33.4 x10 3 cm 3 coulomb -1
SES Instruments Pvt. Ltd. HEX-21 Page 16
 Graph 4

Hall Voltage vs. Mag. Field

(Probe Current (Fixed)=8mA; Sample: Ge. Crystal, p-type)

200

180

160

140
Hall Voltage (mV)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Magnetic Field (KG)

Slope of the Graph-4

Vh (120 − 20) × 10 −3 100 × 10 −3

= 3
= 3
= 18.87 × 10 − 6 VG −1
H (5.9 − 0.6) × 10 5.3 × 10
Table 4: Keeping Probe Current constant vary the Magnetic Field
Probe current = 8mA
Sample: Ge. Crystal (p-type)

Hall Voltage (mV)

EMU-50 Current (A) Magnetic Field (KG)
(-ve)
Minimum 0.217 6.0
0.25 0.689 18.6
0.5 1.173 31.2
0.75 1.762 44.4
1 2.26 54.6
1.5 3.34 76.4
2 4.45 98.7
2.5 5.45 114.9
3 6.29 127.2
3.5 6.94 136.6
4 7.46 143.6

CALCULATION
Sample Details
Sample : Ge crystal p- type
Thickness (z) : 5x10-2cm
Resistivity (ρ) : 5ohm.cm or 5volt.coulomb-1 sec cm
Conductivity (σ) : 0.2coulomb.volt-1.sec-1.cm-1
Experimental Data
Probe current I = 8mA
Vh
Slope of the Graph-4 = 18.9 x10 − 6 VG −1
H
Hall Coefficient (R)
Vh .z
R=
IH
5.0 × 10 − 2
= 18.9 × 10 -6 ×
8 × 10 −3
= 11.81 × 10 −5 volt.cm.amp.-1 G -1
= 11.81 × 10 -5 × 10 8 cm 3 .coulomb -1
= 11.81 × 10 3 cm 3 .coulomb -1

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 Graph 5

Hall Voltage vs. Probe Current

(Fixed Mag. Field=4.45KG; Sample: Ge. Crystal (p-type)

320

280

240
Hall Voltage (mV)

200

160

120

80

40

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Probe Current (mA)

Slope of the Graph – 5

Vh (188 − 52) × 10 −3 136 × 10 −3
= 3
= 3
= 12.1 × 10 − 6 VA −1
I (15.2 − 4) × 10 11.2 × 10
Table 5 : Keeping Magnetic Field constant and vary Probe Current
Mag. Field 4.45 KG (at 2.00A current); Sample: Ge. Crystal (p-type)

S. No. Current (mA) Hall Voltage (mV) (+ve)

1 Minimum 00.0
2 1 12.9
3 2 26.0
4 3 38.8
5 4 51.9
6 5 64.5
7 6 77.4
8 7 90.1
9 8 102.8
10 9 115.0
11 10 127.4
12 11 139.4
13 12 150.6
14 13 161.7
15 14 172.5
16 15 182.4
17 16 192.2

CALCULATION
Sample Details
Sample : Ge crystal (p-type)
Thickness (z) : 5 x 10-2cm
Resistivity (ρ) : 5 ohm.cm. or 5 volt.coulomb-1.sec.cm
Conductivity (σ) : 0.2 coulomb.volt-1.sec-1.cm-1
Experimental Data
Magnetic Field H = 4.45 KGauss
Vh
Slope of the Graph-5: = 12.1 × 10 − 6 VA −1
I

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Hall Coefficient (R)
V .z
R= h
IH
5.0 x10 − 2
= 12.1 × 10 -6 × = 12.1.0 × 10 −5 volt cm amp. -1 G -1
4.45 x10 3
= 13.6 × 10 -5 × 10 8 cm 3 coulomb -1 = 13.6 × 10 3 cm 3 coulomb -1

Sample calculations of other parameters viz Carrier Density and Carrier Mobility for one
of the four cases has been given in Appendix. For other cases calculation can be done in
similar manne.

QUESTIONS
1. What is Hall Effect?
2. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?
3. What is the effect of temperature on Hall coefficient of a lightly doped
semiconductor?
4. Do the holes actually move?
5. Why the resistance of the sample increases with the increase of magnetic field?
6. Why a high input impedance device is generally needed to measure the Hall voltage?
7. Why the Hall voltage should be measured for both the directions of current as well as
of magnetic field?

REFERENCES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING

1. Fundamentals of semiconductor Devices, J. Lindmayer and C.Y. Wrigley, Affiliated
East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Introduction to Solid State Physics, C. Kittel; John Wiley and Sons Inc., N.Y. (1971),
4th edition.
3. Experiments in Modern Physics, A.C. Melissinos, Academic Press, N.Y. (1966).
4. Electrons and Holes, W. Shockley, D. Van Nostrand, N.Y. (1950).
5. Hall Effect and Related Phenomena, E.H. Putley, Butterworths, London (1960).
6. Handbook of Semiconductor Electronics, L.P. Hunter (e.d.) McGraw Hill Book Co.
Inc., N.Y. (1962).

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 Appendix
Sample calculation for Carrier Density and Mobility taking Table 2 & 3 with corresponding
Graph 2 & 3
Sample Details
Sample : Ge crystal n- type

Thickness (z) : 5x10-2cm V V

ohm = = = V. coulomb-1. sec
Resistivity (ρ) : 10 ohm.cm or I dQ
10 volt coulomb-1 sec cm dt

Conductivity (σ) : 0.1 coulomb volt-1sec-1cm-1

Hall Coefficient (R) : 35.2 x 103 coulomb-1 (as already calculated)

(i) Carrier Density (n)

We know from equation 3 of the text
1 1
R= n=
nq Rq
1
=
35.2 x 103 x 1.6 x 10-19
= 1.8 x 1014 cm -3

(ii) Carrier Mobility

For degenetrate semiconductor i.e. when one carrier dominates.

Carrier Mobility µ = Rσ
= 35.2 x 10-3 x 0.1
= 3520 cm2 volt-1 sec -1
Thus we see that Hall Coefficient in conjunction with resistivity measurement can
provide valuable information on carrier density, mobility’s and other values. It must be
noted however, that mobility’s obtained from Hall Effect measurement µ=Rσ do not
always agree with directly measured values. The reason is explained in the booklet.

The above observations and calculations are only sample. The actual values may not
necessarily replicate.

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