THERMOCOUPLE

DEFINITION
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors
forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-
dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to
measure temperature.
HOW IT WORKS:
A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions.
One is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring
junction. The other junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or
reference junction. Therefore, the thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body with
reference to the known temperature of the other body. The junction is placed on the surface or in
the environment being measured. As the temperature changes, the two dissimilar metals begin
to deform, causing a change in resistance. Naturally, a thermocouple outputs a millivolt signal,
therefore, as the resistance changes, the change in voltage can be measured. It is extremely low
cost, simple to use, and capable of providing accurate readings.
The electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the following equation
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2; where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple
junction end as well as the reference thermocouple junction end, a & b are constants.
TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES:

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PRINCIPLE BEHIND:

 The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined together at
two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount
of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
 As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two
junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two
junctions of the circuit.
 The Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming two junctions,
the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire length of
the conductors within the circuit.
CALIBRATION

 You can calibrate a thermocouple by plotting the thermocouple's voltage-temperature

curve. Fill the thermo bath container with water and turn the thermo bath on. Heat the
water to 30 degrees Celsius and turn the thermocouple device on. Connect each lead of
the multimeter to one end of the thermocouple.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

DEFINITION:
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a device which
used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire
is referred to as a temperature sensor.
HOW IT WORKS:
RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and temperature. As the temperature
of a metal increases, the metal's resistance to the flow of electricity increases. Similarly, as the
temperature of the RTD resistance element increases, the electrical resistance, measured in
ohms (Ω), increases. RTD elements are commonly specified according to their resistance in ohms
at zero degrees Celsius (0 degree C). The most common RTD specification is 100 Ω, which
means that at 0 degree C the RTD element should demonstrate 100 Ω of resistance.
The following law relates the resistance and temperature of RTD R=RO(1+αΔT); where α
is the Temperature Coefficient of Resistance, ΔT is the temperature change and RO is the
resistance at 0 degree Celsius.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND:
The resistance temperature detector uses the change in electrical resistance of the
sensing element to determine its temperature. The metals having a positive temperature
coefficient is used for the construction of RTDs. Mostly, platinum is used. It is a standard material
for the RTDs. Apart from platinum, some other metals like copper and nickel are also used for the
construction of RTDs. The nickel has greater sensitivity due to its higher temperature coefficient.
CALIBRATION:
To calibrate an RTD, Place the reference probe and the DUTs in the temperature source.
Connect the leads to the readout(s), using the proper 2-, 3-, or 4-wire connection. Measure the
reference probe and determine the temperature. Measure and record the resistance of the
DUT(s). Fit the data.

Thermistor
DEFINITION:
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent
on temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic
oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
Thermistors are easy to use, inexpensive, sturdy, and respond predictably to changes
in temperature. While they do not work well with excessively hot or cold temperatures, they are
the sensor of choice for applications that measure temperature at a desired base point. They
are ideal when very precise temperatures are required.
HOW IT WORKS:
The main use of a thermistor is to measure the temperature of a device. In a temperature
controlled system, the thermistor is a small but important piece of a larger system. A temperature
controller monitors the temperature of the thermistor. It then tells a heater or cooler when to turn
on or off to maintain the temperature of the sensor.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND:
A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor
changes with temperature. How much the resistance changes depends on the type of material
used in the thermistor.
There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature
increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when temperature decreases, resistance
increases. This type of thermistor is used the most.
A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the resistance
increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type of thermistor is
generally used as a fuse.
CALIBRATION:
Calibrating devices in well-circulated, temperature-controlled liquids helps to make the
process easier. The bath provides low viscosity, high thermal conductivity, and low electrical
conductivity. The bath should be heated enough so no temperature change occurs when adding
the thermistor fixture.
 Semiconductor temperature sensors
DEFINITION:
Semiconductor temperature sensors are the devices which come in the form of
integrated circuits i.e. ICs hence, popularly known as IC temperature sensors. These are the
electronic devices manufactured in an identical fashion to present-day electronic semiconductor
devices like microprocessors. More than thousands of devices can be fabricated upon thin silicon
wafers.
HOW IT WORKS:
A sensor detects an event or a change in a factor and responds with an output. The
measured phenomenon may be chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant, magnetic or thermal.
The sensor picks up a signal and passes it to a modifier, the first part of the sensor’s
measurement system. This transmits the modified signal to the output transducer. The output
transducer emits the final signal in the form of the output. The output is typically an electrical
signal.
PRINCIPLE BEHIND:
Semiconductors are in general used for the detection of various kinds of charged
particles and photons. Their detection capacity is based on the occurrence of ionization and their
applications are extensive in scope.
The crystalline nature characterizes a semiconductor, as lattice symmetry is
fundamental to its behavior. The atoms show the presence of electron energy bands with an
energy gap between the valence and conduction bands.
CALIBRATION:
1. Calibrating Only the Electronics
To calibrate the electronics of a measurement or control system, you can use a temperature
simulator. You input the temperature and it outputs a resistance or a voltage as per nationally
accepted tables.
2. Calibrating the Sensors and the Electronics
In this method, you can set the test temperature you need in a dry-well. Place the thermometer
with the probe and meter in the well, and compare the measurement with the dry-well’s built-in
thermometer.
3. Calibrating the Sensors and Electronics with a Reference Thermometer
In this method, the thermometer is calibrated in a dry-well as usual, however, the measurement
is compared with another thermometer placed in an adjacent hole. This reference thermometer
has higher accuracy.
References:

https://www.azosensors.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1583
https://www.sensorsci.com/testing-and-calibrating-thermistors