MODULE VI

POWER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN SMART GRID

Electric power quality, or simply power quality, involves voltage, frequency, and waveform. Good power
quality can be defined as a steady supply voltage that stays within the prescribed range, steady a.c. Without the
proper power, an electrical device (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all.

The quality of electrical power is an important contributing factor to the development of any country and
this can be achieved through continuous power quality monitoring which helps detect record and prevent power
quality problems.

SMART GRID

The transformation from a centralized electrical grid system to a distributed electrical system via smart
grids has drawn tremendous attention. Power quality is one of the important aspects responsible for smart
grids reliability and should not be neglected.

From a solution perspective, the smart grid is characterised by:

 Intelligence – capable of sensing overloads and rerouting power to prevent or minimize a potential outrage.
 Efficient – capable of meeting increased consumer demand without adding infrastructure.
 Accommodating – accepting energy from virtually any fuel source including solar and wind as easily and
transparently as coal and natural gas; capable of integrating all better ideas and technologies - energy storage
technologies.
 Motivating – enabling real-time communication between the consumer and utility so consumers can tailor their
energy consumption based on individual preference like price.
 Opportunistic – creating new opportunities and markets by means of its ability to capitalize on plug and play
innovation wherever and whenever
appropriate.
 Quality-focussed – capable of delivering the power quality necessary - free of sags, spikes, disturbances, and
interruption.
 Resilient – increasingly resistant to attack and natural disaster as it becomes decentralized and reinforced with
smart grids security protocols.

How does the Smart Grid help improve power quality?

The Smart Grid includes several components that help utilities better deliver quality power to your home:
smart meters and technology on the distribution grid that helps manage voltage and power factor.

Smart meters are advanced electric meters that provide both you and your utility with more information about the
power delivered to your home. Like other digital devices, they include a transformer to step down voltage for the
digital electronics. Also like other digital devices, they are engineered to meet strict FCC requirements to keep
from interfering with other electronic or communications equipment.

Smart meters allow your utility to see what the actual voltage delivered to your home is. Before smart meters,
utilities would base their equipment settings on voltage readings at an electric substation and engineering
estimates of what that would mean for actual voltage at each customer’s home. They would often set voltages
unnecessarily higher to ensure that the last home on a line didn’t receive voltage below 114.

With actual information on voltage, utilities can use Smart Grid technology to optimize the voltage for every
customer they serve—settings are based on actual customer voltages rather than engineering estimates, which
enables a more efficient and accurate supply of power.
Smart Grid: More Efficient, Higher Quality Power

More information and the ability to manage voltages in real-time allow utilities with Smart Grid
technology to operate their electrical grid within tighter tolerances. This provides you with a more reliable and
efficient power supply that allows your appliances and other electronic devices to operate at their highest
efficiencies and minimizes your cost to run them.

POWER QUALITY ISSUES OF GRID CONNECTED RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Now days, PV generation is developing increasingly fast as a renewable energy source. For grid
connection of renewable energy sources we use Grid Integration – Grid-tie Inverter. The use of Inverter is to
take energy from grid when renewable energy is insufficient. And supply energy when more power is generated

Block Diagram for Gridconnected PV Array.

There are certain challenges in the integration of wind and solar systems with grid directly. For grid
connection of renewable energy sources we use Grid Integration – Grid-tie Inverter. The use of Inverter is to take
energy from grid when renewable energy is insufficient. And supply energy when more power is generated. The
connection of grid with renewable energy and disconnection is done in 100ms.The block diagram for grid
connected PV array is shown in figure 1 (a), Fig.1(b) shows the grid connected wind energy system.

The main function of converter in PV array connected grid system is to correct the magnitude and phase
of the output of PV system by taking the feedback from utility grid. And in case of wind turbine connected grid
system it works as isolation of mechanical and electrical frequencies.
 Block Diagram for Grid connected Wind Turbine.

There are several technical issues associated with grid connected systems like Power Quality Issues, Power and
voltage fluctuations, Storage, Protection issues, Islanding.

Power Quality issues are harmonics and voltage and frequency fluctuations

1. HARMONICS

Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental power
frequency. Electrical appliances and generators all produce harmonics and in large volumes (eg. computers and
compact fluorescent lamps), can cause interference that results in a number of power quality problems.

Most grid-connected inverters for DG applications put out very low levels of harmonic current, and
because of their distribution on the network are unlikely to cause harmonic issues, even at high penetration levels.

While the most common type of inverters (current-source) can not provide the harmonic support required
by the grid, voltage-source inverters can, but do so at an energy cost and there are a variety of harmonic
compensators that are likely to be cheaper. Labeling that identifies the type of inverter (voltage or current source)
would help purchase of voltage source or current source inverters as required, as would financial compensation
for reducing energy losses if voltage source inverters are installed. Note that, unless specially configured, PV
inverters disconnect from the grid when there is insufficient sunlight to cover the switching losses, meaning that
no harmonic support would be provided outside daylight hours.

2. Frequency and Voltage Fluctuations

Frequency and voltage fluctuation again classified as

1. Grid-derived voltage fluctuations

2. Voltage imbalance

3. Voltage rise and reverse power flow

4. Power factor Correction

(i). Grid-Derived Voltage Fluctuations

Inverters are generally configured to operate in grid ‘voltage-following’ mode and to disconnect DG when the
grid voltage moves outside set parameters, This is both to help ensure they contribute suitable power quality as
well as help to protect against unintentional islanding. Where there are large numbers of DG systems or large DG
systems on a particular feeder, their automatic disconnection due to the grid voltage being out of range can be
problematic because other generators on the network will suddenly have to provide additional power
 To avoid this happening, voltage sag tolerances could be broadened and where possible, Low Voltage
Ride-through Techniques (LVRT) could be incorporated into inverter design. LVRT allows inverters to continue
to operate for a defined period if the grid voltage is moderately low but they will still disconnect rapidly if the
grid voltage drops below a set level. Inverters can also be configured to operate in ‘voltage-regulating’ mode,
where they actively attempt to influence the network voltage. Inverters operating in voltage-regulating mode help
boost network voltage by injecting reactive power during voltage sags, as well as reduce network voltage by
drawing reactive power during voltage rise. Thus, connection standards need to be developed to incorporate and
allow inverters to provide reactive power where appropriate, in a manner that did not interfere with any islanding
detection systems. Utility staff may also need to be trained regarding integration of such inverters with other
options used to provide voltage regulation - such as SVCs (Static VAr Compensator) or STATCOMS (static
synchronous compensators)[1].

(ii). Voltage Imbalance

Voltage imbalance is when the amplitude of each phase voltage is different in a three-phase system or the
phase difference is not exactly 120°. Single phase systems installed disproportionately on a single phase may
cause severely unbalanced networks leading to damage to controls, transformers, DG, motors and power
electronic devices. Thus, at high PV penetrations, the cumulative size of all systems connected to each phase
should be as equal as possible. All systems above a minimum power output level of between 5-10kW typically
should have a balanced three phase output

(iii). Voltage Rise and Reverse Power Flow

Traditional centralized power networks involve power flow in one direction only: from power plant to
transmission network, to distribution network, to load. In order to accommodate line losses, voltage is usually
supplied at 5-10% higher than the nominal end use voltage. Voltage regulators are also used to compensate for
voltage drop and maintain the voltage in the designated range along the line.

(iv). Power Factor Correction

Because of poor power factor line losses increases and voltage regulation become difficult. Poor power
factor on the grid increases line losses and makes voltage regulation more difficult. Inverters configured to be
voltage-following have unity power factor, while inverters in voltage-regulating mode provide current that is out
of phase with the grid voltage and so provide power factor correction. This can be a simple fixed power factor or
one that is automatically controlled by, for example, the power system voltage.

A number of factors need to be taken into consideration when using inverters to provide power factor
correction :-

• To provide reactive power injection while supplying maximum active power, the inverter size must be
increased.

• The provision of reactive power support comes at an energy cost, and how the VAr compensation is valued and
who pays for the energy has generally not been addressed.

• Simple reactive power support can probably be provided more cost-effectively by SVCs or STATCOMS which
have lower energy losses; however inverter VAr compensation is infinitely variable and has very fast response
times. In areas where rapid changes in voltage are experienced due to large load transients (eg. motor starts) then
an inverter VAr compensator may be justified.

• While this sort of reactive power compensation is effective for voltage control on most networks, in fringe of
grid locations system impedances seen at the point of connection are considerably more resistive, and so VAr
compensation is less effective for voltage control. In these situations, real power injection is more effective for
voltage regulation.

Studies into the use of inverters to regulate network voltage at high PV penetrations have found that in order to
achieve optimal operation of the network as a whole, some form of centralized control was also required. In
addition, reactive power injection by inverters may be limited by the feeder voltage limits, and so coordinated
control of utility equipment and inverters, as well as additional utility equipment, may be required.

Grid Connected PV Generation System

Figure shows the configuration of the grid-connected PV /Battery generation system. PV array and battery
are connected to the common dc bus via a DCIDC converter respectively, and then interconnected to the ac grid
via a common DC/AC inverter. Battery energy storage can charge and discharge to help balance the power
between PV generation and loads demand. When the generation exceeds the demand, PV array will charge the
battery to store the extra power, meanwhile, when the generation is less than the demand, the battery will
discharge the stored power to supply loads. Each of PV system, battery energy storage system and the inverter has
its independent control objective, and by controlling each part, the entire system is operating safely.

Grid Connected Solar Energy System with Shunt APF

Renewable energy source (RES) integrated at distribution level is termed as distributed generation (DG).
The utility is concerned due to the high penetration level of intermittent RES in distribution systems as it may
pose a threat to network in terms of stability, voltage regulation and power-quality (PQ) issues. Therefore, the DG
systems are required to comply with strict technical and regulatory frameworks to ensure safe, reliable and
efficient operation of overall network. With the advancement in power electronics and digital control technology,
the DG systems can now be actively controlled to enhance the system operation with improved PQ at PCC.
However, the extensive use of power electronics based equipment and non-linear loads at PCC generate harmonic
currents, which may deteriorate the quality of power.

Control Circuit for the Four Leg VSI

A dq-based current reference generator scheme is used to obtain the active power filter current reference
signals. Four leg VSI Schematic Diagram is shown in Fig. The current reference signals are obtained from the
corresponding load currents as shown in Fig. The dq-based scheme operated in a rotating reference frame.
Therefore, the measured currents must be multiplied by the sin ωt and cos ωt signals. By using dqtransformation,
the d current component is synchronized with the corresponding phase-to-neutral system voltage and the q current
components are phase-shifted by 90 . The sinωt and cosωt synchronized reference signals are obtained from a
Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF) PLL. The SRF-PLL generates a pure sinusoidal waveform even when the
system voltage is severely distorted.

Four leg VSI Schematic Diagram.

Block Diagram for control circuit of four Leg based VSI.

Grid Connected Wind Energy System

The three main components for energy conversion in WT are rotor, gear box and generator. The rotor
converts the fluctuating wind energy into mechanical energy and is thus the driving component in the conversion
system. The block diagram for wind energy system with grid connection is shown in Fig

At the point of common coupling (PCC) between the single WT or the wind farm and the grid a circuit
breaker for the disconnection of the whole wind farm or of the WT must exist. In general this circuit breaker is
located at the medium voltage system inside a substation, where also the electricity meter for the settlement
purposes is installed. This usually has its own voltage and current transformers. The medium voltage connection
to the grid can be performed as a radial feeder or as a ring feeder, depending on the individual conditions of the
existing supply system.

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POWER QUALITY CONDITIONERS FOR SMART GRID

Power quality conditioners

A power conditioner (also known as a line conditioner or power line conditioner) is a device intended to
improve the quality of power that is delivered to electrical load equipment.

Role of a Power Quality Conditioner

• Deliver voltage & current of the proper level and characteristics to enable load equipment to function properly

• Ensure efficient power transfer between utility grid & micro grid

• Isolate each micro grid and the utility grid from there respective noises and disturbances

• Energy creation i.e. to convert DC power generated by Solar panels to AC.

• Integration with energy storage system

 Block diagram

Types of power quality conditioners

1. Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)

2. Active power filters

• Shunt active power filters

• Series active power filters

• Hybrid Active Power Filters

3. Unified Power Quality conditioner (UPQC

1. DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR (DSTATCOM)

• The DSTATCOM is a custom power device based on a voltage Source Converter (VSC) shunt connected to the
distribution networks.

• A DSTATCOM is normally used to precisely regulate system voltage, improve voltage profile, reduce voltage
harmonics and for load compensation.

• D-STATCOM can also mitigate voltage dips and can compensate both magnitude and phase angle by injecting
reactive or reactive power to the point of connection with the grid.

Block diagram

The VSC connected in shunt with the ac system provides a multifunctional topology which can be used
for up to three quite distinct purposes: voltage regulation and compensation of reactive power, correction of
power factor, and elimination of current harmonics.
2.ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

• Active power filter technology is a full fledged technique for providing compensation for reactive power,
harmonics and neutral current in ac networks. Active filters are also used to terminate the voltage harmonics, to
regulate terminal voltage, to inhibit voltage flicker and to advance voltage balance in 3- phase systems.

• Generally there are three configurations in which they are connected in power system

a) Shunt active power filters

b) Series active power filters
c) Hybrid Active Power Filters

a) SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

• It compensates current harmonics by injecting equal-but opposite harmonic compensating current.
• operates as a current source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase shifted by
180deg.
• They are usually connected across the load to compensate for all current related problems such as reactive
power compensation, power factor correction, current harmonics and load unbalance compensation.
b) SERIES ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

• It compensate current system distortion caused by nonlinear loads

• The high impedance imposed by the series APF is created by generating a voltage of the same frequency as that
of harmonic component that needs to be eliminated.

• It act as a controlled voltage source and can compensate all voltage related problems such as voltage harmonics,
voltage sags & swells, voltage flicker etc.

c) HYBRID ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

• By controlling the amplitude of the voltage fundamental component across the coupling transformer, the PF of
the power distribution system can be adjusted.

• The control of the load power factor imposed a higher voltage across the filter capacitor.

• This type of configuration is very convenient for compensation of high power medium voltage non linear loads

..
3.UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER (UPQC)

• The Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) combines the Shunt Active Power Filter with the Series Active
Power Filter, sharing the same DC Link, in order to compensate both voltages and currents, so that the load
voltages become sinusoidal and at nominal value, and the source currents become sinusoidal and in phase with
the source voltages.

• UPQC can compensate both voltage related problems such as voltage harmonics, voltage sags/swells, voltage
flicker as well as current related problems like reactive power compensation, power factor correction, current
harmonics and load unbalance compensation.

• There is a significant increase in interest for using UPQC in distributed generation associated with smart grids
because of availability of high frequency switching devices and advanced fast computing devices
(microcontrollers, DSP, FPGA) at lower cost.

UPQC

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE

Introduction: Electromagnetic (EM) is a branch of physics or electrical engineering in which electric and
magnetic phenomena are studied. Electromagnetic interference exists in every communication link. It manifests
itself as noise.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is electromagnetic energy that adversely affects the performance of
electrical/electronic equipment by creating undesirable responses or complete operational failure.
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of electrical or electronic equipment/systems to function in the
intended operating environment without causing or experiencing performance degradation due to intentional EMI.
The most common methods of noise reduction include proper equipment circuit design, shielding, grounding,
filtering, isolation, separation and orientation and noise cancellation techniques.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the radio
frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit
by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction.[1] The disturbance may degrade the
performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the case of a data path, these effects can range from
an increase in error rate to a total loss of the data.[2] Both man-made and natural sources generate changing
electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI: ignition systems, cellular network of mobile
phones, lightning, solar flares, and auroras (Northern/Southern Lights). EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can
also affect mobile phones, FM radios, and televisions, as well as observations for radio astronomy

EM Signal: E=Electric field B=Magnetic field

EMI:- Electromagnetic interference is the degradation in the performance of a device due to the fields making up
the electromagnetic environment.

EMC:- Electromagnetic compatibility is achieved when a device functions satisfactorily without introducing
intolerable disturbances to the electromagnetic environment.

Causes

EMI (electromagnetic interference) is the disruption of operation of an electronic device when it is in the
vicinity of an electromagnetic field (EM field) in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum that is caused by another
electronic device.
 Sources of EMI:

The sources of EMI can be broadly classified into two groups.

(i) Natural sources of EMI. Example: lightning.

(ii) Manmade sources of EMI. Example: commercial radio and telephone communications.

In specific we can classify as

(i)Functional: EMI can originate from any source designed to generate electromagnetic energy and which may
create interference as a normal part of its operation

(ii)Incidental: EMI can originate from manmade sources .These sources are notdesigned specifically to generate
electromagnetic energy but which do in fact cause interference.

(iii)Natural: EMI can be caused by natural phenomena, such as electrical storms rain particles , solar and
interstellar radiation.

Types of EMI - Electromagnetic Interference

 Continuous interference: This type of EMI generally arises from a source such as a circuit that is emitting a
continuous signal. ...
 Impulse noise: Again, this type of EMI may be man-made or naturally occurring

FREQUENCY CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the lowest to the highest frequency (longest to shortest wavelength),
includes all radio waves (e.g., commercial radio and television, microwaves, radar), infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.

The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes:
 Gamma radiation.
 X-ray radiation.
 Ultraviolet radiation.
 Visible radiation.
 Infrared radiation.
 Terahertz radiation.
 Microwave radiation.
 Radio waves.