Branches of Anatomy

Gross anatomy:
Gross anatomy is the study of macroscopic details of human body structure. Because
gross anatomy is concerned only with macroscopic details, therefore it does not require the
aid of any instrument. Generally gross anatomy is studied on dead bodies because you
cannot dissect a living human just to study anatomy; therefore gross anatomy is also known
as cadaveric anatomy. There are two approaches to study gross anatomy: Systemic
Approach and Regional Approach. In systemic approach, human body is studied in different
systems and in regional approach, human body is studied in different regions. The end result
of both approaches is the same but generally for students of surgery, regional approach is
preferred.

Living anatomy:
In contrast to the cadaveric anatomy, in living anatomy deals with the study of live
human beings and not dead bodies, therefore methods like dissection cannot be applied.
Techniques to study living anatomy include palpation, percussion, auscultation etc.

Embryology:
Embryology is also known as developmental anatomy. It is concerned with the study of
development of an embryo from a single cell to a complete human being. Embryology
provides details of the prenatal and postnatal developmental changes in the body and the
mechanisms by which these changes occur.

Histology:
Histology is also known as microscopic anatomy. It deals with the study of microscopic
details of tissues that make human body.

Surface anatomy:
Surface anatomy, as the named indicates, is anatomy of the surface of human body
structures. It is also known as topographic anatomy. Surface anatomy establishes a relation
between the internal structures of human body with its surface. It enables a medical
professional to locate the position of internal organs from surface of the body and therefore it
is very important for surgical operations. Sometimes surface anatomy is described as a sub-
branch of gross anatomy but it is better to write it separately to highlight its importance.

Clinical anatomy:
Clinical anatomy is the application of anatomical knowledge to clinical practice. This
branch is a more practical aspect of human anatomy and is of supreme importance for
medical professionals.
Imaging anatomy:
Body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays, MRI, CT scans

Branches of Physiology

Human and Animal Physiology:

Human and animal physiology are actually part of the same discipline, and may be
covered as one coherent whole. Sometimes the two disciplines are separated, though. Within
these sub-disciplines, the field can be further divided into other branches, including
pathophysiology, which examines the physiology of disease, and system physiology, which
evaluates body systems such as the cardiovascular system.
Microscopic Physiology:

Microscopic physiology analyzes small organisms, and is usually subdivided into cellular
physiology, bacterial physiology and viral physiology. This field of physiology has significant
crossover with human and animal physiology, since bacteria and viruses so frequently affect
larger living organisms. Because cells are the building blocks of organs and physiological
systems, cellular physiology may be covered as a part of human or animal physiology.
Developmental Physiology:

Developmental biology tracks the ways in which physiological systems change across
the life span. For example, many animals are born with cartilage that later turns into bone, and
human fetuses resemble other animals -- such as fish -- at various phases in their development.
Developmental physiology may also examine the effects that both genetic and
environmental influences have on an organism's development.
Comparative Physiology:

Comparative physiology compares the physiology of multiple organisms, and may

incorporate elements of developmental physiology to make the comparisons more complete.
Comparative physiology can yield evidence for evolution, aid scientists in determining the
taxonomic relationships between organisms, and help researchers uncover how and when
body structures such as wings or tails evolved.
Practical Physiology:

Practical physiology isn't so much a field of physiology as it is a broad term for fields of
study that attempt to find and implement practical uses for physiology. This field includes
disciplines such as exercise and high-altitude physiology. Medical and nursing students may
take classes in these branches of the discipline, or the information from these branches may
be incorporated into other courses.
 Levels of Organization of the Human Body

Unicellular organisms are made of only one cell which performs all the function essential for
the growth and multiplication of the organism. In multicellular organisms, however, there are
different levels of organization which coordinate and work together for the proper functioning
of the organism.
The human body has five levels of organization
Level 1: Cells

Cells are the basic units of life and form the first level of organization. Cells in the human body
have specific functions. Examples include nerve cells, blood cells, liver cells, and so on. Cells
themselves are made of various macromolecules that form organelles. Each organelle in a
cell has a defined role, which makes a cell capable of delivering what it is designed to do.
Level 2: Tissues

A group of cells with similar structure and function is called a tissue. A tissue has a specific
function which it accomplishes as a result of all its constituent cells working together. Examples
for the tissues are cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle tissue, epithelial tissue, blood tissue,
nerve tissue, and so on.
Level 3: Organs

Two or more tissues organize to form organs, which serve a specific function. Examples are
brain, heart, lungs, kidney, liver, and so on, each of which have definite functions. Most organs
are made of all four types of tissue. The intestine, for example, is made of epithelial tissue as
the inner lining, which helps in enzyme secretion and nutrient absorption. Epithelial tissue is
covered by layers of muscle tissue, which help in peristaltic movements to move the food
bolus. The intestine is also supplied by blood tissue (connective tissue) which helps in
transporting nutrients absorbed by the intestine, and is connected to the brain through the
nerve tissue, which conveys instructions from the brain.
Level 4: Organs system

A group of organs form the organ system, and together they perform a particular function.
The heart and the blood vessels together make the cardiovascular system. Organs such as the
nose, pharynx, trachea, lungs and the diaphragm work together as the respiratory system. The
mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, and the intestines together form the digestive
system. Other examples of organ system include the endocrine system, integumentary system,
muscular system, reproductive system, skeletal system, urinary system, immune system, etc.
Level 5: Organism
All the organ systems work together and carry out all life process in an organism. They can eat,
excrete, grow, reproduce, and respond to environment.
 Essential Characteristic of Life

1st Characteristic of Life

Cell & Organization

* Example each cell can only perform the job associated with its specific function such as
heart cells, brain cells etc.

2nd Characteristic of Life

Energy use and metabolism

To maintain their internal order, energy is needed by organisms. Energy is utilized in chemical
reactions.

3rd Characteristic of Life

Response to environmental changes
responds to stimuli

4th Characteristic of Life

Regulation and homeostasis

ex. internal regulation of our body to maintain a stable environment

5th Characteristic of Life

Growth and development

all living things get larger and more complex throughout the organism's life

6th Characteristic of Life

Reproduction

7th Characteristic of Life

Biological evolution

the change over time of living organisms

Homeostasis:
The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent
elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.
Differentiate the positive and negative feedback
Regarding biological mechanisms, positive and negative feedback are known products of
molecular and physiological processes. Both are control systems that are involved in the
body’s homeostasis or the propensity of organisms to maintain balance and regulate their
internal environment. Without these feedbacks, an organism would lose its capacity to self-
regulate. Basically, positive feedback amplifies the original stimulus while negative feedback
slows it down. The following concepts expound on their differences.