Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable energy: An overview on its contribution in current energy

scenario of India
Lata Tripathi a,n, A.K. Mishra a, Anil Kumar Dubey b, C.B. Tripathi c,nn, Prashant Baredar c,nn
a
Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal 462033, Madhya Pradesh, India
b
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal 462038, Madhya Pradesh, India
c
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal 462051, Madhya Pradesh, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy is the major source for the economic development of any country. In case of the developing
Received 31 December 2014 country like India, shortage of electricity work as a barrier for development. In recent years, India's
Received in revised form energy consumption has been increasing at a relatively fast rate due to population growth and economic
6 December 2015
development. Rapid growth of the Indian economy places heavy demand of electric power. Presently
Accepted 13 January 2016
most of the electric demand fulfilled by coal power plants and creates pressure on fossils fuel. Coal-based
power generation is characterized by local and regional environmental degradation as well as green-
Keywords: house gas emissions, leading to climate change. Thus, there is need of enhance energy security along
Green house gas with reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energy is one of the environmentally friendly
Fossil fuels
sources of energy. In present energy scenario harnessing of renewable potential in effective manner is
Renewable energy
becoming need of the era, which can provide sustainable power supply as well as mitigate the negative
Energy
Electricity environmental impact due to fossil fuel.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2. Current energy scenario of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3. Sources of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.1. Thermal power plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.1.1. Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.2. Nuclear energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.2.1. Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.3. Hydro energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.3.1. Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.4. Renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.4.1. Need of renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.4.2. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.4.3. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.4.4. Geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.4.5. Small hydro energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.4.6. Tidal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.4.7. Wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.4.8. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.4.9. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4. Comparison between present versus previous situation of renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5. Economic viability of renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

n
Corresponding author.
nn
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: lata_mudgal@yahoo.co.in (L. Tripathi), cbtripathi@rediffmail.com (C.B. Tripathi), prashant.baredar@gmail.com (P. Baredar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.047
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233 227

6. Future of renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

7. Current energy policies in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.1. National electricity policy 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.2. Electricity Act 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.3. Tariff policy 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.4. National rural electrification policies 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.5. National action plan on climate change 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8. Financing and fiscal incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9. Fiscal and financial barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10. Promotional centre of renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

1. Introduction
India is the fourth largest energy consumer in the world after
the United States, China, and Russia [1]. As of March 2013, the per
capita total electricity consumption in India was 917.2 kWh [2].
Electricity consumption in India is expected to rise to around 2280
BkWh by 2021–22 and around 4500 BkWh by 2031–32 [3]. India's
energy consumption has been increasing comparatively fast rate
due to increase in population and living standard as well. Current
centralized energy planning of India is mainly dependent on
thermal power plant for energy need and its percentage share is
near about 70% of total installed capacity of power plant [4]. This
over dependency creates pressure on fossil fuel. The main concern
arises on how to protect the fossil fuel for our coming generation
with simultaneously utilizing the different resources of energy for
high and sustained economic growth. Thermal Power Plant also
affects surrounding environment very badly. It is also worth to
note that very high amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission (0.9–
0.95 kg/kwh) and SOx, NOx emission from thermal power plants
contribute to global warming leading to climate change [5]. In the
past century, research and literature have concluded that CO2
concentration increased by 28% following the industrial revolu-
tion. The global average temperature has increased by 0.3 °C to
0.6 °C, and the sea level rose 10–15 cm in the past 100 years. Sci-
entists predict that if greenhouse gas emissions continue and no
effective protection policies for the environment are put into place,
the global temperature will increase by 1–3.5 °C, and the sea level
will increase by 15–95 cm [6]. Through electricity consumption
industry contributes about 37% of the global green house gas
emissions. Total energy-related emissions, which were 9.9 Gt CO2
in 2004, have grown by 65% since 1971 [7,8]. Due to global
warming people face natural disasters every year. In terms of per
capita equity India is 145th in the world with a release of 1.25 t
CO2 per annum [9]. Pressure to increase its energy supplies and
the consequent negative environmental impact of fossil fuels has
led India to a conscious policy toward renewable sources [10].
Similarly after coming in the class of developing country each
village of India has not been electrified. As of 31st March 2014 out
of a total 5,93,732 inhabited villages, only 5,72,414 (96.4%) villages
have got access to electricity. There are still 21,318 villages in India
which have got no access to electricity for irrigation, education
and lighting their houses. Development is only dream for people of
these villages. The main reason for this situation is that these
villages located at remote areas. Also a lot of investment is
required in setting up transmission and distribution (T&D)
mechanisms in the rural areas. Renewable energy become a very
suitable candidate in these case as it is much more cost effective
and less time consuming to set up in rural areas [11].
India's energy use efficiency for generating gross domestic
product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms is better
than the world average, but per capita power consumption is
among the lowest in the world. The country's per capita electricity
consumption has reached 1010 kW-h (kWh) in 2014–15, In com-
parison, China has a per capita consumption of 4000 kWh, with
developed nations averaging around 15,000 kWh per capita.
India's CO2 intensity is also one of the lowest at 0.22 kg of CO2 per
dollar of GDP PPP_$2000. This compares with 0.61 for China, 0.50
for US and 0.47 as global average. India's energy consumption
needs to grow, as energy is a vital input for economic growth and
for human development. Energy requirement itself depends on
the policies pursued. Thus one needs to develop alternative sce-
narios that capture the impact of different policy options. An
approach that facilitates such scenario construction is needed [12–
14]. The government of India also try to balance the country's
electricity demand with simultaneously environmental protection
from the use of coal and other energy sources to produce elec-
tricity. Therefore there is need of new sources of energy. Renew-
able energy is the main option in these circumstances. Available
potential of renewable energy can be explored and harnessed to
meet the energy demand. There are different sources of renewable
energy like Hydro, solar, wind and biomass energy present in our
nature to overcome the crisis of energy. With large power poten-
tial, these renewable sources will short out the problem of elec-
tricity generation in future.
Therefore the main objectives of this paper are to explore the
possible ways to provide electricity to each and everyone even in
remote areas of the country, second to reduce pressure on fossils
fuel and save it for next coming generation and third save the
environment from global warming and ultimately from natural
disasters.
2. Current energy scenario of India
India became the world's third largest producer of electricity in
the year 2013 with 4.8% global share in electricity generation
surpassing Japan and Russia but is still a power deficit country
[15]. Despite tremendous growth in electricity generation, country
continues to face both energy and peak deficit. During the year
2014–15, there would be energy shortage of 5.1% and peak
shortage of 2.0% [16]. As the economy grows in coming years the
electricity demand will further rise as there is strong correlation
between rise in energy consumption and economic growth. India
has been putting steady efforts at increasing its energy generation
capacity. However, the demand for energy has been continuously
outstripping supply. The table given below indicates the region
wise installation capacity of different sources of electricity. State-
owned and privately owned companies are significant players in
India's electricity sector, with the private sector growing at a faster
rate. India's central government and state governments jointly
regulate electricity sector in India (Table 1).
228 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233

Table 1
All India Installed capacity (in MW) of power utilities in region wise as on 31.11.2014 (including allocated shares in joint and central sector utilities) [4].

Region Mode wise breakup

Thermal Nuclear Hydro (Renewable) RES (MNRE) Grand Total

Coal Gas Diesel Total

Northern region 39481.0 5331.26 12.99 44825.25 1620.00 16598.11 5935.77 68979.13
Southern region 27382.50 4962.78 939.32 33284.60 1320.00 11398.03 13784.67 59787.30
Western region 58859.51 10915.41 17.48 69792.40 1840.00 7447.50 11271.07 90350.97
Eastern region 26527.88 190.00 17.20 26735.08 0.00 4113.12 432.86 31281.06
North-eastern region 60.00 1571.80 142.74 1774.54 0.00 1242.00 256.67 3273.21
Island 0.00 0.00 70.02 70.02 0.00 0.00 11.10 81.12
All India 153570.89 22971.25 1199.75 177741.89 4780.00 40798.76 31692.14 253389.48

3. Sources of energy 3.1.1. Environmental impact

India's coal reserves are characterized by low calorific value and
The Indian power sector is one of the most diversified in the high ash content thereby posing significant environmental chal-
world. The sector has been continuously progressing in generation lenges. Large land requirement for ash disposal and hazardous
capacity addition through conventional like Coal, lignite, gas, elements percolation to ground water through ash disposal in ash
hydro and nuclear power as well as non-conventional sources like ponds are the serious effects of thermal power stations. Particulate
Wind, solar, small hydro and biomass. Total installed capacity of matters, SO2, NOx and CO are emitted from the combustion of fuels
power plant in the country stands at 253.39 GW in which, Thermal in a thermal power plant. A 500 MWe plant using coal with 2.5%
power accounts for 69.5%, Renewable energy accounts for 12.5%, sulfur (S), 16% ash, and 30,000 kJ per kilogram (kJ/kg) heat content
Nuclear 2% [17] and Hydro holds a 16% share [4] (Fig. 1). will emit each day 200 metric tons of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 70 t of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and 500 t of fly ash if no controls are
present. In addition, the plant will generate about 500 t of solid
Renewable waste and about 17 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of thermal discharge
energy sources
12.5% [22]. The emission of large quantities of SO2 and NOx responsible
for acid-rain problems If released uncontrolled, these can affect
Hydro 16% humans, vegetation, buildings and monuments, aquatic & forest
Coal 60%
ecosystem [10]. Similarly demand of oil and natural gas is
Nuclear 2%
Oil 0.5% Natural Gas
increasing due to growth of automobiles and each year putting
9% substantial pressure on Indian economy leading to continuous
increase in import dependence in this sector [3].

Fig. 1. Sources of electricity in India by installation capacity as on 31.11.2014. 3.2. Nuclear energy

3.1. Thermal power plant
Thermal power plants are the major source of electricity gen-
eration in India and the current installed capacity of thermal
power plants (including coal, nuclear, oil/diesel) till November
2014 stands at around 177741.89 MW its share in electricity gen-
eration is 69.5% [4]. Thermal power plants convert energy rich fuel
into electricity and heat. Possible fuels use in thermal power
plants are coal, natural gas and petroleum products. Coal was the
first to be selected in India as a commercial fuel in early thermal
power stations and is still king of the power market. Coal and
lignite accounted for about 60% of India's installed capacity [18].
According to Integrated Energy Policy (IEP) estimates, India's coal
reserves are likely to run out in next 45 years, assuming a 5% per
annum growth in demand [19]. India has total gas reserves
(indicated and proven) of 1330 Billion cubic meters. If reserve/
production ratio is calculated on existing potential and production
level 493 billion cubic meters, reserve would be sufficient only for
approximately 20 years with no import [20]. Similarly India has
total reserves (proved and indicated) of 1201 million metric tonnes
of crude oil. During the year 2013–14 the import of crude oil was
189.238 MMT valued at Rs. 8,64,875 crore as against 184.795 MMT
production in 2012–13 valued at Rs. 7,84,652. The quantity of
petroleum products imported during 2013–14 was 16.718 MMT
valued at Rs. 74,605 crore [21]. It is expected that due to increase
in production of automobile demand of LPG will increase con-
tinuously and reach upto 18.680 MMT by 2014–2015 [3].
Nuclear Energy is the energy released by the nucleus of an
atom as the result of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or radioactive
decay. Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in
India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of elec-
tricity. Its percentage share is only 2% of total installed capacity
[17]. According to CEA report the current installed capacity of
nuclear power plants in India till November 2014 stands at around
4780 MW [4]. The draft 12th Five Year Plan has targeted a capacity
addition target of around 5300 MW from nuclear energy. In the
long term, the various scenarios under the Integrated Energy
Policy (IEP) envisage the nuclear capacity to be 48 GW to 63 GW
by year 2030 [21].
3.2.1. Environmental impact
Nuclear power is a controversial method of producing elec-
tricity. Many people and environmental organizations are very
concerned about the radioactive fuel it needs. There have been
serious accidents with a small number of nuclear power stations.
There are serious questions to be answered regarding the storage
of radioactive waste produced through the use of nuclear power.
Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 nuclear fission contains more
than 100 carcinogenic radionuclide isotopes such as strontium-90,
iodine-131 and caesium-137 [23]. Some of the waste remains
radioactive (dangerous) for thousands of years and is currently
stored in places such as deep caves and mines. Storing and mon-
itoring the radioactive waste material for thousands of years has a
high cost.
 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233
3.3. Hydro energy
Hydroelectric power plants convert the potential energy of
water into electrical energy. The hydroelectric power plant is built
on dam in which the height of dam is used to create potential
energy of water for generation of electricity. The first hydro-
electric power station in India was established in Karnataka at
"Shivana Samudra [24]. The present installed capacity as on
November 30, 2014 is approximately 40798.76 MW which is 16.1%
of total electricity generation in India [4]. The public sector has a
predominant share of 97% in this sector. National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company
(NEEPCO), Satluj jal vidyut nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Develop-
ment Corporation, NTPC-Hydro are a few public sector companies
engaged in development of hydroelectric power in India [24].
Considering availability of country's hydro potential as well as
need of power demand, hydro potential of neighboring countries
viz. Bhutan and Nepal is also being estimated which can be uti-
lized to meet our growing demand [20].
3.3.1. Environmental impact
Hydropower does not pollute the water or the air. Hydropower
plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions However;
development of hydroelectric projects stimulates many issue
related to land acquisition, environmental clearance, Rehabilita-
tion and resettlement of affected people, long gestation period.
Most hydroelectric power plants have a dam and a reservoir. These
structures may obstruct fish migration and affect their popula-
tions. Operating a hydroelectric power plant may also change the
water temperature and the river's flow. These changes may be
polluting and damaging to surrounding ecosystems.
3.4. Renewable energy
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are
replenished constantly. India is blessed with a variety of renewable
energy sources, the main ones being biomass, biogas, sun, wind,
geothermal, tidal and small hydro power. (Large hydro power is
also renewable energy in nature, but has been utilized all over the
world for many decades, and is generally not included in term new
and renewable source of energy). India's electricity sector is
amongst the world's most active players in renewable energy
utilization, especially wind energy [25]. As of 31 March 2014, India
had an installed capacity of about 31.69 GW of non-conventional
renewable technologies-based electricity [4] (Table 2).
Table 2
Installation capacity of renewable sources of energy as on 30.03.2014 [4].Source:
[MNRE].
S.no. Renewable sources of energy Installation capacity (MW)
1. Wind 21136.40
2. Solar 2631.93
3. Small hydro power 3803.68
4. Biomass power 4120.13
6. Total 31692.14
3.4.1. Need of renewable energy
Climate change is one of the primary concerns to go with
renewable energy. The current and foreseeable coal crisis at the
domestic front, coupled with green house gas emission such as
CO2, CH4, CFCs, halons, N2O, ozone and peroxy acetyl nitrate [26],
which are responsible in the atmosphere for trapping heat radi-
ated from Earth's surface and ultimately raising the surface tem-
perature rethinking and restructuring not only India's but world's
229
power infrastructure and energy dependencies. The increasing
global temperature and energy requirement in the end shift India's
need to sustainable and economically efficient renewable energy
resources along with improved energy efficiency measures. There
are huge amount of potential available in the renewable energy
system which can be explored and harnessed to meet the energy
demand. The potentially most important environmental problem
India is facing alarming challenges to build up its energy infra-
structure to meet its economic and social targets due to increasing
demand of electricity.
3.4.2. Wind energy
In terms of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked 5th in
the World. The present total installed capacity stands at
21136.40 MW (MNRE). It contributes to around 75% of the grid-
connected renewable energy power installed capacity [27]. Today
India is a major player in the global wind energy market. Tamil
Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Gujarat are the key
states which have been focusing on wind energy development in
India. Initial cost for wind turbines is greater than that of con-
ventional fossil fuel generators per MW installed. Despite the high
installed capacity, the actual utilization of wind power in India is
low because policy incentives are geared towards installation
rather than operation of the plants. This is why only 1.6% of actual
power production in India comes from wind although the installed
capacity is 8.6% [3,4]. Lack of wind or high speed of wind affects
variability of power generation through wind. The complete
dependence on climatic conditions is major obstacle in this case.
3.4.2.1. Environmental impact. Wind turbine produce mechanical
noise mainly from the gearbox and the generator. In addition
aerodynamic noise is arises from changes in wind speed experi-
ment by the blades as they pass the tower. Other moving parts of
the turbines too cause noise. The modern turbines create very
little noise. The noise created by a single turbine at a distance of
40 m is around 50–60 dB [28,29]. But the noise pollution through
wind turbine is not significant because the acceptable noise limits
for home appliances recommended by CPCB are much higher in
comparison to the noise created by a wind farm.
3.4.3. Solar energy
Among the various renewable energy resources, solar energy
potential is the highest in the country. The equivalent energy
potential is about 6000 million GWh of energy per year.. India lies
in the sunny regions of the world. Most parts of India receive 4–
7 kW h of solar radiation per square meter per day with 250–300
sunny days in a year [6]. The National Solar Mission targeting
20,000 MW grid solar Power, 2000 MW of off-grid capacity
including 20 million solar lighting systems and 20 million square
meters solar thermal collector area by 2022 is under imple-
% of Share
mentation [30].
66.7
8.3 3.4.3.1. Environmental impact. The solar projects are not com-
12 pletely emission free. The emissions from such projects may fur-
13 ther increase if the sites are located in land with vegetation. GHG
100
emission from 100 MW solar power plant is 15.6 g CO2/KWhe.
Apart from GHG emissions, mercury and cadmium emissions too
are associated with solar power plant. These elements are used in
making of solar modules. Emission of mercury from solar power
plant is approximate 0.1 g Hg/GWh and cadmium from Cd–Te PV
cell is approximate 0.02 g Cd/GWh [28]. Photovoltaic systems
require a negligible amount of land area because they are typically
placed on existing structures. In contrast, solar-thermal technol-
ogies may require a significant amount of land, depending upon
the specific solar-thermal technology used.
230 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233
3.4.4. Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy comes from the natural heat of the Earth
primarily due to the decay of the naturally radioactive isotopes of
uranium, thorium and potassium. Around 6.5 per cent of elec-
tricity generation in the world would be done with the help of
geothermal energy and India would have to play a bigger role in
the coming years in this direction. Geological survey of India
estimates the potential of geothermal energy to be the order of
10,000 MW to become a leading contributor in generating eco-
friendly and cost effective geothermal power. But, the power
generation through geothermal resources is still in nascent stages
in India. Chandrasekharam estimates an installed capacity of
203 MW [31,32]. Unlike in the sectors of wind and solar energy,
few benefits or incentives have been formulated or announced to
attract investment in geothermal energy. India plans to set up its
first geothermal power plant, with 2–5 MW capacity at Puga in
Jammu and Kashmir [33].
3.4.4.1. Environmental impact. Emissions associated with generat-
ing electricity from geothermal technologies are negligible
because no fuels are combusted. Geothermal power plants can
possibly cause groundwater contamination when drilling wells
and extracting hot water or steam. However, this type of con-
tamination can be prevented with proper management techni-
ques. In addition, geothermal power plants often re-inject used
water back into the ground (through separate wells) instead of
discharging the used water into surface waters. This prevents
underground minerals or pollutants from being introduced into
surface waters.
3.4.5. Small hydro energy
Hydro projects in India, which are under 25 MW in capacity,
are classified as “small hydropower” and considered as a
“renewable” energy source. The sector has been growing rapidly
for the last decade. SHP is by far the oldest renewable energy
technology used to generate electricity in India. The current total
installed capacity of small hydropower plants is 3803.68 MW [4].
The energy of running water has been exploited for many years.
However, Hydro projects can be unreliable during prolonged
droughts and dry seasons when rivers dry up or reduce in volume.
3.4.5.1. Environmental impact. There is no serious measurable
environmental impact by small hydro energy.
3.4.6. Tidal energy
Energy available in water because of the rise and fall of water
level during high and low tides. Tidal energy technologies harvest
energy from the seas. Power generation through tidal energy has
been found to be a technically viable option, when considering the
sea as a resource. In India, Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambayin
Gujarat and delta of Ganga in Sunderbans, Parganas district, West
Bengal are potential sites for generating tidal power. The identified
economic power potential is of the order of 8000 MW with about
7000 MW in the Gulf of Cambay, about 1200 MW in the Gulf of
Kachchh in the State of Gujarat and about 100 MW in the Gangetic
Delta in the Sunderbans region in the State of West Bengal.
Installation of tidal power generation devices may cause sig-
nificant disturbance to the local environment [34].
3.4.6.1. Environmental impact. Environmental impact of tidal
energy is not known. There may be the possibility of noise
pollution.
3.4.7. Wave energy
Waves are formed by wind blowing over the surface of ocean.
Wave energy is a renewable energy whereby we capture the energy
that is being generated naturally by waves and can transmit their
energy over long distances with little degradation. A number of
devices have been built over the last 30 years for converting wave
energy into electricity. The devices built have been located on the
shore line, near the shore or off-shore. No worthwhile commercia-
lization has taken place till date, therefore it is difficult to give any
estimate for India and the chances that a significant amount of wave
energy will be converted to electricity in the future are poor.
3.4.7.1. Environmental impact. Environmental impact of wave
energy is still unidentified. Wave energy might impact the marine
environment, biological communities, and individual species.
3.4.8. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) utilizes the thermal
gradient available in the ocean to operate a heat engine to produce
work output. India is geographically well placed and OTEC plants
are available on the Indian coast and in the island groups in the
Indian Ocean, An OTEC plant was attempted off the coast of Tamil
Nadu (60 kms off Tuticorin) by the National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT) with a gross generation capacity of 1 MW (net
power 500 kW). This is the world's first floating plant. but still
Ocean energy is at an early stage of development and can be
compared to the state of the wind industry in the early 1980.
Ocean energy remains a wild card in the renewable power gen-
eration portfolio [32,35].
3.4.9. Biomass energy
Renewable source of energy other than hydropower e.g. solar,
wind and geothermal sources, currently provide only a small
fraction of global energy use. The most prevalent source of energy
is biomass. Biomass is biological material derived from living, or
recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-
based materials which are specifically called ligno-cellulosic bio-
mass [36]. Biomass include wood, logging wastes and sawdust,
animal dung and vegetable matter consisting of leave, crop resi-
dues and agricultural waste. According to the CEA, India had at
least 3.4 GW of utility-based installed capacity in biomass power
and bagasse-based cogeneration plants as of mid-2013. India's
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy reports the country has
18 GW of potential biomass electricity generation capacity and
5 GW of potential bagasse-based generation. A large amount of
biomass used for electricity generation comes from bagasse (cru-
shed sugarcane or sorghum stalks), which can be used in
combustion-powered generators. In India, the biomass pro-
grammes are mainly targeted to meet the needs of rural and
remote areas and have helped in reaching electricity to the interior
un-reached section of the population. Globally, biomass fuels
accounts for 13% of total energy requirements. Biomass is one such
source that can be used to provide sustainable supply of the
required energy through biogas, vegetable oil, biodiesel, producer
gas, and by directly burning the biomass. Biomass can be con-
verted into suitable form of energy through different conversion
technology. Biomass power generation in India is an industry that
attracts investments of over Rs. 600 crores every year, generating
more than 5000 million units of electricity and yearly employment
of more than 10 million man-days in the rural areas [37].
3.4.9.1. Environmental impact. Biomass contains very less amount
of sulfur and nitrogen therefore emission of sulfur oxide and
nitrogen oxide is very less compare to thermal power plant.
Burning of biomass also produces carbon dioxide the primary
greenhouse gas, it is considered to be part of the natural carbon
cycle of the earth. The plants take up carbon dioxide from the air
while they are growing and then return it to the air when they are
burned, thereby causing no net increase of carbon dioxide in
 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233 231

Fig. 2. Showing growth of renewable energy from FY 2007–15. Source: MNRE, May 2015 [38].

atmosphere. Biomass power plants require water in the boiler and Table 3
cooling system. The water used for cooling is much warmer when Levelized cost of electricity production (Rs. /kWh) through different sources.

it is returned to the lake or river than when it was removed.

Energy source Levelized cost of electricity production (Rs. /kWh)
Pollutants in the water and the higher temperature of the water
can harm fish and plants in the lake or river where the power Coal/natural gas 2.2–2.6
plant water is discharged. Wind 2.75–3.5
Biomass 3.5–5.0
Solar PV 10–12
Solar CSP 8–10
4. Comparison between present versus previous situation of Small hydro 2.2–3
Large hydro 2.3–3.2
renewable energy
Diesel generator sets 13–15

The concerns by different countries because of global warming

improve competitiveness of renewable energy with fossils fuel.
From Fig. 2 it is clear that from last 10 years capacity of renewable
energy becomes just triple. Percentage share of wind energy is
always greater among all sources of renewable energy and often
competitive with fossil fuel generated energy. It is continuously
increasing because the wind turbine prices fell in the 1990s and
remains stable from the past 10 years. However the average
capacity factor gradually grew over the past decade. More efficient
turbines generate more electricity per turbine leading to an overall
reduction of generation costs. Growth in the PV sector has also
been very fast in recent years after the announcement of the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission in 2009. Solar PV costs
are declining rapidly and costs for solar photovoltaic generators
declined by around 50% between 2010 and 2014. If these trends
continue, grid parity with residential electricity tariffs will soon be
the norm in many countries, Hydropower provides the cheapest
electricity of any generation technology but it requires geo-
graphical situation and many types of construction therefore its
growth is somewhat slower than solar PV and wind. Many bio-
mass power generation technologies are mature and biomass is a
competitive power generation option wherever low-cost agri-
cultural or forestry waste is available. Now a-days environmental
problem is observing by direct burning of agriculture residue in
Punjab and Haryana so electricity generation will be increasing in
coming year through biomass energy.
6. Future of renewable energy
India, with its increasing population and limited natural resources
for fulfill its energy requirements, needs to maintain its momentum
of growth and this can be made possible only by opting available
energy options. Renewable energy is the best option. Shortage of
fossils fuel and awareness towards global warming enhance the clean
energy production. Therefore use of renewable sources increasing
gradually in coming years. It is clear from given graph, capacity
penetration of renewable energy will reach 33% in 2030 from present
12%, whereas in electricity generation terms, renewable energy is
expected to rise from around 6% to16% by 2030, thus making share of
Renewable generation capacity next to coal. It also specific that due to
coal shortage and initiative towards clean and green energy devel-
opment, dependency on coal based generation would reduce from
present 70% to 58% by 2030. [19,20]. According to a document of the
Planning Commission of India [39], the projected installed capacities
of renewable energy based power generation in India in 2031–2032
will be 243,494 MW out of a total generation capacity of 700,703 MW.
The total contribution of new renewable energy sources would be
122 Mtoe, with hydro contributing 35 Mtoe and the other sources
contributing 87 Mtoe [40] (Figs. 3 and 4).
10
00% 2 4 9
90%
9 12
17
80%
8
20 33 Nuclear
70%
7 15
Capacity %

5. Economic viability of renewable energy Renewable

60%
6 9 6
The initial capital cost of installation is higher in most of the 50%
5 13 Hydro
40%
4 3
renewable sources except hydro. But the cost of operation and Gas
maintenance is comparatively cheaper than thermal or nuclear 30%
3 57
56 Oil
power plants. Also since the cost of fuel is none for renewable 20%
2 42
energy sources. With increase in prices of coal, gas and other fossil Coal
10%
1
fuels renewable sources will become comparable or cheaper than
conventional power sources and will thus become economically 0%
2012 2017 2030
viable. Levelized cost of electricity production (LCOE) of renewable
Year
Y
energy technologies varies by technology, country and project,
based on the renewable energy resource, capital and operating Fig. 3. Fuel mix – installed capacity basis. Source: Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan
costs and the efficiency/performance of the technology (Table 3). 2012–17.
232 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233
Fig.4. Fuel mix – generation. Source: Draft Twelfth Five Year Plan 2012–17.
7. Current energy policies in India
Even though government incentives and national policies
existed to encourage renewable power generation in India, until
1990, there was no significant participation from the private sec-
tor. The participation from the private sector started effectively
after the declaration of the “private power policy” in 1991 [41]
therefore the ultimate objective of the renewable energy policy
framework is to significantly increase the share of renewable
energy source in India's energy mix. Different energy policies
announced by Indian government to enhance power generation
from conventional and non-conventional sources especially
focusing on renewable power generation are given below:
7.1. National electricity policy 2005
The National Electricity Policy was introduced in 2005 to access
the electricity, availability of power demand, to overcome the
energy and peaking shortages, to supply reliable quality power at
reasonable rates, to increase the per capita availability of elec-
tricity by 1000 units, and also to make the electricity sector
commercially viable to take care of consumers' interests [42,43].
7.2. Electricity Act 2003
In 2003, the Electricity Act came into existence, originating
from three of the earlier acts that regulated the electricity sector,
viz., the Indian Electricity Act (1910), the Electricity (Supply) Act
(1948) and the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act (1998). The
electricity act contains different section which focuses toward
rural electrification, transmission and distribution, the promotion
of cogeneration and generation of electricity from renewable
sources of energy by providing, suitable measures for connectivity
with the grid and sale of electricity to any person, and also specify,
for purchase of electricity from such sources, tariff principles,
establishment of the CEA, trading development, measures against
electricity theft, restructuring of state electricity boards (SEBs), etc.
[42–45].
7.3. Tariff policy 2006
The Tariff Policy announced in January 2006 to fix minimum
percentage for purchasing of energy considering the availability of
resources, procurement by distribution companies at preferential
tariffs etc. [42,43].
7.4. National rural electrification policies 2006
The National Rural Electrification Policies were established in
2006 to come up with the objectives of providing access to elec-
tricity (reliable quality power supply) to all households by the year
2009 and to provide energy to all villages either through grid
connected or through off-grid solutions, such as stand-alone sys-
tems [42,43].
7.5. National action plan on climate change 2008
On June 30, 2008, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh released
India's first National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
outlining existing and future policies and programs addressing
climate mitigation and adaptation. The NAPCC includes eight
missions of which the major two energy related missions are the
Jawaharlal NehruNational Solar Mission (JNNSM) and the National
Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE). The objective of
JNNSM to make solar energy competitive with fossil based energy.
The objectives of the NMEEE include demand management with a
target to save at least 10 GW of energy by the end of 2012 [42,46].
Similarly integrated energy policy 2006 and 2008, different
state policies,five year plans are implemented by government time
to time to promote renewable energy and to encourage private
sector in this field.
8. Financing and fiscal incentives
Renewable energy technologies require large initial capital
investments, making the levelized cost of generation higher than it
is for many conventional sources. The availability of financing
options shall play an important role in increasing the share of
renewable energy in India. The MNRE provides financial incentives
for various renewable energy programmes. These include interest
and capital subsidies. In addition, soft loans are provided through
IREDA and also through some of the nationalized banks and other
financial institutions for identified technology. The MNRE has
issued guidelines to all state governments for creation of an
attractive environment for evacuation and purchase, wheeling and
banking of electrical power from RE sources. The Ministry has
urged that the states should announce general policies for pur-
chase of electrical power from all sources. The fiscal incentives
include direct taxes, exemption or reduction in excise duty,
exemption from central sales tax, and customs duty concessions
on the import of material, components and equipment used in RE
projects [47].
9. Fiscal and financial barriers
Although India has enough potential of renewable energy to
overcome the crisis of electricity and provide energy to everyone
after that we are facing problem to implement the policies all over
the country. The initial capital cost RE projects tends to be much
higher than fossil fuel plant, this makes exposure to risk a long
term challenge and main barrier to take participation from private
sector. Previously risk of non-provision of subsidies because of
limited or non-availability of resources with the government is
also significant since these subsidies may be the lifeline of the
project. In case of many RETs, the risks related to technology are
high. Since the technology is at a developmental stage, the risks
remaining are not clearly known [46].
 L. Tripathi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60 (2016) 226–233
10. Promotional centre of renewable energy
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the
nodal Ministry of the Government of India for the development of
new and renewable energy. The broad aim of the Ministry is to
develop and deploy new and renewable energy for supplementing
the energy requirements of the country. India is one of the first
countries to establish a separate Ministry for New and Renewable
Energy (i.e. MNRE) at the central level. A number of institutions
have been created in India for promotion of renewable energy.
Institutions like Solar Energy Centre, Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA), Centre for Wind Energy Technology
(C-WET), Alternate Hydro Energy Centre (AHEC), Sardar Swaran
Singh National Institute of Renewable Energy (SSS-NIRE) have
been playing a critical role for facilitating the installation of
renewable energy in the country. At the State level, State Nodal
Agencies (SNAs) were set upto carry out MNRE's mandate and
implement projects/programmes. The Jawaharlal Nehru National
Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched to promote power genera-
tion from solar energy in the country [20].
11. Conclusion
The emission of greenhouse gases from the power sector and
scarcity of fossils fuel boost the efforts for development and pro-
motion of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy will
increasingly play an important role in the overall energy mix in
the country and will continue to contribute towards addressing
the present and future power supply deficits as well as enhancing
the energy access in remote areas. It was calculated that the
emissions of green house gas can be reduced from 4% to 45% in the
upcoming years of 2020. These include up to 14% by replacing coal
with renewable energy. India has sufficient potential of renewable
energy but combination of the right technology and correct
human behavior is needed because every technology have their
own limitation. Enhancement of R&D activity, innovation of new
technology, benchmarking etc is also required for efficiency
improvement, More and more government support through Sub-
sidy and support to the local entrepreneurs, tax exemption, feed-in
tariffs (FITs), green certificate (GC), production tax credit (PTC),
investment tax credit (ITC), soft loan etc. are also highly recom-
mended for promoting renewable energy technologies.
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