Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Civil Engineering

Volume 2016, Article ID 1035946, 11 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/1035946

Research Article
Design of Normal Concrete Mixtures Using
Workability-Dispersion-Cohesion Method

Hisham Qasrawi
Civil Engineering Department, The Hashemite University, Zarqa 13133, Jordan

Correspondence should be addressed to Hisham Qasrawi; hisham qasrawi@yahoo.com

Received 4 November 2015; Accepted 4 May 2016

Academic Editor: Luigi Di Sarno

Copyright © 2016 Hisham Qasrawi. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The workability-dispersion-cohesion method is a new proposed method for the design of normal concrete mixes. The method uses
special coefficients called workability-dispersion and workability-cohesion factors. These coefficients relate workability to mobility
and stability of the concrete mix. The coefficients are obtained from special charts depending on mix requirements and aggregate
properties. The method is practical because it covers various types of aggregates that may not be within standard specifications,
different water to cement ratios, and various degrees of workability. Simple linear relationships were developed for variables
encountered in the mix design and were presented in graphical forms. The method can be used in countries where the grading
or fineness of the available materials is different from the common international specifications (such as ASTM or BS). Results were
compared to the ACI and British methods of mix design. The method can be extended to cover all types of concrete.

1. Introduction final properties of concrete [11]. According to Murdock and

Concrete mix design is the procedure by which the pro-
portions of constituent materials are suitably selected so as
to produce concrete satisfying all the required properties
for the minimum cost. Many attempts have been made to
develop a reliable method for normal concrete mix design
in various parts of the world ever since usage of concrete
began as a structural material [1–12]. Among all available
methods, the ACI 211.1 [13], the British Road Note Number
4, and the British DoE [14, 15] methods of mix design are
the most widely used ones in the Middle East. Many of
the Middle East countries adapted one or more of these
methods as the basis for their concrete mix proportioning
(examples are Kuwaiti, Saudi, and Jordanian specifications
[16–18]). Because of the variations of the available materials
(in many countries) from the American or the British speci-
fications, the use of the American or the British methods of
mix design requires special care, individual experience, and
special judgments in order to arrive at the optimum design.
Therefore, adjustment of mix proportions may become slow
and tedious. The most common variations of the available
materials are aggregate grading, shape, fineness, and texture.
These variations directly affect both the workability and the
Brook [19], Neville [14], and El-Rayyes [10], two of the most
necessary and vital conditions to attain economy in the mix
design process are the use of locally available materials and
the adoption of less restrictive specification requirements.
Several researches have been published emphasizing the
modification of available mix design methods (such as the
ACI 211.1) in order to suit local materials [20–25]. In order
to arrive at a better relationship between w/c ratio and the
strength, some researchers used obtained special plots for EN
and BS cements [26, 27]. Therefore, the use of the ACI or BS
methods would not necessarily end up with the optimum mix
design. Hence, the need for a new method, which takes into
account the variations in materials, becomes necessary.
In addition to the foregoing problems, another difficulty,
usually experienced in site and encountered in the mix
design, is the assessment of workability. Workability has
been used qualitatively to describe the ease with which
the concrete can be mixed, transported, placed, compacted,
and finished. Thus, workability is rather difficult to define
precisely, because it is intimately related, among others, to the
following: (a) mobility: that property which determines how
easily the concrete can flow into the moulds and around the
reinforcement, (b) stability: that property which determines
2 Advances in Civil Engineering
w/c ratio
0.7 0.6 0.5
90
80
Cube strength ≈ 1.25 cylinder strength
70
60
Strength (MPa)
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
c/w ratio
DoE plots (150 mm cube strength)
ACI 211.1 (150 × 300 mm cylinder strength)
(a) DoE and ACI 211.1 plots
Figure 1: Relationship between the c/w ratio and the strength of concrete (MPa).
the ability of the concrete to remain as a stable and coherent
mass during concrete production, (c) compactability: that
property of concrete which determines how easily concrete
can be compacted to remove air voids, and (d) finishability:
that property which describes the easiness to produce the
specified surface [28, 29].
In sites, usually special experience and slump test results
are used together to assess workability. Although the slump
test is not sufficient to measure and describe the workability
of concrete, it is the test used extensively in site work all
over the world. However, its relation with other workability
measures and thus its relation to the degree of workability are
well established and published in the literature. Some of the
references cited here describing such relations are [8, 9, 13–15,
29, 30]. Because of the problems encountered in workability
measurements and assessment, the author referred (in the
research) to the degree of workability rather than describing it
in an absolute value. Therefore it is necessary to obtain factors
which directly relate to the degree of workability and can be
used in the estimation of the mix proportions. This, of course,
is better than relating the mix design to some test values,
which might not represent the actual degree of workability
or might not be practical or cannot be used at sites.
Another problem that arises in the concrete mix design
is the choice of water/cement ratio to satisfy the required
properties. Since Abrams formulated the water/cement ratio
law in 1918 [1], it became well known that, under ordi-
nary conditions of exposure and using Portland cement,
the water/cement ratio is mainly governed by the strength
requirement [13–15]. Thus, the relationship shown in Figure 1
can be used to estimate the water/cement ratio required for
certain strength. Figure 1 is a replot of the figure that appeared
in the DoE mix design method [15] but cement/water ratio
0.4
80
60
Cube strength ≈ 1.25 cylinder strength
Strength (MPa)
40
20
0
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
c/w ratio
Upper for CEM 52.5 (150 mm cube strength)
2.4
Lower for CEM 52.5 and upper for 42.5 (150 mm cube strength)
Lower for CEM 42.5 and upper for CEM 32.5 (150 mm cube strength)
Lower for CEM 32.5 (150 mm cube strength)
ACI 211.1 (150 × 300 mm cylinder strength)
(b) CEM cements and ACI 211.1 plots
is plotted against compressive strength instead of the con-
ventional water/cement ratio. The use of c/w ratio instead of
w/c ratio would result in linearization of the curves, which in
turn would result in better estimates of the results. The values
given in the ACI 211.1 are also plotted. Again, the use of c/w
ratio results in straight line relationships. It is worth noting
that the use of the DoE plots requires the determination of
the compressive strength of concrete mixes made with a free
cement/water ratio of 2 when local materials are used. This
value can be easily obtained in any country or region using
its own local materials.
From the foregoing review, it is seen how important it
is to recommend a practical mix design method in which
the actual properties of the locally available material and the
assessment of workability are taken into consideration during
the stages of mix design.
The method described in this work covers normal con-
crete mixes, which include those made of normal-weight
aggregate, normal strength range (15 to 45 MPa, as in ACI
211.1), do not contain special materials such as fibers, have a
normal degree of workability ranging from low to high (25
to 175 mm slump, as in ACI 211.1), always contain coarse and
fine aggregate (e.g., no-fines concrete is excluded), and do
not contain special admixture. In other words, any special
concrete is excluded.
2. General Principles
The method of the mix design described in this work uses the
following principles and assumptions.
(1) The principle of the absolute volume theory (ACI 211.1)
is considered applicable. The theory states that the sum of the
absolute volumes of all ingredients, including air voids, equals
Advances in Civil Engineering
the volume of concrete in its final stage. In mathematical
form, it is given as follows:
𝑉M + 𝑉CA + 𝐴 = 𝑉CO , (1)
where 𝑉CO is volume of concrete in its final stage, 𝐴 is volume
of air voids in concrete, 𝑉CA is volume of solid particles of
coarse aggregates, and 𝑉M is volume of mortar which equals
the sum of both the volume of the sand particles (𝑉S ) and the
volume of the paste (𝑉P ), 𝑉M = 𝑉P +𝑉S . Moreover, the volume
of the paste equals the sum of the volumes of water (𝑉W ) and
volume of the cement (𝑉C ): 𝑉P = 𝑉C + 𝑉W .
For a unit volume of concrete (UV = 1.0 cubic meter or 27
cubic feet), the equation can be written as
𝑉M + 𝑉CA = UV − 𝐴. (2)
(2) Before compaction, the bulk volume of mortar coats
the coarse aggregate particles, fills the voids between parti-
cles, and disperses them apart. Based on this assumption, (3)
can be derived and written in the form
𝐵1 × 𝑉M = 𝐵1 × (𝑉P + 𝑉S ) = 𝐵2 × 𝑅 × 𝑉𝐵CA , (3)
where 𝐵1 is a factor relating the bulk volume of mortar to the
solid volumes of mortar particles, 𝐵2 is a factor allowing for
the dispersion of coarse aggregate particles, which is basically
affected by the degree of workability and the change in bulk
volume before and after compaction, 𝑉𝐵CA is the bulk volume
of dry loose coarse aggregate particles, and 𝑅 is the voids ratio
in the loose coarse aggregates expressed in relative form.
Equation (3) can be rewritten in the form
𝐵2
𝑉M = 𝑉P + 𝑉S = × 𝑅 × 𝑉𝐵CA = WD × 𝑅 × 𝑉𝐵CA . (4)
𝐵1
The factor WD, which is the ratio between 𝐵1 and 𝐵2 ,
is called (in this work) the “workability-dispersion” factor.
From the definition of the WD factor and the corresponding
𝐵1 and 𝐵2 factors, it can be easily drawn that the factor
WD takes into consideration the properties of aggregates,
which include (a) the maximum size, (b) the fineness, (c) the
grading, (d) the shape and texture, (e) the specific gravity
(compaction is easier with heavier particles), and (f) the
degree of workability. Komar [7] suggested a factor for mix
design, based on a somewhat similar principle.
In this research, the above factors are taken into consider-
ation by measuring the voids ratio in aggregates, measuring
the fineness modulus of the fine aggregate, and obtaining the
grading of aggregates by a simple sieve analysis test. The factor
“WD” represents the mobility-compactability principle that
appears in the workability definition in the introduction.
(3) Another assumption (which takes into consideration
the cement-sand matrix) states that cement particles coat the
fine aggregate particles and disperse them apart but keep
them cohesive and stable. Based on this assumption, (5) can
be derived. In mathematical form (as done with (4)), the
relationship can be reduced in its final form to
𝐵FA2
𝑉P = 𝑉W + 𝑉C = × 𝑅FA × 𝑉𝐵FA
𝐵FA1 (5)
= WC × 𝑅FA × 𝑉𝐵FA ,
3
where, similar to the coarse aggregate factors, 𝐵FA1 , 𝐵FA2 , and
𝑅FA are factors relating to the bulk volume of fine aggregate.
WC, which is the ratio between 𝐵FA2 and 𝐵FA1 , is called the
“workability-cohesion factor.” 𝑉𝐵FA is the bulk volume of dry
loose fine aggregate and 𝑅FA is the voids ratio in fine aggregate
in its loose state expressed in relative form.
It can be easily drawn that the factor WC is expected to
be affected by (a) the fineness of fine aggregate, expressed
as fineness modulus, (b) shape, texture, and grading of fine
particles which affect the voids, (c) the degree of workability,
(d) the specific gravity of aggregates, and (e) the required
properties of the hardened concrete such as strength, dura-
bility, and impermeability which are mainly controlled by the
water/cement ratio and cement content.
The factor “WC” represents the workability-stability-
compactability principle, which appears in the introduction.
(4) The values shown in the ACI 211.1 for volume of
entrapped air in normal concrete mixes are considered appli-
cable in the first estimates of the mix design.
(5) The strength relationships shown in Figure 1(a) are
considered applicable. The figure is a reproduction of the plot
provided by the DoE method using the c/w ratio instead
of the w/c ratio. Also it shows the values presented in the
ACI 211.1 (SI units). A linear relationship is obtained once
w/c ratio is replaced by c/w ratio. To use the modified DoE
plots, it is necessary to obtain the strength of concrete made
with water/cement ratio of 0.5 (cement/water ratio of 2) using
local materials (DoE method). The ACI 211.1 can be directly
used for obtaining strength. Moreover, a distinct relationship
(similar to that of the ACI 211.1) between w/c ratio and
cylinder strength of concrete can be obtained experimentally
and used in the mix design procedure instead of using Figure 1
[10, 31]. Such plots are shown in the comparison of results that
will appear later in Figure 5. In Europe, Ujhelyi [32] provided
a plot for strength using cements conforming to EN 197-
1 specifications, composition, specifications, and conformity
criteria for common cements (CEM 52.5, 42.5, and 32.5).
According to Erdélyi [26] these values are multiplied by 0.92
for EN 206-1 cements. These plots are shown in Figure 1(b)
and compared to the values given by the ACI 211.1.
(6) Workability of concrete is classified into three main
degrees: low, medium, and high. This includes the most
practical workability requirements in most concrete works.
(7) Because workability-cohesion is dependent on
amount of cement paste and its cohesiveness all around the
fine aggregate particles and inside the packing voids of coarse
aggregate, it depends on the total amount of fine aggregates
in unit volume of concrete. Hence it can be concluded that
the factors WD and WC are interdependent. To account for
that, the right hand side of (5) is multiplied by a correction
factor 𝑀. Therefore, a new equation (see (6)) is derived and
is written in the form
𝑊
Adjusted 𝑉P = 𝑀 × WC × 𝑅FA × FA , (6)
𝐷FA
where 𝐷FA is the dry loose unit weight of fine aggregates
and 𝑊FA is the weight of fine aggregate. A special plot was
obtained for the factor 𝑀, whose details will be explained in
the ensuing sections.
4 Advances in Civil Engineering
3. Research Program and Procedure
The basic steps of the research are
(1) to determine and plot the factors “WC” and “WD”
discussed in the previous section taking into account
the variables affecting them,
(2) to obtain a distinct relationship between strength of
concrete using local materials and the cement/water
ratios of cylindrical specimens (similar to that of the
ACI 211.1),
(3) to obtain the strength of concrete cubes cast with
cement/water ratio of 2 (w/c of 0.5) using local
materials (similar to British DoE mix design method).
The procedure that was followed consisted of the following
steps.
(I) Various concrete mixes were proportioned and pre-
pared at laboratory conditions using either the ACI 211.1 abso-
lute volume method or the British DoE mix design methods.
Then these mixes were carefully adjusted to the required
workability and the final mix proportions were obtained.
(II) The factor “WD” was calculated by solving the
derived equations (2) and (4) as follows:
UV − 𝐴 − 𝑉CA UV − 𝐴 − 𝑊CA /𝐺CA
WD = = , (7)
𝑅 × 𝑉𝐵CA 𝑅 × 𝑊CA /𝐷CA
where 𝑊CA is the adjusted weight of the coarse aggregate used
in the mix, 𝐺CA is the specific gravity of the coarse aggregate
multiplied by the unit weight of water, and 𝐷CA is the dry
loose unit weight of coarse aggregate. UV was taken as 1.0
cubic meter and the unit weight of water was taken as 1000 kg
per cubic meter. All units used are kg-meter units.
In the determination of the “WD” factor, the following
variables were taken into consideration: (a) specific gravity of
coarse aggregates, (b) the maximum size of aggregates, (c) the
fineness of fine aggregates (expressed as fineness modulus),
(d) the bulk unit weight and the corresponding voids ratio,
and (e) the degree of workability.
(III) During theoretical mix proportioning, the value for
the entrapped air voids (𝐴) was first assumed according to the
values that appear in the ACI 211.1 mix design method. Later,
this value was measured experimentally after final adjustment
of the mix proportions.
(IV) The factor “WC” was determined using (2), (4), and
(5). Equation (8) can be derived and written in the form
𝑀 × 𝑉P 𝐷FA
WC = , (8)
⟨(UV − 𝐴) − (𝑉P + 𝑉CA )⟩ × 𝐺FA 𝑅FA
where 𝐺FA is the specific gravity of the fine aggregate mul-
tiplied by the unit weight of water and 𝐷FA is the dry loose
unit weight of fine aggregates.
The factor “WC” was first calculated (after final mix
adjustment) using (8) and entering the corresponding values
for 𝐴, 𝑉P , and 𝑉CA . As 𝑉CA depends on the specific gravity of
coarse aggregate, the change of specific gravity would result
in change of 𝑉CA and thus the correction factor, 𝑀, was
introduced.
(V) In order to obtain the relationship between the
“WC” factor and 𝑀, the factor WC was first found for a
constant value of specific gravity (𝑀 was assumed = 1.0 for
specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.8, the highest value
encountered in the research). The relationship between 𝑀
and specific gravity was obtained and plotted.
(VI) From steps (IV) and (V), two plots were obtained:
one for the factor WC and the other for the factor 𝑀. The vari-
ables that were taken into consideration when factor WC was
obtained were (a) the volume of paste which is affected by the
degree of workability and the water/cement ratio, (b) the fine-
ness modulus of fine aggregates, (c) the specific gravity, and
(d) the loose bulk unit volume of fine aggregate and the cor-
responding relative voids ratio between aggregate particles.
(VII) Final adjustment of mix proportioning was done for
each mix in order to satisfy the desired degree of workability.
Air content was measured and then 150 mm cubes and
or/150 × 300 mm cylinders were prepared according to the
procedures described in the corresponding standards (ASTM
and BS). The cubes and cylinders were prepared in groups of
3 or more, cured under standard conditions, and then tested
for strength at the age of 28 days.
(VIII) Special mixes of cement/water ratio of 2 were
proportioned and then adjusted to the desired degree of
workability. 150 mm cubes were prepared according to the
British standards, cured in standard curing conditions, and
then were tested for strength at the age of 28 days.
(IX) After all plots were obtained, special mixes were
proportioned by the new “cohesion-dispersion” method and
compared to the ACI 211.1 and the British DoE mix design
methods
(X) The research was conducted in two stages.
Stage 1. This stage started at Kuwait University in 1988. All
mixes were prepared under laboratory conditions. Prelimi-
nary relationships were obtained using local materials.
Stage 2. This stage was completed in Jordan where the
method was applied at site conditions. The sites were at
Murhib and Quanta projects for Water Authority where the
author worked as a material and quality control engineer.
Further tests were also carried out at the labs of Applied
Science University and the Hashemite University, where final
plots were checked.
4. Materials
OPC from two sources was used in all mixes. Kuwaiti OPC
was used in Stage 1 and Jordanian OPC was used in Stage
2. Natural and crushed aggregates were introduced in all the
mixes. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the properties of the aggre-
gates used. High ranges of grading of aggregates were intro-
duced in the mixes in order to test the applicability of the
method for various gradings, which were not, sometimes,
accepted by the ACI or the British standards.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Air Content. Table 3 shows the results of the measure-
ments of entrapped air in concrete. The entrapped air was
Advances in Civil Engineering 5

Table 1: Properties of coarse aggregate used in the mix.

Classification CA1 CA2 CA3 CA4

Local name Kuwaiti Gravel Wadi Gravel Sukhna Coarse Agg. Yajooz Coarse Agg.
Crushed or natural Natural Natural Crushed Crushed
Absorption (%) 0.91–1.39 1.03–1.41 1.91–2.23 2.97–4.42
Specific gravity 2.57–2.66 2.63–2.79 2.53–2.76 2.49–2.58
∗∗
% age of samples lying outside ASTM standards (%) 12 23 31 37
LA abrasion (%) 21–27 20–28 22–32 29–39
∗∗
% age of samples lying outside BS standards (%) 5 12 22 25
∗∗
Percentage of samples falling outside the standard limits when tested for grading requirements.

Table 2: Properties of fine aggregate used in the mix.

Classification FA1 FA2 FA3 FA4

Local name Desert Sand Wadi Sand Suwaileh Sand Silica Sand
Specific gravity 2.56–2.71 2.63–2.79 2.48–2.60 2.49–2.56
∗∗
% age of samples
15% (most below 18% (most above 65% (all below 80% (all below
lying outside ASTM
the finer limit) the coarser limit) the finer limit) the finer limit)
grading limits
∗∗
% age of samples
3% (all above the 3% (all below the
lying outside BS None 5%
coarser limit) finer limit)
grading limits
Fineness modulus 2.24–2.56 2.46–3.15 1.94–2.28 1.59–2.14
∗∗
Percentage of samples falling outside the standard limits when tested for grading requirements.

Table 3: Entrapped air in concrete mixes.

Stage Max. aggregate size Number of tests Range (min.–max.) Average Standard deviation Deviation from the ACI 211.1
40 18 0.95–1.35 1.09 0.084 +0.09
Stage 1 20 42 1.75–2.55 2.08 0.245 +0.08
10 18 2.35–3.50 2.95 0.356 −0.05
40 28 1.00–1.50 1.23 0.165 +0.23
Stage 2 20 146 1.85–2.65 2.20 0.283 +0.20
10 34 2.25–3.65 3.05 0.383 +0.05

measured using the pressure method described in the ASTM
C231. It is clear that the test results were close to the
values shown in the ACI 211.1. Therefore, rounding up the
average figures to the nearest integer (for first estimate of mix
proportions) leads to values of 1%, 2%, and 3% entrapped
air for maximum size of aggregate of 40, 20, and 10 mm,
respectively. These values coincide with the assumption that
entrapped air values, which appear in the ACI 211.1, are
applicable in the mix proportioning.
5.2. Workability. In sites, workability was assessed using
practical experience in addition to the slump test results
according to the ASTM C143.
In the laboratory, the workability was assessed using
the results of the slump, Vebe, and compacting factor tests
according to BS 1881, Parts 101, 102, and 103, and also to
ASTM C143. Special practical experience in assessing the
degree of workability of concrete was also used. No dis-
tinct relationships were obtained among results. This was
attributed to the high variability of the mixes and the mix
proportions. Therefore no plot was presented and results were
not shown. Dewar 1964 showed high variations in results
along with varying aggregate/cement ratios. Although some
authors showed good correlation between compacting factor
or Vebe and workability [9, 10, 13, 14], these tests are not
usually used at sites and hence remain as laboratory control
tests. However, the tables that appear in the references can be
used as guidelines to assess the degree of workability of the
tested concrete but cannot replace practical experience.
5.3. The Workability-Dispersion Factor “WD”. Figure 2 shows
the relationship between the fineness modulus of sand and
the “WD” factor multiplied by the factor 𝑍, for normalization
of results. It was found that, for the same size of aggregate,
the “WD” increases by the increase in fineness modulus or
6 Advances in Civil Engineering
1.10
Modified workability dispersion factor (WD × Z)
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
1.8
Figure 2: Relationship between fineness modulus of fine aggregate
and the workability-dispersion factor.
the increase in the specific gravity of aggregate. However it
was observed, practically, that the change in the degree of
workability from low to high resulted in minor changes in the
value of the “WD” factor. The difference ranged from plus 4%
to minus 3%. Therefore, it was concluded that, for practical
acceptable degree of workability for normal works, the major
factors affecting the amount of coarse aggregate in the mix
are the fineness of sand and the maximum size of aggregate.
These conclusions and observations coincide with the table
presented by the ACI 211.1.
The relationships between the “WD” factor and the
fineness modulus of fine aggregate were found to be linear for
the same specific gravity (𝑅2 ranged from 0.9665 to 0.9931).
5.4. The Workability-Cohesion Factor. Figure 3 shows the
relationship between the workability-cohesion factor “WC,”
multiplied by the 𝑍󸀠 factor, and the fineness modulus of fine
aggregates for different c/w ratios and various degrees of
workability. It is clear from the plot that for the same degree
of workability the “WC” factor decreases by the increase in
the fineness modulus or decrease in the c/w ratio. Also, for
the same fineness modulus and the same c/w ratio, the factor
“WC” increases by the increase in the workability of concrete.
This can be attributed to the higher volume of paste required
for the higher degree of workability [15]. The values that
appear in the plot are for constant specific gravity of coarse
aggregate. For simplicity, the values of the “WC” were plotted
for a specific gravity of 2.8 (the highest value used in the
research). For other values of specific gravity, a correction
factor (𝑀) is obtained by using the plot for 𝑀. It is clear
from Figure 4 that the correction factor (𝑀) increases by
the decrease in the specific gravity. A linear relationship was
obtained between the specific gravity “𝐺” and the factor “𝑀”
in the form of 𝑀 = 2.548 − 0.554𝐺 with 𝑅2 = 0.996.
󳰀󳰀 )
3/ 8
m( 5.5. Strength
= 10 m
gg.
ze of a 5.5.1. Stage 1. Since the DoE mix design method is based
i
x. s
Ma on the strength of 150 mm cubes made with w/c ratio of
0.50, the strength of cubes made with OPC of Kuwait and
󳰀󳰀 )
(3/4 with cement/water ratio of 2 was measured and found to
. = 2 0 mm be 39.6 MPa at the age of 28 days. The standard deviation
f agg
size o was 2.43 MPa and the range for the 5% defects was 42.04 to
Max. 󳰀󳰀 )
4 0 m m (1.5 37.18 MPa. The minimum value was 35 and the maximum was
=
f agg.
size o 44 MPa. The use of cubes rather than cylinders for the DoE
Max.
mix design method is necessary to get better comparisons.
For mixes designed according to ACI, 150 × 300 mm cylinders
were prepared and tested. Wherever comparisons of the cube
and cylinder strength are necessary, the cylinder strength is
assumed as 0.80 that of the cube strength [15]. Such value is
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
recommended in Jordanian and Kuwaiti specifications.
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate
The relationship between the cement/water ratio and the
Specific gravity = 2.8
Specific gravity = 2.5
strength of concrete is shown in Figure 5. The relationship
was linear in a pattern similar to that shown in Figure 1.
The values of the ACI 211.1 are plotted for comparison. It
is seen that, for c/w ratio of 1.8 and above, the ACI values
tend to be higher than those of the author’s. The ACI values
are close to the values obtained by the author for the lower
c/w ratios. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of the
ACI 211.1 method would result in lower strength values than
expected for mixes with somewhat high c/w ratio. Hence, it
can be concluded that slightly lower w/c ratio is required to
attain the same strength results if the ACI method is used in
the design. The author suggests a value of 0.02. The author
findings here are comparable to those of El-Rayyes, 1982,
under the same conditions. All plots between c/w ratio and
strength are linear ones as shown in Figure 5.
5.5.2. Stage 2. Repeating the same procedure as in Stage 1, the
strength of cubes made with c/w ratio of 2 and tested at 28
days using OPC of Jordan was found to be 41.8 MPa with a
standard deviation of 5.09 MPa. The 5% defects ranged from
33.45 to 50.15 MPa. The strength of concrete samples versus
c/w ratios is shown in Figure 5. The results are compared
to those of the ACI 211.1 and a modified replot of those of
Abdul-Jawad, 1984, using c/w ratios instead of the traditional
w/c ratios. It is clear from the plots that values obtained by
Abdul-Jawed are the highest. This can be attributed to the fact
that Abdul-Jawad used selective materials under laboratory
conditions while the author presented practical data obtained
under various site conditions using available materials. Also,
the author’s values are somewhat below the values of the ACI
211.1. Furthermore, the relationship between c/w ratio and
strength was found to be linear for all plots.
6. Steps of Mix Design
The following are the main design steps that must be followed
in the design of normal concrete mixes by the “cohesion-
dispersion” method discussed in these articles.
Advances in Civil Engineering 7

Low workability Medium workability

1.8 1.8

1.7 1.7 w/c

1.6 1.6

Workability-cohesion factor (WC × Z󳰀 )

0.40
Workability-cohesion factor (WC × Z󳰀 ) 1.5 1.5

1.4 w/c 1.4 0.45

1.3 0.40 1.3 c/w

0.50
2.50
1.2 1.2 0.55
0.45 c/w
1.1 1.1 0.60 2.22
2.50
0.50
1 1 0.70 2.00
0.55 2.22 1.82
0.9 0.60 2.00 0.9 1.67
0.70 1.82 1.43
0.8 1.67 0.8
1.43
0.7 0.7
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
Fineness modulus of sand Fineness modulus of sand

High workability
1.8
0.40
1.7 w/c

1.6 0.45
Workability-cohesion factor (WC × Z󳰀 )

1.5
0.50 c/w
1.4 2.50
0.55
1.3
0.60 2.22
1.2
0.65 2.00
1.1 0.70
1.82
1 1.54
1.67
0.9 1.43

0.8

0.7
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
Fineness modulus of sand

Figure 3: Relationship between fineness modulus, cement water ratio (w/c ratio), and workability-cohesion factor.

Step 0 (identify and classify the aggregates to be used in the (2) The maximum size of aggregates.
mix). The properties of aggregates should be studied and well (3) The fineness modulus of fine aggregate.
understood before designing the concrete mix. The following
(4) The specific gravity and absorption of all ingredients
tests must be done:
that will be used in the mix.
(1) Sieve analysis. (5) The dry loose unit weight of both fine and coarse
(2) Unit weight and voids ratio in aggregates. aggregates.
(6) The voids ratio in dry loose aggregates which is cal-
(3) Specific gravity and absorption.
culated using the relationship [15]:
The following variables must be obtained or estimated: Voids Ratio
(1) The grading of aggregates and deviation from the Bulk Dry Loose Unit Weight (9)
=1− .
standards if any deviation is present in the results. Specific Gravity × Unit Weight of Water
8 Advances in Civil Engineering

1.32 Step 3 (choose workability). If workability is not specified,

1.28 use local specifications to estimate the required degree of
1.24 workability. Use of the tables that appear in the literature such
as those of the in the ACI 211.1 and the British DoE methods
Correction factor (M)

1.20
of mix designs is beneficial for less-experienced individuals.
1.16
1.12 Step 4 (estimate the “WD” factor). The “WD” factor is
1.08
obtained using Figure 2. From the figure, the factor WD × 𝑍
is obtained. The factor “WD” then equals the value obtained
1.04 from the figure divided by 𝑍, where
1.00
0.96 𝑍
0.92 Dry Bulk Loose Unit Weight of Coarse Aggregate (11)
2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.90 = .
Voids Ratioin Coarse Aggregate
Specific gravity
Practical range
Step 5 (calculate the coarse aggregate content). The weight of
Figure 4: Relationship between specific gravity of coarse aggregate coarse aggregates is calculated using the relationship
and the correction factor (𝑀).
1−𝐴
𝑊CA = . (12)
60 1/𝐺CA + “WD” × 𝑍
55
The value of 𝐴 can be assumed 1%, 2%, and 3% for maximum
28-day cylinder strength (MPa)

50 size of aggregate of 40, 20, and 10 mm. 𝐺CA is the specific

45 gravity of coarse aggregates.
40 Step 6 (estimate the “WC” factor). The “WC” factor is esti-
35 mated using Figure 4. The cement/water ratio is obtained
from Step 2 while the degree of workability is obtained from
30
Step 3. The value obtained from Figure 3 is then divided by
25 the value 𝑍󸀠 to obtain the value of the “WC” factor, where
20
𝑍󸀠
15
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 Dry Bulk Loose Unit Weight Of F. A. (13)
= .
Cement to water ratio Specific Gravity Of F. A. × Voids Ratio In F. A.
Author: stage 1 Abdel-Jawad, 1984
Author: stage 2 El-Rayyes, 1982
ACI 211.1 Step 7 (estimate correction factor “𝑀”). The correction factor
is obtained from Figure 4.
Figure 5: Comparison of the relationship between c/w ratio and
strength of concrete in MPa. Step 8 (calculate the weight of fine aggregate). The weight of
fine aggregate is calculated using the formula

Step 1 (choose the target design strength). The target design (WD × 𝑍) × 𝑊CA
𝑊FA = . (14)
strength is chosen using the normal procedure: 1/𝐺FA + 𝑀 × (WC) (𝑅FA /𝐷FA )

Target Strength = Specified Strength The values of 𝑊CA , 𝑊FA , and 𝑀 are obtained from Steps
5, 6, and 7, respectively. 𝐺FA is the specific gravity of fine
+ Standard Deviation (10) aggregates. The factor 𝑍󸀠 is calculated using the following
× Probability Factor. relationship.

Step 9 (calculate the volume of the paste). The volume of the

Step 2 (choose target cement/water ratio). The cement/water paste is calculated using (6).
ratio is chosen so that it satisfies strength, durability, or
impermeability. Figures 1 and 5 can be used for the estimation Step 10 (calculate the cement and water contents). Cement
of the cement/water ratio to satisfy strength requirements. and water contents are calculated using the relationships
Cement/water ratio required satisfying durability require-
ments could be obtained by using any recognized specifica- w/c × 𝑊C 𝑊C
𝑉P = 𝑉W + 𝑉C = + . (15)
tions such as those of the ACI or BS. Water Density Cement Density
Advances in Civil Engineering 9

Table 4: The results of 220 mixes obtained during the 24 years of study.
a
Variable The final mean valueb (%) 95% significant interval Coefficient of variation (%) Notes
c/w ratio 98 90–103 6 Slightly lower than
estimatedc
Water content 104 92–111 11 Slightly higher than
estimated
Cement content 103 95–108 7 Interdependent on the
previous two variables
CA content 104 94–113 10 Slightly higher than
estimated
FA content 95 88–103 8 Slightly higher than
estimated
a: the value is assumed 100%.
b: the value after mix adjustment for practical use.
c: w/c ratio is higher.

Then 30

w/c 1 25
𝑉P = 𝑊C ( + ). (16)
Water Density Cement Density
Water reduction (%) 20
And, w/c = 𝑊W /𝑊C .
Note that 𝑉P is obtained from Step 9 and w/c ratio from 15
Step 2. The specific gravity of cement can be assumed 3.14 or
3.15 if not known. 10

Step 11 (modify and adjust initial mix proportions). The values 5

obtained from the previous steps should be modified if any
limitations (e.g., limitations on cement content) are specified.
When values are modified, the cement/water ratio should be
kept constant and the other values should be modified so that
the unit volume principle is kept applicable.
Step 12 (test and adjust the final mix). Trial mixes should be
made and tested for the required properties. Any adjustments
should be made. The mix can be adjusted for stability, if
segregation is observed, by choosing a lower value of WD or a
higher value of WC. The opposite can be done if sticky mixes
are observed. However, the rule of thumb described in the
ACI 211.1 is quite helpful in adjusting the mix proportions.
7. Repeatability and Reproducibility of Results
The final values of the mixture proportions have been
tested for repeatability and reproducibility for the mixes. All
results showed that the values obtained are significant and
statistically accepted. In order to minimize the huge number
of calculations and to simplify things for the reader, final
results are given in Table 4. In this table, the c/w ratio, the
water content, the cement content, and the fine and coarse
aggregate contents which are obtained using the method are
assumed as 100%. The results of 220 mixes obtained during
the 24 years of study are given in Table 4.
Statistical analysis of all the plots that appear in Figures 2–
6 shows that 𝑅2 is above 0.90 and the 95% confidence interval
is within acceptable limits. Because of the huge number
of plots, the results are not shown on the plots to avoid
congestion of points that lead to misreading.
The points on the plots show maximum,
average, and minimum of all data
0
Minimum Average Maximum
Admixture dosage
Superplasticizers
Plasticizers
Figure 6: Water reduction when admixtures are used.
8. Effect of Water Reducing Admixtures
The use of plasticizers, water reducers, superplasticizers, and
high-range water reducers will reduce the amount of water
while maintaining the workability. In general, plasticizing
and water reducing admixtures can reduce water content
by 5 to 10%, while superplasticizing and high-range water
reducing admixtures can reduce water content between 15
and 30% (ACI 212.3R). The reduction depends on the type
of admixture, the dosage, and the workability of concrete.
In order to study the effect of admixtures on the water
reduction in concrete, several mixes have been prepared and
tested in the lab. Eleven commercially used types of plasti-
cizers and other seven of superplasticizers have been used in
the mixes. Figure 6 shows the water reduction in concrete
mixes when the admixtures are incorporated. All the results
are within the expected limits reported in the ACI 212.3R.
9. Durability Requirements
ACI 211.1 requirements to attain durability against sulfate
attack and seawater can be safely used. The correct choice of
10 Advances in Civil Engineering

w/c ratio and the type of cement would result in safe durable From Figure 4 using c/w value, medium workability plot, and
concrete. Also, the engineer can follow the requirements of fineness modulus of 2.20, the WC × 𝑍󸀠 will be 1.12. Also the
BS 8110. 𝑅FA value = 1 − 1.40/2.60 = 0.462. Also from Figure 3, the 𝑀
value is 1.076. Then WC = (1.12 ×1.40/2.60 ×0.462)×1.076 =
10. Summary and Conclusions 1.404.
The weight of fine aggregate is then calculated as follows:
The workability-dispersion-cohesion method of concrete mix 0.495 × 1123
design presented here would be a better choice for regions 𝑊FA = × 1000
(1/2.6) + 1.404 × 0.462/1.40 (A.3)
where local materials might not follow certain specifications
allowing the use of wide ranges of aggregate gradation and = 656 kg.
properties.
The first factor (workability-dispersion) represents the Once the weight of fine aggregate is estimated, the volume
mobility and easiness of concrete production, including its of paste is calculated as 𝑉P = 1.404 × 0.462 × 656/1400 =
compactability, while the second factor (workability-cohe- 0.304 cubic meter, which equals 𝑉C + 𝑉W . Then 0.304 =
sion) represents the stability, cohesion, and homogeneity, (1/1000)(𝑊C /3.15+(w/c×𝑊C )/1.0), from which 𝑊C is 332 kg.
of the concrete mix. The method proposed here ensures a And 𝑊W is 199 kg.
mobile and stable concrete mix design. Therefore the weights required are 332 kg of cement,
The use of the c/w ratio instead of the traditional w/c 199 kg of water, 1123 kg of coarse aggregates, and 656 kg of
ratio would be easier in estimating the proportions required sand.
for mix design because of the easier linear interpolations.
It is clear that all the relations presented in the plots are Notations
linear relationships, which make the use of the method easy
and simply programmable. Because of the presence of the 𝐴: Volume of air voids in concrete
workability-cohesion and workability-dispersion factors, the 𝐵1 : Factor relating the bulk volume of mortar to the
workability-cohesion-dispersion method can be extended to solid volumes of mortar particles
include various concrete mixes such as concrete-containing 𝐵2 : Factor allowing for the dispersion of coarse
admixtures and self-compacting concrete. aggregate particles
𝐵FA1 : Factor relating the bulk volume of paste to the
solid volumes of paste particles
11. On-Going Research 𝐵FA2 : Factor allowing for the cohesion of fine aggregate
The work presented in this paper is the first stage of an exten- particles
sive research that covers various types of concrete. The author 𝐷CA : Dry loose unit weight of coarse aggregates
is investigating the application of the method when various 𝐷FA : Dry loose unit weight of fine aggregates
types of admixtures are introduced. They will be published in DoE: Department of Environment
the future once they are statistically tested and approved. 𝐺CA : Specific gravity of coarse aggregate × unit weight
Furthermore, the application of the method for special of water
types of concrete, such as self-compacting concrete, is under 𝐺FA : Specific gravity of fine aggregates × unit weight of
investigation. water
𝑀: Correction factor
𝑅: Voids ratio in loose coarse aggregate
Appendix 𝑅FA : Voids ratio in loose fine aggregate
𝑉𝐵CA : Bulk volume of dry loose coarse aggregate
Example 𝑉𝐵FA : Bulk volume of dry loose fine aggregate
Assume that the strength requirements for a medium work- 𝑉C : Volume of cement
ability mix ended with a c/w ratio of 1.67 (w/c = 0.6) 𝑉CA : Volume of coarse aggregate
and that the specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregate is 𝑉CO : Volume of concrete in its final stage
2.65 and 2.60, respectively. The coarse aggregate has a max. 𝑉M : Volume of mortar
size of 20 mm. The loose unit weights of coarse and fine 𝑉P : Volume of paste
aggregates are 1.45 and 1.4 tons/cubic meter, respectively. 𝑉S : Volume of sand
Fineness modulus of sand = 2.20. Consider 𝑉W : Volume of water
WC: Workability-cohesion factor
1.45
𝑅=1− = 0.453. (A.1) WD: Workability-dispersion factor
2.65 𝑊FA : Weight of fine aggregate
From Figure 2 using the specific gravity of coarse aggregates 𝑊CA : Weight of coarse aggregate
and the fineness modulus of sand then WD × 𝑍 = 0.495; 𝑍 & 𝑍󸀠 : Chart factors.
hence WD = 0.495 × 1.45/0.453 = 1.58.
Assume 𝐴 = 2% for max. size of 20 mm. Then
Competing Interests
(1 − 0.02) × 1000
𝑊CA = = 1123 kg. (A.2)
(1/2.65) + 0.495 The author declares that they have no competing interests.
Advances in Civil Engineering 11

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