Current Electricity Typ

Current Electricity
Introduction
In the last chapter we discussed electrostatics-the physics

of stationary charges. In this chapter, we discuss the physics of
fe
lectric
electric currents-that i s, charges in motion. Examples
o
currents abound and i nvolve many professions. Meteorologists
are concerned with l ightning and with the less d
ramatic slow flow
of charge through the atmosphere. Biologists, physiologists, and
engineers working in medical technology are concemed with the
nerve currents that control muscles and especially with how those
currents can be reestablished after spinal cord injuries. Electrical
engineers are concerned with countless electrical systems, such as
power systems, lightning protection systems, i nformation storage
systems, and music systems. Space engineers monitor and study the
flow of charged particles from our Sun because that flow can wipe out
telecommunication systems in orbit and even power transmission
systems on the ground. In t his chapter we discuss the basic
physics of electric currents and why they can b e established in
some materials but not in others. We begin with the meaning of electric
current.
Electric Current
The time rate of flow of charge through any
cross-section is called c urrent.
i = Lim 40
dQ
It-R0 Stdt If flow is uniform then i => Current is a scalar
quantity. It's S.I. unit is ampere (A) and C.G.S. unit is emu and is called
biot (Bi), or ab ampere. IA =(1/10) Bi (ab amp.)
Note:
(2 )
Ampere of current means the flow of 6.25 * 10'electrons/sec through any
cross-section of the conductor. The conventional direction of current is taken to
be the direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is
opposite to the
direction of flow of negative charge as shown below.
(3)
The net charge in a current
carrying conductor is zero.
For a given conductor current does not change with change in cross-sectional
area. In the following figure i, = i, ai,
(5)
Current due to translatory motion of
charge: If n particle each having a
charge q, pass through a given
area in time t then i=
If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit
area, the current associated with cross sectional arca A is i=nqa If
there are n particle per unit v
olume each having a charge q and
moving with velocity v, t he current thorough, cross section A is
i=nqua Current due to rotatory m otion of charge: If a point charge q is
moving in a circle of radius r with speed v (frequency v, angular
speed and time period T) then corresponding current
(6)
)
(7
Current carriers : The charged particles whose flow in a definite
direction constitutes the electric current are called current carriers. In
different situation current carriers are different. (i) Solids : In solid
conductors like metals current carriers are free clectrons. (ii) Liquids
: In liquids current carriers are positive and negative ions. (iii) Gases :
In gases current carriers are positive ions and free electrons. (iv)
Semiconductor: In semi c onductors current carriers are holes and
free electrons.
(8)
Current, as defined by above Equation, is a scalar because both
charge and time in that equation are scalars. Yet, as in Figure (a), we
often represent a current with an arrow to indicate that charge is moving. Such
re not vectors, however, and they do not require vector addition.
arrows a
Figure s hows a conductor with current isplitting at a junction into two
branches. Because charge is conserved, the magnitudes of the currents in the
branches must add to yield the magnitude of the current in the original
conductor, so that
1=1,+i,
The current into the

junction must equal
the current out
(charge is
conserved).
As Figure (b) suggests, bending or reorienting the wires in space
does not change the validity of above Equation. Current arrows show
only a direction (or sense) of flow along a conductor, not a direction in space.
The relation i = 1,+ i is true at junction a no matter what the
orientation in space of the three wires. Currents are scalars, not
harge flown through a cross section of conductor
vectors. Total
c
whoes current (i) is given will be q= idt, we integrate with in
prescribed limits to time
9.
Current Density (i)

Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as a
vector having magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding
that point.
Current density at point

Pis given by
If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the

current, but makes an angle to current then
with the
direction of
di c osa
Jadi
JA cose > di = JdAcoso = = J.JA =
i=1T.JA
irection of i coincides with the direction of current flow at
Note : (1)
D
that point. So it is a vector quntity whose
direction is defined with the electric field at that point. (2) If
current density, is uniform for a normal cross-section Ā then
Jam ( 3) Current density j is a vector quantity. It's direction is same
as that of Ē. It's S.I. unit is amp/m' and
dimension [L'A). In case of uniform flow of charge
through a cross-section normal to it as i = nqvA So J
= = = nav
(5)
; where o-conductivity and
p-resistivity or
Current density relates with
electric field as J = 0Ē = specific
resistance of substance.
Illustration :
A copper wire of d iameter 1.02 mm carries a current o

f1 . 7 amp. Find t he drift
lectrons i n t he w
velocity ( v) of e ire. G
iven n
, n
umber d ensity o fe lectrons i n
8.5 x 10"/m
copper = '
.
Sol.
1
1=
.7 A J
=
current density
1
r ?
1.7
Tx(0.51x10-32
= ney

= 8.5 x 108 (1.6 *
10"") *
1.7
.: x(0.51x103)2x8.5x1028 x
1.6x10-19
= 1.5 * 10 m/sec. = 1.5
mm/sec.
Mlustration :
f NaCl disch
A solution o arges 6.5 x 104 Na ions and 4. 2 * 10% CI
ind the to tal current passing through the solution.
ions in / sec. F
Sol.
The total current through a solution (conductor ) is due to all the
charge carriers (moving in opposite directions if they are
oppositely charged.
6.5x106 +4.2 x
1016
I sec = 10.7 x 1046 1.6
10' coulomb/sec. = 1.7 x 10-4
Illustration :
The magnitude J of the current density in a certain lab wire with a

cir cular cross section of radius R
=
2.00 mm is given by J = (3.00 x 10'),
wi th j in amperes per square meter and radial distance r in meters. What is
the current through the outer section bounded by r = 0.900R and r = R ?
Ass uming J is directed along the wire (with no radial flow) we
integrate, starting
l
So
.
i = Slöjda = f(xr 12trde = - kæro
-0.686R")
4R/10
Where k = 3 . 0 x109 and SI units are understood. There

fore if R
= 0.00200m. We obtain i = 2.59x10' A.
Illustration :
What is the current in

a wire of radius R = 3.40 mm if the magnitude of
the current density is given by (a) J. = J,/R and (b) J. = J,(1 - r/ R), in
which r is the radial distance and J . = 5.50 10° A/ m
t? (c) Which
function maximizes the current density near the wire's surface ?
Sol.
(a) The c
urrent resulting f rom t his
nonuniform c urrent density is
ir ju, on = r2modr ==R*), =}+3.40x10
•mx5.50x10^am)
Gylinder =
1.33 A. In
this case
i s J,da jer 2 tedr = { rr’so = **R?!0 - 3 213.40x10 m7°15.50x

10^/m?)
(c )
cylinder = 0.666 A The
result is different from that in part (a) because J,
is higher near the center of the cylinder ( where the area is smaller for the
same radial interval) and lower outward, resulting in lower average current density
over the cross section and consequent ly a lower current than that in part (a). So J
has its maximum value near the surface of the wire.
Practice
Exercise
Q.1
Q.2
A steady current passes through a cylindrical conductor. Is
there an electric field inside the conductor? 1f0.6 mol of electrons
flow through a wire in 45 min what are (a) the total charge that passes
through the wire, and (b) the magnitude of the current.
Answers
Q.1
Yes
Q.2
(a) 5.7*10°C (b)21.41
Amp
Model for Electric

Conduction
We describe a classical model of electrical conduction in metals that

was first proposed by Paul Drude (1863-1906) in 1900.
Consider a conductor as a regular array of atoms plus a collection of free

electrons, which are some times called conduction electrons. The
conduction electrons, although bound to their respective atoms when the
atoms are not part of a solid, become free when the atoms condense into a solid. In the
absence of an electric field, the conduction electrons move in random directions
through the conductor Fig below. The situation is similar to the motion
of gas molecules confined in a vessel. In fact, some scientists refer to
conduction electrons in a metal as an electron gas.
When an electric field is applied, the free electrons drift slowly in a
direction opposite that of the electric field (Figure Below), with an
average drift speed y, that is much smaller (typically 10 m/s) than their
average speed between collisions (typically loʻm/s).
The random motion of the charge ariis modit

by de lidhl und die ledik
velocity opposite the
direction of the
electric field
In our model, we make the following

assumptions:
I.
The electron's motion after a collision is independent of its motion before
the collision. The excess energy acquired by the electrons in the electric
field is transferred to the atoms of the con ductor when the electrons and
atoms collide. We are now in a position to derive an expression for
the drift velocity. When a free electron of mass m and charge q =
-c) is subjected to an electric field È , it experiences a force
F = qĒ. The electron is a particle under a net force, and its
acceleration can be found from Newton's second law, F =
mä:
ä-SFĒ
m me Because
the electric field is uniform, the
electron's acceleration is constant, so the electron can be mod
eled as a particle under constant acceleration. If y; is the
electron's initial velocity the instant after a col l ision (which
occurs at a time defined as t = 0), the velocity of the electron at a very
short time t later (immediately before the next collision occurs) is,
from equation
ir = y;+ at = 1;
+9E
Let's now take the average value of yr for all the electrons in the
wire over all psoible collision timest and all possible value of v.
Assuming the initial velocities are randomly distributed over all
possible directions, the average value of y, is zero. The average
value of the second terms of equation is (qĒ/m,) t, where t is the
average time interal between successive collisions. Because the
average value of yr is equal to the drift velocity.
Vrave = V1
=qE
Drift Velocity
Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a
n electric field which is responsible for
metal by the application of
a
current t hrough i t. Drift velocity is very small it is of the order
of 10 m/s as compared to thermal speed ( - 10 m/s) of electrons at
room temperature.
LI
If suppose for a conductor n= Number of

electron per unit volume of the conductor
A=Area of cross-section V= potential
difference across the conductor E =
electric field inside the conductor
i=current, J = current density, p=specific

resitance, o= conductivity
=
i=
then current relates with drift velocity as
IE V
neAv, we can also write W
t ne ne pne plne T
" ne he direction of drift velocity for
electron in a metal is opposite to that of applied electric field (i.e.
current density ). V
E i.e. greater the electric field, larger will be
the drift velocity
When a steady current flows through a conductor of
non-uniform cross-section drift velocity varies
(2)
inversely with area of

cross-section
A, <A
so V
dy >
(3)
If diameter (d) of a conductor is doubled, then drift velocity of
electrons inside it will not change.
More - d
Relaxation time (t): The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with
the positive
-. With
mcan free path
ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time
tame val
llic lattice is defined as relaxation time c.m.s. velocity of
electrons r ise in temperature increases consequently
decreases. Mobility:
Drift velocity per unit electric
field is called mobility of electron i.e.us
(5)
. It's
unit is
volt - sec
Illustration :
Sol.
Find the electric current in a conductor (copper) of cross-section A = Inm,
conduction electron d
ensity = 8.69x10*/m’and drift speed v; = 1
n
cm /s. i = nev, A = 8.69 x 10 * 1.6 x 10"* 1 0' * / 10 = 8,69 * 1.6 x 10' amp
Illustration :
n, electron/s passes through a given cross-section towards

right with velocity v, and n, proton/s p
asses through the same
ss-section with velocity v, in the same direction. Find the current
cro
through a given cross-sectional. Puin, = 1. 5 * 10' and n
, = 10'".

Sol
i - 19-AN,91 -
DN.
Ar
Ar
-91 dt
i = i, + i ,
- ( -est (ente
1 = ( n,- n, e = (1.5 x 10^- / x 10') 1.6 x 10" =
0.5 * 10 amp
Illustration :
Find the current associated with an electron revolving with a speed y = 10

m/s in an orbit of
charge Aq (= -e) flows
ol. T
radius R = 1A. S he
(passes) through a fixed point during a time A1 = 1.
2AR
Then, i =
where T = -
Then, i-
where –
25R
or
(1.6x10-"X(10%), 0.26x10-'A
i- 2TR 2x 22 x(10-10
Illustration :
Find the current associated with a m

oving s traight w ire o f linear c harge
densi ty i = 2 uC/m
a nd o
fc
ross-s
ection A = 2 m m' , when t he wire i s p
ulled with
a speed y = 2 m/s .
da
Sol.
td
Le q (= dl ) p
asses t hrough a
given
vertical p lane in time dt.
Then, i
van
= 2 * 10' x 2 = 4 mA

Illustration :
A homogeneous beam of proton accelerated through a potential

difference V = 500 KV has a circular cross-section of radius R = 4 mm.
Assuming beam current i = 32 10' A. Find the (i) number of protons
passing through a cross-section per second. ( ii) electric field at the surface of
the beam. (iii) potential difference between the surface and axis of the
beam. ( i) The numer of protons/second
Sol.
ci 32x10-3
=
=
=
e
1.6x10-19 =
2x1016
=
(ii) E
TET!
C. where l =
or,
2 TCE TV
2nor since mv= ex,

E =
substituting v = 20V in eq. ().
=9x10
ATTEO
2x9x10°x32x10- 1.6x10-27
4x10-3 V2x1,6x10-19x500x103 =
144 * 10 x 10 V/m = /4.4 KW/m
(i ii) Ap
plying
Gauss L aw

E. 2l =
Then, av = }e & -zoom rat where a - Vienne na

sve aktie FR _ 14.4x10*2*10- 240V
R
14.4x10°
or:
= 28.8 V
4DEO
Practice Exercis
e
Q.1
A beam of fast moving electrons having cross-sectional area A= 1 cm falls
normally on a flat surface. The electrons are absorbed by the surface and
the average pressure exerted by the electrons on this surface is found to be
P=9.1 Pa. If the electrons are moving with a speed v=8x107m/s, then find the
effective current in A) through any cross-section of the electron beam. (mass of
electron = 9.1 x10 kg)
wer s
Ans
Q.
1
0002
A
Ohm's
Law
If the physical conditions of the conductor (length, temperature,

mechanical strain etc.) remains same, then the current flowing through
the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it's
two ends i.e. i V=V=iR where R is a proportionality constant, known as
electric resistance. (1) Ohm's law is not a universal law, the substances,
which obey ohm's law are known as ohmic substance. (2) Graph between V
and i for a metallic conductor is a straight line as shown. At different
temperatures V-icurves are different.
10
(A) Slope of the

line
(8) Here tand, >
tane,
SOR, >R ie T. >T,
= tan e. V.R

Resistance
Α
Πe* τ
Α
"
(1) The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow
s the resistance. (2) Formula of
of current through it, i s known a
resistance : For a conductor if I = length of a conductor A = Area
of cross-section of conductor, n= No. of free electrons per unit
volume in conductor, t=relaxation time then resistance of
Im I... conductor R= pas ; where p=resistiveity of
the material of conductor (3) Unit and dimension : It's S.I. unit
is Volt/Amp. or Ohm (12). Also 1 ohm =
Ivolt 10*emu of
potential
* = 10emu of resistance. It's dimension is
(ML’T 'A') 1 Amp 10-emu of current (4) Dependence of resistance :
Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors. (i)
Length of the conductor: Resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to it's length i.e. Roland
and inversely proportional to it's area of

cross-section i.e. Ro (ii) Temperature : For
a conductor Resistance x temperature.
If R = resistance of conductor at
0°C
R = resistance of conductor at t°C and aß = temperature
co-efficient of resistance then R, = R. (1+at+Bt) fort > 300°C
and R = R,
R,
-R (1+at) for ' s 300°C or a = Rxt
R1+at, If
R, and R, are the resistance at t, °C and 1,°C
respectively then R. itai
R -R
The value of a is different at different temperature raget,
°C tot,"C is given by a=
R w hich given
R, ER, [I+alt, -1,)). This formula gives an approximate value.
Stretching of wire If a conducting wire stretches, it's length
increases, area of cross-section decreases so resistance
ut volume remain constant. Suppose for a conducting wire
increases b
before stretching it's length=1,, area of cross-section = A,
radius=r,
(5)
diameter = d., and

resistance R, =P
Before
stretching
After streching
-
=
r
Volume remains
constant i.e. All e =
After streching length=1, area of cross-section=A, radius=r,

diameter=d, and resistance = R =P
Ratio of resistance before
and after streching
RVA--@)-3)=G
(i) If length is given
then Rais
(no lincisis given then Rat-*-*

(ii) If radius is given then RI
Resistivity (o) , Conductivity (o) and

Conductance (C)
(1) Resistivity:
From REP
1m, A- 1 mothen R=pi.e. resistivity is
; If1=
numerically equal to the
resistance of a substance having unit area of

cross-section and unit length. (1) Unit and
dimension : It's S.I. unit ohm * mand dimension
is [ML'T 'A')
(ii) It's
formula :p=
(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is

independent of shape and size of the body (i.e . / a nd A). (v)
Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals p. =P.
(1+aat) i.e. resitivity increases with temperature. (vi) Resistivity
increases with impurity and mechanical stress. (vii) Magnetic field
increases the resistivity of all metals except iron, cobalt and nickel.
(viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium,
sulphides is inversely proportional to intensity of light falling
upon them.
(2) Conductivity: Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity

i.e.se - with unit mho/mand dimensions
[M 'L'T 'A)
(3) Conductance: Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance.

C== . It's unit is
or 12'or
"siemen
".
Colour Coding of
Resistance
To know the value of resistance colour code is used. These
code are printed in form of set of rings or strips. By reading
the values of colour bands, we can estimate the value of
resistance.
The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings or bands say
A, B, C and D as shown in following figure.
A
B
C
D
Colour band A and B: Indicate the first two significant figures
of resistance in ohm. Band C: Indicates the decimal
multiplier i.e. the number of zeros that follows the two
significant figures
A and B.
Band D: Indicates the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in

other words it represents the
percentage accuracy of the indicated value. The tolerance in the case of

gold is + 5% and in silver is = 10%. If only three bands are marked on
carbon resistance, then it indicate a tolerance of 20%.
Table : Colour code for

carbon resistance
Letter as an
aid to memory
Colour
Figure
(A, B)
Multiplier
)
(C
10°
10
B
Black
o
102
Brown Red 12 Orange

Yellow
107
4
10
Green
105
Blue
106
107
Violet Grey
10H
White
109
Grouping of
Resistance
(1) Series grouping (i) Same current flows through each

resistance but potential difference distributes in the ratio of
resistance i.e. VaR
1 R2 R3
(ii) R=R, +R,+R, equivalent resistance is greater than the maximum

value of resistance in the combination (iii) If n identical resistance
are connected in series R =nR and potential different across
and resistance
V
V=
(2) Parallel grouping (i) Same potential difference appeared across
each resistance but current distroutes in the reverse ratio of their
resistance i.e.in
R2
(ii) Equivalent resistance is

given by R.
R 'R'Ror ka
+ R, or R2 = (R;'
+R;'+R;')' or
RR,R P R,R,+R,R,+R,R, Equivalent resistance is smaller

than the minimum value of resistance in the combination.
RR2
(iv) If two resistance in
parallel Rcq =-*
ance 1' =
tance of opposite
[Resis
branch] (V) Current through any resistance! = ]
Total resistance Where i' = required current
(branch current), i = main current
and i-i(, R.)

(vi)
Inn identical resistance are connected
in parallel R
= — and current through each
resistance
Note :
Rules for finding Req complicated resistance circuit: We can join any
number of points in a circuit that are connected by a simple
conducting wire as they will b e at same potential. We can join any
number of points in a circuit that are lying on plane of symmetry. We
can break a single point in multiple points if after breaking
new points formed are lying on plane of s ymmetry.
Illustration :
Find t he equivalent r esistance b

etw
een A
a
nd B in
the circuit shown here. Every resistance s
hown
here is of 212
29122
20
Sol.
, O
Points C & D
are at the same p
otential. Therefore,
resistances AO,
AC and AD are in parallel.
Similarly BC, BO and BD are in parallel.
.:
R=
(292)
+
(292)
Plane of symmetry passes through
co and D
2 =
1.3312 I llustration :
desired to make a 20 coil of wire which has a zero thermal
It is
coefficient of resistance. To do t his, a carbon resistor of resistance R, is
of e proportions
placed in series with an iron resistor of resistance R, Th
=
iron and carbon are so chosen that R, +R, 20 12 for all
temperatures near 20° C
,
how large are R, and R, ? (ae =-0.5x10,afe =
5x10-?) Sol . We need R, (1 + a,41) + R, (1 + a,AT) =
20 because R,
+R, = 20 w
here A1 = (),
We must have Ra, = - R , a, with a = -0.5 * 10' solving the tw
o
n R,+R, = 20 and R
equatio , = 18.18 and R, = 1.8
2 12
Illustration :
Sir resistors form a pyramid. Find the effective
resistance between A and B.
Sol.
The b ranches A DB a
nd A
CB a re sy mmetrical
relative t o t he t erminals A a
nd B . H
enc e, the
points D and Care equipotential. Since,
R ir = 0
. The
n remove t he branch DC and t hen
the circuit i s r educed to a s impler one as
shown in t he figure.
n
The
=
RAB 222
202
Illustration :
Sir equal r esistances e ach of resistance 412 a re
connected t o f orm t he f oll owing f igure. What is
the r esistance between any t wo c orners.
WUM
l.
So
The re i s s
ymmetry about the line
passing t hrough 2 0a nd mid p
oint o
fP
R.
MWM www. WWW.

r/2
MW WWW. ww

O
= 20
Hlustration :
In t he network s
how
n in figure, each resistance
is 12 What is the effective resistance between A
and B
10
MA
WON
WWW
10
E
10
l.
So
The re is a symmetry a bout l ine p
assing
through E a nd m
id point o
f CD.
WWW.
E
F
8
8 -
=
Illustration :
Find t he e
quivalent r esistance between p oints A & B of
etwork s
the n hown in the g
iven d
iagram
WAM
wwwwwwwwww
e
sah
100
.
www
Sol.
The r esistors 3 2 and 6 2
are in series a nd so a re 5 2a
nd
102 resistors. T
hese two series equivalents a re in p
arallel
to e a
ch o
ther a nd a
lso to t he 4 2 resistors. Hence the
network reduces to the one given below:
mo
102
2.340
Ry = 5.342
CH
Illustration :
Find R, in the cubic network of tw

elve resistors
each of resistance R.
Sol .
The network is symmetrical about the body diagonal AB.
Since e qual currents flow in the branches between A and (1,
2 and 3), the p
oints 1, 2 and 3 are equipotential.. Similarly,
the point 4.5,6 are equipotential. Let us now
superimpose
the points 1.2 and 3 at C and 4, 5, and 6 at D. You can
see that there are 3 resistors b etween A and C. sir
now
resistors between C and Dand three resistors between D and B.
(1, 2, 3)
(4. 5. 6)
R3
R6 DR3
A
SR 6
B
Then,
R = Roc+RO+
RH
RRR
373
Illustration :
Find
R
in the
network

Sol
.
20 The given network is
..
a Wheatstone bridge as shown in the figure. .
RÁC RCB 1 Since,
ICE. RAD RDB 2 The remove the
branch CD to obtain a simple circuit.
Hence R. - 3x6
=21
Illustration :
Find
R
Sol.
with
anti al.
R
.
By inspection w ec an say t hat l ower h alf and upper
f t he given c
half o ircuit is symmetrical a bout AB. Then,
Ca nd D are equipotential; E a nd F a
re e quipotential.
Superimposing D with C and F with E w e have t he
following circuite. You c
an s
ee that (A
C and AD). (C
E
and D F) . (EB and FB) . ( CO and D
O) a
nd ( EO and
FO) are superimposed
By c urrent distribution f ollowing KCL, w

e understand t hat equal
current passes through t he branches C Oa
nd O
E. Then, you can separate the
branch COE. from AOB as shown in the figure and solve it by the
processes of series and parallel combination.
(C. D
R
(E.F)
M
alla
2R
2R
Po 2
L2R
2
R
H
R
28
27R
R +4R
** allah
Illustratio
n :
Find
R.
1
0
A
So
l.
Let
R
= R since i nfinite m
inus s
omething is infinite, if
you c ut o
ne well R
=
R
=
R.
Hen
ce
(RAB )
(2)
2+RAB
RO
2
R
Then
.
Rw=1+2
Putting
R
2 + 3R
2+R = R, we
have
=
2 + 3R R =
2+R R-R- 2 =
0
R-11v1 +
8
It gives
R= 202
Practice
Exercise
Q.1
A square pyramid is formed by joining 8 equal resistances
across the edges. The square base of the pyramid has the corner
at A, B, C, D. The vertex is at M. Calculate the current in the edge MC if an
ideal cell of emfE is connected across the adjacent comers A and B.
current in the edge MA if an ideal cell of emfE is connected across
the opposite comers A and C.
(b)
Q.2
Calculate the equivalent resistance between the
terminals of the cell shown in figure. The resistance
of each quadrant is 1 ohm and the intersecting
diameters have resistance 2 ohm each.
0.3
Find the equivalent resistance of the configuration of equal
valued resistors shown in the figure.
Q.4
Luinondena
luni i n
Two conducting plates each
of arca A are separated by a distance d and they are parallel to
cach other. A conducting medium of varying conductivity fills the
space between them. The conductivity varies linearly from o and 20 as
you move from one plate to the other plate. Find the resistance of the
medium between the conducting plates.
Answers
Q.1 (m)E8R. (b)

E22
Q.1
(a)E/8R, (b)
E/2R

Q.2
Q.315R
Q.3

7/5R
0.4
Q4 [A12)
Illn(2)
Electrice cell or Battery

:
The device which converts c hemical energy into electrical energy is known as
electric cell. Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current.
Cathode
te
Symbol of cell
Electrolyt
e
(1) Emf of cell (E): T

he potential difference across the terminals
of a cell when it is not supplying any current is called it's emf. (2)
Potential difference (V): The voltage across the terminals of a cell
when it is supplying current to extemal resistance is called potential
difference or terminal voltage. (3) Intemal resistance (r): In case of a
cell the opposition of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is
called internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a
cell depends on the distance b etween electrodes (r = d). area of
electrodes (r (1/A)) and nature, concentration (ra C)and temperture of
elctrolyte (r< (l/t emp)]
A cell is said to be i deal, if i t has z ero

internal r esistance.
WY
Note : (i) During

charging
V-V. -E + ir
During
discharging
A i r V. - V. -E-ir
If no current is
drawn A
Нw—В V-V=E (ii) Inside a battery during discharging
charge is taken from -ve terminal (lower Potential) to +ve
terminal (higher potential) by battery mechanism. (i) Work done by a
battery during discharging =charge flown from +ve to-ve i n outer
circuit *emf
of
battery
E
Cell in various
Positions
(1) Closed circuit : Cell supplies a
constant current in the circuit.
VOIR
(1) Current given by t he cell

i= pi. (ii) Potential difference across
the resistance V=iR (iii) Potential drop
inside the cell = ir (iv) Equation of
cell E=V + ir (E>V)
(v) Internal resistance of the cell r=1-.
(vi) Power dissipated in external

resistance (load) P= Vi =i'R Y
SG
E
R
R
(R
+
Power delivered will be maximum

when R=rso P.
This statement in generalised from is called

"maximum power transfer theorem".
Pe' /41
(vii) When the cell is being charged i.e. current is given to the
cell then E=V - ir and E<V. ( 2) Open circuit: When no current is taken
from the cell it is said to be in open circuit
(1)
Current through the circuit i=0 Potential difference
between A and B.V.EE Potential difference between C and
D, V =0 Short
circuit : If two terminals of cell are
join together by a thick conducting wire
(3)
R=0
(1)
Maximum current (called short circuit
current) flows momentarily i =
Potential difference V=0
Grouping of
cells
In series grouping of cell's t heir emf's are additive or subtractive while
their internal resistances are a lways additive. If dissimilar plates of cells
are connected together their emf's are added to each other while if their
similar plates are connected together their emf's are subtractive.
HAH
EE, E.EE+E;
E.. E; - E;
(E;> E7)
Pry=r;+
(1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is

connected to cathode of other cell and so on. If n identical cells are
connected in series
(1) Equivalent emf of the

combination Eca = nE (ii)
Equivalent internal resistance
rice = nr
nE
(iii) Main current=Current from each cell
=1==
R+ nr
(iv) Potential difference across external
resistance V=iR
* allah
(v)Potential difference across
each cell V'=
(vi) Power dissipated in the
external circui
(vii) Condition for maximum

power R=nr and
=
n
(viii) This type of combination

is used when nr«<R. Note :
If Batteries are different Ex=E,+E, +
......E if they are connected in same
sense
=r,+r+ ...... + (2) Parallel grouping: In parallel grouping all anodes
are connected at one point and all cathode are connected together at
other point. If n identical cells are connected in parallel
(i) Equivalent emfEx-E (ii)
Equivalent internal
resistance R =r/n
(iii) E
Main current i=
R+r/n (iv) potential difference across
extemal reistance = p.d. across each cell V=iR (v)
Current from cach cell i'=
E (vi)
Power dissipated in the circuit P=||
R+r/n)
(vii) Condition for max. power is R=r/n
and me
(viii) This type of combination

is used when nr >>R Note :
If Batteries are
different
E,
E27
- If they are connected in same sense
+
=
1.1.1 Fog
12
=
(3) Mixed Grouping: If n identical cell's are connected in a row and such m row's are
connected in parallel as shown.
(1) Equivalent emf of the

combination Eng = nE
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance

of the combination 14
***
EnE mnE (ii)Main

current flowing through the load i = –
" R+ nT mR
+ nr
(iv) Potential difference across
load V=iR
(v) Potential difference across

each cell V'=
(vi) Current from

each cell i'='
(vii) Condition for maximum power
R = " and Pur = (mm)
(viii) Total number of
cellmn
Kirchoff's
Laws
Kirchoff's first law: This l aw is also known as junction rule or current law (KCL).
According to it the algebraic s um of currents meeting at a j unction is zero i.e.
Ei=0
In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction
must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i, +i, = i,
+i,
This law is simply a statement of

"conservation of charge".
Kirchoff's second law: This law is also known as loop rule or voltage
law (KVL) and according to it "the algebraic sum of the changes in
potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closed loop) is zero", i.e. SV = 0
y". If
This law represents "conservation of energ there are n meshes
in a circuit, the number of independent equations in
accordance with loop rule will b e (n-1).
Note :
Sign convention for the application of Kirchoff's law: For the application of
Kirchoff's laws following sign convention are to be considered (i) The
change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction of
current is - iR while in the opposite direction +iR
(ii) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative

to positive terminal is +E while in the opposite direction - E
irespective of the direction of current in the circuit.
Illustration :
200
WWE
50 mm 150

In t he g
iven net work, the batteries
getting charged are ( A ) I a
nd 3
( B) I, 3
and 5 ( C
) 1
a ) 1 , 2
( D
nd 4 a
nd 5

20 V
- 15 V
Sol. A
pplying K irchhoff law a
t
a
A. C nd D
, t h
e
200
event than
Aman
1840
20 V
From
direction of the c urrents i n e ach
branch will b ea ss hown in the
figure. I t is c lear from the f igure
that the batteries I and 4 are being
charged. .. Hen ce ( C) is c o
rrect
Circuit solving
Techniques
Case - (1)
Circuits having
single Batter y :
Step 1 - Remove Battery and find R across

the terminals of Battery
Emf of battery
Step 2 - Total current through
Battery ==
- Now divide the current as
Reo Step
3
series- parallel combination. i.e. In series branches current remains
same and in parallel current divides in inverse proportion of r esistance.
Illustration :
10
202
302
302
Find current through each
ressistance.
302
Sol.
R = 22 + 2N = 42
haber - 3 Amp
1, +1; = 3 A
mp and = { hence
1, = 24
1, - JA
Similarl
y
1, = 24
Case - (II)
Circuits having many Batteries (can be reduced to single battery using
Battery combination)
Step -
1
Apply Battery combination formula to reduced multiple
batteries in single battery. Step - 2
Solve as pervious
case (l).
12V
Illustration :
Find current
through R = 42

Sol
Also find V-V,
lying parallel combination of
App
Batteries,
+12_6
wwww
w
R-402
36.4-1 = +6V
Ev - 1/2
6
6
V = 212 i-
a-lamp V . -V=
iR = 2 volt
Illustration :
Find Potential difference (V-V) in the

circuit Show
n E, = 1. 5 V. E. = 2.0 V
2V, R
E, = = 102.
202R, = 30.12 Sol.
R, = e can reduced the wholde
W
circuit into one Battery and on resistance.
1.5 2.0 2.
5 1 F - 10 20 30 6 -10
volt
10 20 30
60
Ex II í
11'
1011
vole
HE
V,-1, - volt
Case - (III)
aving m
Circuits h any
Batteries.
(Using
loop rule) Step - 1
Assume current in each
Independent loop. Step - 11
Apply kirchoff's voltage law in each
independent mesh (loop).
Illustration :
Find the current through each

et us assume
resistance Sol. L
currents I, and I, in the directions
shown.
Using KVL - 2 - 3+ 10 11 = 0

and
+3 + 21, -7 = 0
from (i) & (ii) 1, = 0.5 A
1 = 2A
Illustration
:
In the network of three cells, find the potential V
of theri function.
+20V
-ISV
www
+20V
.
Sol
.
1002
... (i)
Applying KCL for the
individual branches,
1,
20-1, (2) + 10 = V 0-
6) -8 = V ..(ii) - 15-1, (1)
= V
-0
i, +1, + i, = 0 Pulting i, 1., and i, from eqs.
(i), (ii) and (i ii) in eq. (iv) w
e hav
e
30-V. V +8 V +21
2 -1/2*
or.
Vvolt
xercis
Practice E e
127.0.30
Q.1
() ü)
For the circuit shown i n the
figure, find the equivalent
external resistance of the
circuit t he reading in ammeter
(A) and voltmeter (V)
WY
Q.2
For the circuit shown in the figure, find the
currents I, and I, and the emfe o f the battery.
which batteries are supplying energy and at what
rate to the circuit? Which batteries are absorbing energy
and at what rate? is total energy conserved? Justify.
10A
Q.3
Find the current flowing through the
segment AB of the circuit shown in
figure.
Q.4
In the given circuit the ammeter A, and A, are ideal
and the ammeter A, has a resistance of 1.9 10 12.
Find the readings of all the three meters.
o
is
NNNNNNN
Answers
Q.1
(1) 2.712, (ii) 1 A,
4 Volts
40 70 ... 400
1400,
4900.....
W (iii). energy is
conserved
ID
—
- W
3
IA from A to B
Q.4
A, 7A, O
Energy conversion and

electrical power Input electrical
energy
Let us consider a length / of the
straight conductor of uniform
cross-section Aand conduction
electron density n. T
hen the total
number of conduction electrons in the
considered segment is
ince, t he uniform electric field
N=nA/ S
E pushes each electron with a constant
drift speed v, against the resistance
(offered by the fixed atoms in the lattice),
the total work done by the field during a
time dt in shifting the electrons by a distance
ds is
100 OOO O2 Vii
V The electric field does a
positive work in pushing the
conduction
electron in opposite direction of the field E
dw = (work done each electron) *(no. of electrons
present in the segment)
= (F. . d
s)
(N) =
(eEds)(nAI)
(:: F.,=eE)
eE(F) or, DW =
(eEv, dt)(nA!) (:: ds = v, dt)
Each electron
experiences
a force F = -c E, opposite = (nev, A)

I) dt
(E
to the applied field E By
V, -V,(=V), we have Then, the total

putting nev, A=i and El=
work done by the electric field on the assumed portion of
theconductor during a timet is
w = Liv
de
Where V= potential fifferece between the terminals 1 and 2 of the
given portion of the conductor.
Input Electron
Power
eldt
The electrical power of a voltage V while sending a current i can

be give as rate of electrical work done.
dW or,
or,
P. - ¡V Heat Dissipated As
the electrons travel from
lower potential V, to higher potenial V, they must lose their
otential energy or excess kinetic energy while
electrostatic p
accelerating in the applied electric field. This appears in the form of
heat, light and sound etc., due to the resistance offered by the
coductor. Hence, the amount of eat liberated in the considered
portion of the conductor is
Q= liv de
- fiz r det
(: V=iR)
Thermal Power The rate of heat is liberated, that is power loss in the
resistaor is called Ohmic heating, or Joule heating or
Copper-loss or thermal power or i'r loss which can be given
as
O=
PR)=iV
dt
= i? R
We can use t hermal energ
y in room heater, toaster, e
lectric i ron e
tc.
ower d
and i n other electric circuits ( p istribution a
nd
transmission) p
ower lost cannot b
eu
sed
Joule - Lenz Law The above expression is

called mocroscopic form of Joule-Lenz
law.
In linear
material E is
parullel to J at any
point
Substing i=JA, R=p
in the formula
= FER, we have no-va (CA)
I), where Al=
=pJ? (A V(volume of the
segment) Then, the power loss (rate of
heat generated) per unit volume is
V=Q , - pl. = J.E =

E/P
:: JEPE)
dt /
This expression is valid for any point of the conductor. Hence, we call
i "point (or differenial) from" of Joule-Lenz law.
Micro-interportation of Heat
Dissipation
10
The emf (battery) sets on electric field
which pushes the electrons in the
conductor. As a result, the electrons gain
kinetic energy or loses electrostatic potential
energy. The gain in K.E. is lost due to their
repeated collision with the site atoms of the
lattice. the exchange in kinetic energy and
momenta of the electrons cause the lattics atoms to
vibrate with more
amplitudes. The vibrating
metallic kemels of the lattice radiate
electromagnetic energy in the form of heat, light
etc., obeying the principle of electromagnetic
radiation.
A +ve charge is brought from-ve to +ve electrode of the battery by its emf against the cloctric
field
inside the
battery
The excess K.E. of the elctrons receive d from the electric field
(ultimately from the battery) is spent in exciting the atoms of the
lattice which in turn radiate electromagnetic energy in the
form of heat and light.
Power of an EMF A pattery is ultimately respeonsible for setting electric

field inside and outside of the conducting wires. Hence, the battery
does work in circulating the charges. The rate of work done by
a seat of emf (battery) to establish a current is defined as
electrical power of a battery.
dW
Podt
As discussed earlier, the work is done by a battery to push the conventinal
+ve charge da from its - ve terminal to +ve termial against the electrostatic
force can be given as
dW. = £
da
Then, the power delivered by t he batter in setting a current i
is
Pa = a
Sl"
=
= Ei
Or,
P.rei If current (o
r da) flows i n the direction of the emf, work done
and power deliverd by the battery is +ve and vice-versa.
W.is +v e
(a)
W.is -ve
(b)
Illustraion :
Two bulb's of powers P, and P, a

re connected in se
ries. If
e supply voltage is equal to the rated
th
voltage, find the power of the
combination Sol. L
et their
resistanc e be R, and R,
respect ively.
For a rated vol t age V, the power of the
combination is
v2
P= D
. (. t he resistance are connected
in series)
V
e
?
-
Putting
Puttin
g
R, = z an d
R, = 7,
we obtain
PP2 P = P + P,
Illustration :
A 1000 watt heater coil can be cut into two parts and when each
part is used in the rated supply
voltage, it gives more power as Px o. but we do not

recommed this explain. S ince, the power
dissipate in the c oil i s
R
Sol
.
P-v2
R
and R decreases by tw

o fold if we cut it into two equal halves
(say), power dissipation will be d oubled. The heat liberation will
be doubled which in turn, damages the coil by heating it or r educes its
life.
Illustration :
In t he c hown i n f igure, E,

ircuit s = 3 V
, E,
= 2 V. E, = 1 Vand r, = r,
= r, = 1 ohm. (a) Find the potential difference betw een the points
A and B and the currents through each branch. (b) Ifr, is short
circuited and the point A is connected to point B through a
resistance R. find the currents through E, E, E , and the
resistor R.
Sol.
(a) Applying Kirchoff's loop law to mesh PLMQP and PLMQONP in the
wn
ho
figure shown below, we have S below, we have
+
ir, ir, - E, -E, or i,+ i;
= 1
ir, t ir, - E, -E
, o ri, +
1, = 2
AL P, 1,+ i= 1;
... (iii) On
solving (i), (ii) and (iii)
i, = I amp. i, = 0 amp. i, = 1 amp.
Since no current is drown along
the brance AP
Since no curren i s drown along
Apa
the brance
tmen
Potential difference
across PQ.
Vr = E, -7,7; = 2 volt (b) T
he figure shows the circuit when
point A is connected to point B and r, is short-circuited
.
Applying Kirchoff's junction rule at
P, we get i =i, + i, ti, Applying
Kirchof f's law to mesh
ABMLA
1,1, - E,- E, or i, - l amp.
Applying Kirchoff' s law to
mesh ANOQML
11,-1,1, = E,-E, or i ,- 1, =
?
From above equations
i, = 1 amp. i, = 2 amp. i, - l amp. (direction of
current is opposite) So, current through
resistor R wi ll be l = 1, +1, +1, = 2 amp.
...(V
Illustration :
Two c ells a
re c
onnected to a n external l oad o
f resistance R
= 2
W. F
ind
urrent i n t he resistor.
the c
F-102 6V
R-20
C = + 6V
E14
9 =
E2 Sol. 6
1
o
o
€112+E
211
+12
6(0)+(-4)(
1)
=-4V
=
0
152 - (OXI) -
+r2 0+1 in
Por
ee = 2A
Practice
Exercise
Q.1
In a house there are 3 lamps of 40W each, 8 lamps of 60W each, a radio of
40W and a TV of 160W. The lamps are in operation, on an average, for 2hrs
a day, the radio for 4hrs a say and the TV for an hr a day. On Sundays an
electric iron of 750 W is used for an hour and the TV for an extra 3 hrs.
Calculate the electricity bill for the month of February of a leap year at the rate of
45 paise per unit. The first Sunday falls on 3rd February. O
btain the power
imparted to the 102 resistor in the shown network.
fiton ton Fov
0.2
Q.3
A
W 2000
Three 2002 resistors are connected as shown in
figure. The maximum power that can be
dissipated in any one of the resistor is 50 W.
Find: the
maximum voltage that can be
applied to the terminals A and B. the total
power dissipated in the circuit for maximum
voltage across the terminals A and B.
2000
7.4
Find the power dissipated in 52 and 8
52
resistors.
Lininginn
Answers
Q.1
22.05
0.2
5.1
W
0.3
(a) 150 V, (b)
75 W
0.4
SW in 522,0
in 812
Different Measuring
Instruments
(1) Galvanometer: It is an instrument used to detect small current
passing through it by showing deflection. Galvanometers are of
different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving magnet
galvanometer, hot wire galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil
galvanometer are used.
(i) It's
symbol:-
where G is the total internal resistance of the
galvanometer.
(ii) Full scale deflection current : The current required for full scale
deflection in a galvanometer is called full scale deflection current and is
represented by i.
(iii) Shunt : The small resistance connected in parallel to

galvanometer coil, in order to control current flowing through
the galvanometer is known as shunt.
Ammeter:
(i) The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual

current in the circuit. (ii) Smaller the resistance of an ammeter more
accurate will be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if its resistancer is
zero. (iii) Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter: A galvanometer may be
converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance (called shunt S)
in parallel to the galvanometer G as shown in figure.
Ammeter
(a) Equivalent resistance of

the combination = CSS
(b)G and Sare parallel to each other hence both will have
equal potential difference i.e. 1, G = (i-1, )S;
which gives
Required shunt S
(c) To pass nth part of main current (ie. I, - - through

the galvanometer, required shunt S= n.)
(3) Voltmeter: It is a device used to measure potential difference and is
always put in parallel with the 'circuit element' across which potential
difference is to be measured.
(i) The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value. (ii)
Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more accurate will be
its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its resistance is
infinite, i.e., it draws no current from the circuit element for its
operation. (iii) Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: A
galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a large
resistance R in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure.
AVAVAL
V,=46
1
V-V)
(a) Equivalent resistance of the
combination=G+R
1
=
(b)According to ohm's law v=i (G+R); which

gives required series resistance R
) then required
series resistance
(c) If n" part of applied voltage appeared
across galvanometer (i.c.v. = R =(n-1)G
Hlustration :
To measure the value of the resistance R. w e have

connected the voltm
eter a
nd ammeter as shown in the
figure. Can the ratio of voltmeter and ammeter
v

readin
g
en the correct value of
giv
R ? Discuss.
Sol
Voltmeter r eading - R. Ler Le
Ammeter reading W
here, R. =
meter reading of resistance
... (i)
...(ii)
Since, R, and Rare
parallel.
R=i,R According to
t law
KCL (1s ).
i = 1, +
i,
...(iii)
e
Using these three equation, w
have
R Rm Ry
IR, RR
Hence, the ration of vol t meter and ammeter reading cannot give the exact
volue of the resistance R. Illustration :
The deflection of a moving coil galvanometer falls from 60
divisions to 12 divisions when a shunt of 12 12 is connected. What
is the resistance of the galvanometer? The current i in the galvanometer is
directly proportional to the angle of deflection (i < 0)
Sol
2 -
Then, '
121
or.is For shunted

galvanometer,
fi- i) Sai
G
G=1-12 P utting i from eq. (i) in eq.
(ii) and S = 12 ohm.
ohm
G = 48
Illustration :
The galvanometer G has internal resistance G = 50 52 and full

scale deflection occurs at i =
1 mA. Find the series resistors R,
R, and R, needed to use the arrangement as a voltmeter with
different rages as shown
ol. F
in the figure. S or the
range of V, = / volt.
- G+R,
10V
100V
or, 10' =
50+R, or,
R, = 950 ohm F or
the range of V, = 10 vol t
V
- G+R,+R2
10 or,
10' =
50+950+R, or, R , =
0x10 ohm F or the
range of V, - 100 volt
G+R,+R2 +
R3
100
or, 10 50 +950+ 9000+ Rz
, RA = 90
or
* 10' ohm
Wheatstone bridge :
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistance which can be used
to measure one of them in terms of rest. Here arms AB and BC are called
ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate
(i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced when

deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no
PR
current flows through the galvanometer or in other

words V.= V. In the balanced condition on mutually
changing the position of cell and galvanometer this
condition will not change.
(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current

will flow from D to B if VD > VB i.e. (V-V.)<(V. -V.) which gives
PS > RQ.
Applications of wheatstone
bridge :
Meter bridge, post office box and Carey Foster bridge are
instruments based on the principle of wheatstone bridge and
are used to measure unknown resistance. (4) Meter bridge: In case of
meter bridge, the resistance wire AC is 100 cm long. Varying the
position of tapping point B, bridge is balanced.
RR.8.1
-(100-1cm
HE
If in balanced position o

f bridge AB=
(,BC (100-1)
har Q (100-1) PR
so that =" Also ö
=S="
S=(100-1),
R
Note that:
The balance-point is obtained by trial and error-not by

scraping the jockey along the wire. The value of R in the resistance
box should be chosen so that the balance point comes near to the center of the
wire, i.e. from 40 cm to 60 cm from the end A. If the length either, or (, is
small, then the resistance of its end connections AA' and BB' will
not be negligible in comparison with RAB Or Rce. Then, the
equation will not valid. The end resistance error can be minimized
by interchanging R and X, and balancing again. The average
values of (, and/, are taken to calculate the value of X. Since
galvanometer is a sensitive instrument, therefore, a high
resistance is sometimes connected in series with it until a
near balance point is obtained. Then the high resistor is
shunted or removed and the final balance point is obtained. The
lowest resistance that can be measured with this bridge is about 192.
(5)
The post
office Box
The post office Bax

(6)
It is a compact form of the Wheatstone bridge. It consists of compact

resistance so arranged that different desired values of resistances may
be selected in the three arms of Wheatstone bridge, as shown in figure.
Each of the arms AB and BC contains three resistances of 10, 10 and

10' 52, respectively. These are
called the ratio arms. Using

these resistances the ratio
values : 100:1, 10:1,1:1,1: 10 or 1:100.
can b made to have
any of the following
The arm AD is a complete resistance box containing resistances from 1 to

5000 12. The tap keys K, and K, are are also provided in the post office box.
The key K, is internally connected to the point A and the key K, to the point B
(as shown by dotted line in the figure). The unknown resistance X is
connected
between C and D, the battery between C and the key K, and the galvanometer
between D and the key K. The circuit shown in figure (A) is exactly the
same as that of the Wheatstone bridge shown in figure. Hence, the
value of the unknown resistance is given by
X=
Note that:
The accuracy of the post office box depends on

the choice of ratio anni
: 1. then the value of the unknown resistance is obtained within
+102.
If the rati
selected as 1 : 10, then the unknown resistance
X=R
is accurately measured
upto
10.112.
If the ratio
djusted to 1:100, then the value of unknown resistance
X=R
is obtained
to an accuracy of +0.01 12.
Illustration :
The value of an unknown resistance is obtained by using a post of fice box. Tw
o
e r eadings
consecut iv of Rare observed at which the galvanometer
deflects in the opposite direct i ons for three different value of R.
These tw o values are recorded under the column-I and II in the
following o bservation table.
X-R (
RR) (Ω) Ι ΠΩ).
Rlles in-between
S.No. R, (2) | R: ()
(1) I ΠΩ) 10
10
16
17 2 100
10
163
164 3 1000
10
1638
1639
Determine the value of the unknown

resistance. The observation table may
s:
be complete as follow
Sol.
X-R (RG/R)
S.No. R. 1821
1 10 2 100
1000
| R, (2)
10 10 10
Rlles in-between
(0) 16
17 163
164 1638 1639
16.0
16.3
16.38
17.0
6.4
16.39
The value of the unknown resistance lies in-between 16.3

8 12 and 16.39
12 The n value may be the average of the two
unknow
.
... 16.38 +16.39 i.e
X=-
2 or X=

16.3852
(6) Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a device m ainly used to measure emfof a given
cell and to compare emf's
of cells. It is
also used to measure internal
resistance of a given cell. C
ircuit
diagram:
Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about
6m to 10 m long) made up of mangnine or constantan and a
battery of known voltage e and internal resistance r called supplier
battery or driver cell. Connection of these two forms primary
circuit. One terminal of another cell (whose cmfE is to be measured) is
connected at one end of the main circuit and the other terminal at any
point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G This forms the
secondary circuit. Other details are as follows
Primary
circuit
Secondary
–
circuit
L
A
J = Jockey K = Key R=Resistance of potentiometer wire, p=Specific

resistance of potentiometer wire. R = Variable resistance which
controls the current through the wire AB (i) The specific resistance (p)
of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of
resistance (a) must be low.
(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and

secondary circuits must be connected together at point A
and all lower potential points must be connected to point Bor
jockey.
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown
potential difference to be measured.
(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this

the current in the primary circuit must remain constant and
the jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire.
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be

uniform everywhere.
(vi) Potential gradient (x): Potential difference (or fall in potential) per
unit length of wire is called
potential
V volt tie X=- - where V = iR =
Lm
R
.
(R
+R
+
potential gradientie. x = Y yollt

where V=iR -GRA so x-Y-R -
BRERA to Z
Potential gradient
directly depends upon
(a) The resistance per unit length (R/L) of
potentiometer wire. (b) The radius of
potentiometer wire (i.e. Area of cross-section) (c)
The specific resistance of the material of potentiometer
wire (i.e.p) (d) The current flowing through
potentiometer wire (i) (ü)potential gradient
indirectly depends upon (a) The emf of battery in
the primary circuit (i.e. e) (b) The resistance of
rheostat in the primary circuit (i.e. R)
Working :
Suppose "jockey" is made to touch a point J on wire then potential
difference between A and I will be V = x/ A
t this length (D) two potential
difference are obtained (i) V
due to battery e and (ii) E due to unknown cell
.
n
46Omo
IfV>E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in one
direction IfV<Ethen current will flow in galvanometer
circuit in opposite direction If V=E then no current will flow in
galvanometer circuit this condition to known as null deflection position,
length I is known as balancing length. In balanced condition E= x/
or B-w=*-**. - (R+RAtt) E ITV is

constant then L </=
IfV is constant then Lo
(vii) Standardization of potentiometer: The process of

determining potential gradient experimentally is known as
standardization of potentiometer.
Let the balancing length for the standard emf E, is, then by the
principle of potentiometer E, = x/,= = (viii) Sensitivity of
potentiometer:Apotentiometer is said to be more sensitive, if it
measures a small potential difference more accurately. (a) The
sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The
sensitivity is inversely proportional to the potential gradient. (b) In
order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer (c) The resistance
in primary circuit will have to be decreased. (d) The length of
potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be
measured more accuracy. Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer
Voltmeter
It's resistance is high but
finite
It draws some current from

source of em!
Potentiomete Its resistance is infinite It does not
drow anyanent from the
source d'unionown am
The potential difference
measured by it is equal to
actual
potential difference
The potential difference
measured by it is lesser
than the a ctual potential
difference
Its sensitivity is
low
Its sensitivity is
high
It is a versatile
instrument
It measures only emf or potential difference
It is based on deflection method
It is based on pro deflection method
Application of
Potentiometer
(1) To determine the internal resistance
of a primary cell
(a) Initially in secondary circuit key K'remains open and balancing

length (1,) is obtained. Since cell E is in open circuit so it's emf
balances on length / i.e. E=x/, ( b)
ow key K is closed so cell E
N
comes in closed circuit. If the process of balancing
repeated again t hen potential difference V balances on le
.... (ii)
.... (i)
(c) By using formula internal

resistance r= (€ -1.R'
(2) Comparison of emf's of two cell : Let I, a
nd I be the balancing
lengths with the cells E, and E ,
respectively then E, =

xl, and E; = xl,
LA2
Let E,>E, and both are connected in series. If balancing
length is I, when cell assist each other and it is I, when
they oppose each other as shown then :
(E, +E,) =
x/ E, +E, -!
E,-E,
T
(E, -E, ) =
xl, E !,+1
,1, -,
>
E
Illustration :
ire of length / m has a resistance of 10 ohm. It is

A potentiometer w
cell of emf 3 V and
connected in series with a r esistance R and a
negligible internal resistance. A sourc e of emf 10 mV is
balanced against a length of 60 m of the potentiometer
wire. Find the volue of R.
So l
.
Following the theory of
potentiometer,
V=IR
10m
4-60cm
wwwwwwwwww
www
A
100cm
-
(RTRMADAR
AB
WW
E = 3 V. Rx = 1012 V=

10 x 100V
We
have
We have
10x101- (+10)o
10 x 10 != 1
(R+10
or
R = 1790 ohm
Practice Exerci s
e
Q.1
oving coil galvanometer of r esistance 2012 g
A m ives a full scale
deflection when a current of Ima is passed through it. It is to be converted
into an ammeter reading 20A o
n full scale. But the shunt o
f 0.00522 only is
available. What resistance s hould be connected in s eries with the
galvanometer coil ?
Q.2
potentiometer experiment it is found that no current passes through the
In a
galvanometer when the terminals of the cell are connected across 0.52 m of the
potentiometer wire. If the cell is shunted by a resistance of 512, a balance is
obtained when the cell is connected across 0.4m of the wire. Find the
internal resistance of the cell.
Q.3
There is a milliammeter each division of which reads ImA. I t has a resistance of
1512. How would you c onvert it into a voltmeter so that each division of its
graduation would read I volt.
Q.4
The diagram shows a meter bridge with the wire
AB having uniform resistance per unit length. When
the switch S is open, AJ is t he balance length and when
the switch is closed, AJ' is the balance length. If
AB=Land AJ=L2 then what is t he value of AJ"?
Q
.5
Q.6
How can the sensitivity of a potentiometer
be increased?
An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in series to a cell ofe.m.f. 12
volts. When a certain resistance is connected in parallel with voltmeter
the reading of voltmeter is reduced 3 times whereas the reading of
ammeter increases 3 times. Find the voltmeter reading after the connection of
resistance.
Answer
s
Q
.1
Q.5
79.9951 Q.2
1
.52 0.3 985 N2 in series
Increasing rheostat in primary circuit it +
potential drop per unit length of wire
Q.4
0.6
3
volts
Solved Examples
Q.1
The effective resistance between points P and Qof the
electrical circuit shown in the figure is
2Rr
(A) R+T
(B) 8(R+
r)
(B) 3R +T
(D)
$R+2 0
2
Sol.
(C) 2r +4R Sol. The circuit can be
reduced to the one given alongside
2rR R = =
r+R
Hence, (A) is
correct
Q.2
In t he circuit shown in the figure, V
, and V, are two v
oltmeters having
resistances 600032 and 400022 respectively emf o f the battery is
250 volts, h aving negligible intemal resistance. T wo resistances
R, and R, are 400012 and 600022, respectively. Find t he reading of the
voltmeters V, and V, w
hen
40000
60000
www
40000
60000
E=250
V
(1) switch S is open
(ü) switch S is
closed
Sol.
When switch S
is open
R, and R, are in series. Let their
equivalent resistance be R'
R' = 4000 + 6000 = 10000 The voltmeter are also in
series. Let their resistance be R", then
R" = 6000+4000 = 10000 The
resistance R' and R" are
connected in parallel. Their equivalent resistance is
given by
R'xR" 10000 10000
R'+R" 20000 = 5000 12
Current from
battery= R
E 250L
5000 201
Current i, in the voltmeter

branch ** 20 – 40 amp Potential
difference across V, 5 do 45000
= 150 volt
Potential difference
across V
x 4000= 100 volt

40
(b)
When switch S is closed. The circuit redrawn in this c ase is
shown in figure. In t his case V, and R, are in parallel. Similarly V,
and R, are in parallel.
Equivalent
resistance of V, and
R,
6000 x 4000
R' =
400 =
6000 + 2400
Q
Similarly for R,
and V,
R" -
6000x4000
002
6000 + 400
So, the two equal resistances are

connected in series. Hence
reading of V, - 125 volt And
reading of V; = 125 volt
Q.3
A galvanometer of resistance 9502 , shunted by a resistance of 50 2 gives a
deflection of 50 divisions when joined in series with a resistance of 20 k 2 and a 2
volt battery, what is the current sensitivity of galvanometer (in div/uA)? C
urrent
in the circuit
Sol.
2
200000
*20100 = 100
MA
This current produces deflection of 50
div in the galvanometer
CS= ī
ISO Div 1 Div
100MA 2MA
Q. 5
(a) The potential difference across 782
resistor is equal to _ battery is equal to
_and the current flowing
through the
70
(b)
The equivalent resistance across A and
B is equal to
Sol. (a) Rax = -2, 1-3 = BA
10
2
AV 0= 7 * 2 =

14 V
2A
70
14 volt, 8A (b) The circuit can

redrawn as,
RAB=ā
Q.6
Two resistors, 400 ohm and 800 ohm, are connected in series with a 6 V battery. It is
desired to measure the current in the circuit. An ammeter of 10 ohm
resistance is used for this purpose. What will be the reading in the
ammeter? Similarly, if a voltmeter of 10,000 ohm resistance is used to measure
the potential
difference across 400 ohm, what will be the reading of
mmeter has law resistance and voltmeter has high
the voltmeter? A
resistance as compared with resistance of circuit hence
Sol.
00+800
T4
= 5 mA, V = 400x SmA = 2 volt
1200
Q.7
Sol.
Two cells, having emfs of 10V and 8 V, respectively, are connected in series
with a resistance of 242 in the external circuit. If the internal resistances of
each of these cells in ohm are 200% of the value of their emf's, respectively,
find the terminal potential difference across 8 V battery. We determine the
internal resistance of each these cells:
1 = 20/* 10V = 20,
1, = 202/7 * 8V = 1612 .: Total resistance
in circuit = (24 + 16 +20) = 6012
18V :. Current = m = 0.3 A.
6002
Thus terminal potential difference V=E

ir=8-0.3(16)=3.2 V
Q.8
A galvanometer having 50 divisions provided with a variable shunt Sis
used to measure the current when connected in series with a
resistance of 9092 and a battery of internal resistance 1082. It is
observed that when the shunt resistances are 102 and 5013, the
deflections are, respectively, 9 and 30 divisions. What is the
resistance of the galvanometer?
Sol.
...0)
(90+10) (100+
)
Applying kirchhoff's
of law
is
we get,
PS+G
weget stG =
15*c*100, SG
GW
S+G Let i = 1, of S=1082 and i
= i, for S=501
( 10 € (10+G
100G
110+G)
100+
10+G)
50+G)
100+
50
SOG
50+G i 100+ 3G
iz 100+11G :: Defletion is
proportional to the current
9_100+ 3G =
30100+11G Solving
we get, G = 233.3 12
Q.9.
In the circuit shown the resistance R is kept in a chamber whose temperature is
20°C which remains constant. The initial temperature and resistance of R is
50°C and 1512 respectively. The rate of change
of resistance R with temperature is $1°C and the rate of

decrease of temperature of R is in ion) times the temperature
difference from the surrounding (Assume the resistance R loses heat
only in accordance with Newton's law of cooling). If K is closed at t=0, then find the
670
30
SV
(a)
(b)
(c)
value of R for which power
dissipation in it is maximum.
temperature of R when power dissipation
is maximum. time after which the power
dissipation will be maximum.
Let i, and i, be the current in two loops

respectively : (10-10), -R(i - i,) + 5 = 0
(for loop 1)
(10 + R)i, - Ri, = -5 (for loop 2)
Power dissipated in R.
25
P=(1,-12)
R=15+R)2*R
.
dP
> >
For maximum power
dissipation 10 = 0 R=512
2:02
WN
60
(b) R=Ro-Cola
5= 15-5
10 > 10 =
20°C
temperature at that
instant = 30°C
(c)
According to
Newton's law:
do =
-k(0–20")
SO
.:
1 = 100
sec.
Q.10
Find the reading of ammeter A and voltmeter V shown in the
figure assuming the instruments to be ideal.
WW
102
12v
Sol.
Distributing the currents in the circuit according to Kirchhoff's I
law is shown in the figure. In ideal voltmeter current = 0.
Applying Kirchhoff's law in mesh ABCDA
-31, + 6 + 12 = 0
i.e. 1. = 6A Now apply
Kirchoff's law in
AFBA
8- (1 - 1) * 10 - 6+ 31, =
0 i.e 101 - 131, = 2
(H)
BV
100
Chili
ONS
2
or
=
= 10
13 + —6= 8A +=
10
Hence reading of
ammeter = 8A
Reading of the voltmeter
V=V-V applying Kirchhoff's
law in mesh AFGA
8-V +6 3 = 0 i.e. V = 26 V
Hence reading of voltmeter =
26 V.
Q.11
An infinite ladder network of resistance is constructed with 1 and 2
resistance, as shown in fig. The 6V battery between A and B has negligible
internal resistance. (1) Show that the effective resistance between A and B is 2.
What is the current that passes through 2 resistance nearest to the
battery?
f whirpiuinita
6V 1
320
321
322
3212
Sol. ()
Since the network is an infinite ladder, we can assume that resistance
across AB is equal to that of A'B'
R2R
R = 1 +
2+R 2R + R2 = 2
+R+2R
or
R=2 ohm.
mi- = 3 amp.
i = * = 1.5
amp
Q.12
The wire AB of a meter bridge continuously changes from radius r to 2r
from left end to right end. Where should the free end of galvanometer be
connected on AB so that the deflection in the galvanometer is zero?
Sol.
Let the galvanometer be connected at a point x=x, from end
A where x = 0. Let R, = resistance of left part i.e. AX and
R = resistance of right part i.e. X,B Length = 100 cm=
1 m. Consider an element of thickness dx at a distance x from
end A and of radius r.
Thus, 5=(1+1+)-11
+ x)
pdx
Resistance of this element will be, dRx =

pdx
100 cm
For null point or

zero deflection,
>
x = 5m= 33.33 cm
Q.13
Four identical bulbs, each of same rating (100 W, 22 0 V) are connected across
an ideal battery of emf 5 50 volts. Which of the 4 bulbs will have a voltage
across it, which is greater than voltage rating. (i.e. which of t hem will fuse)
Sol.
By voltage
division Vi =
330 volts v =
220 volts v = v,
= 100 volts
Ans. only bulb
(3)
Q.14
What amount of heat will be generated in a coil of resistance R due to
a charge q passing through it if the current in the coil (a) decreases down to
zero uniformly during a time interval At (b) decreases down to zero halving its
value every At seconds? (a) As current i is linear function of time, and at
t=0 and At, it equals i, and zero respectively, it may be represented as,
Sol.
i-io(-o) This g=fia = jk (

- de semana So, in Hence -
2012 -
The heat
generated.
(b)
Obviously the current through the
coil is given by
H-Joint = Tu ] R
a -e
i-io() Then charge q- fist Jio 2* ad vir on S
o.
1,- 9102 And hence, heat generated in the
circuit in the time interval (0,),
Q.15
Find the current in the resistance R. Each resistance
is of 202.
um
30.
50
SU
16
SO
M Sol. B ili2
Fww
100
zin is 16
x +100
i
Nodal analysis y50 +2.y=$0 y

Y-3,-100 - 0
2
=
y + 2y - 100 + (y - x) – 100 =
0 Sy-2x = 200 i=13 +i4 +
i5 +16
(1)
y=0_50-* . 50-y, 50-y,

50-x-100
y= 150 - x - y - 50 -
X
2x + 3y = 100 - 2x + 5y
= 200
... (2)
... (1)
8y =
300
Y
300
=
= 18.75 A
16
Q.16
A voltmeter of resistance 995 2 and an ammeter of resistance 10
12 is connected as shown to calculate the
unknown resistance R which is connected
to
the ideal battery. Voltmeter reading is
99.5 volts. The value
Τιοον
RS
Voltmeter reading
of resistance R is calculated as
Ammeter reading
by student A.
(1) Find his answer. (ii) Also find

the actual value of resistance.
Sol.
()
Voltage across ammeter=0.5 volts
Resistance = 1022
Ammeter reading=0.05
A
Voltmeter reading
99.5
= 1990 22 R-
Ammeter reading 0.05

99.5
Current across voltmeter
=
= 0.1A
995
and current through ammeter=0.05 A

Current through R=0.05 A and voltage
across R=0.5 V
0.5 R=005 =
1002
.

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(​1​) ​Emf ​of ​cell ​(E​)​: T

A ​cell ​is ​said ​to ​be i​ deal,​ ​if i​ t ​has z​ ero

Note ​: (​i) ​During

(1​) ​Current ​given ​by t​ h​e ​cell

(vi) Power dissipated in external

Power delivered will be maximum

This statement in generalised from is called

(1) Series grouping : In series grouping anode of one cell is

(1) Equivalent emf of the

(vii) Condition for maximum

(viii) This ​ty​p​e of combination

(viii) This type of combination

Current Electricity

In the last chapter we discussed electrostatics-the physics

The current into the

Current Density (i)

If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the

A copper wire of d iameter 1.02 mm carries a current o

The magnitude J of the current density in a certain lab wire with a

Where k = 3 . 0 x109 and SI units are understood. There

What is the current in

i s J,da jer 2 tedr = { rr’so = **R?!0 - 3 213.40x10 m7°15.50x

We describe a classical model of electrical conduction in metals that

The random motion of the charge ariis modit

In our model, we make the following

If suppose for a conductor n= Number of

inversely with area of

n, electron/s passes through a given cross-section towards

Find the current associated with a m

2nor since mv= ex,

(A) Slope of the

(no lincisis given then Rat--

Resistivity (o) , Conductivity (o) and

Band D: Indicates the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in

percentage accuracy of the indicated value. The tolerance in the case of

Brown Red 12 Orange

(1) Series grouping (i) Same current flows through each

(ii) R=R, +R,+R, equivalent resistance is greater than the maximum

(ii) Equivalent resistance is

RR,R P R,R,+R,R,+R,R, Equivalent resistance is smaller

and i-i(, R.)

Find t he equivalent r esistance b

MWM www. WWW.

Find R, in the cubic network of tw

By c urrent distribution f ollowing KCL, w

Electrice cell or Battery

(1) Emf of cell (E): T

A cell is said to be i deal, if i t has z ero

Note : (i) During

(1) Current given by t he cell

(viii) This type of combination

EnE mnE (ii)Main

(vi) Current from

50 mm 150

Step 1 - Remove Battery and find R across

Using KVL - 2 - 3+ 10 11 = 0

Energy conversion and

a force F = -c E, opposite = (nev, A)

V, -V,(=V), we have Then, the total

Joule - Lenz Law The above expression is

V=Q , - pl. = J.E =

Power of an EMF A pattery is ultimately respeonsible for setting electric

Two bulb's of powers P, and P, a

voltage, it gives more power as Px o. but we do not

and R decreases by tw

In t he c hown i n f igure, E,

(a) Equivalent resistance of

To measure the value of the resistance R. w e have

or.is For shunted

The galvanometer G has internal resistance G = 50 52 and full

(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current

If in balanced position o

The post office Bax

It is a compact form of the Wheatstone bridge. It consists of compact

The arm AD is a complete resistance box containing resistances from 1 to

Determine the value of the unknown

The value of the unknown resistance lies in-between 16.3

J = Jockey K = Key R=Resistance of potentiometer wire, p=Specific

potential gradientie. x = Y yollt

or B-w=*-**. - (R+RAtt) E ITV is

respectively then E, =

ire of length / m has a resistance of 10 ohm. It is

So, the two equal resistances are

Sol. (a) Rax = -2, 1-3 = BA

14 volt, 8A (b) The circuit can

Let i, and i, be the current in two loops

For null point or

i-io(-o) This g=fia = jk (

Nodal analysis y50 +2.y=$0 y

y=0_50-* . 50-y, 50-y,

Ammeter reading 0.05