1

Observation, Integration, Implementation: A case study on the self-efficacy of public school

teachers in an inclusive classroom

Eleanor Marie L. Bahrami-Hessari, M.Ed., M.S.Ed.

Faculty Member, UST College of Education

Abstract
A teacher’s self-efficacy is seen in their roles of being the decision makers in managing
their student’s learning and behavior (Soodak, Podell & Lehman, 1998). Hence, it can be said
that if teachers believe that educating their students with exceptionalities is a manageable task,
this can in turn impact their confidence in their ability to perform any task (Fleva & Khan, 2015).
Case study was utilized in this qualitative research. The participants of this research comprised
of six (6) regular school teachers in Juan Sumulong Elementary School (JSES) in Manila. In
gathering the data for the study, triangulation method was used. The audio-recorded responses
during the FGD were transcribed and encoded into a cross-case analysis table. After having
analyzed all the participants’ responses from the focus group discussion using cool and warm
analyses supported by the results of the TSES questionnaire, three themes surfaced, namely:
Observation, Integration, and Implementation. Evidently, the teacher participants did show
improvement in their self-efficacy skills as they were provided with opportunities for
implementation in their respective classrooms after every training session and discussed with the
researchers coming into the next session. Henceforth, it is essential that teachers are provided
with opportunities to practice what they had learned in the training sessions not only in a
simulated environment but in their actual classroom setting to ensure competence.

Keywords: Pre-referral training, inclusive education, self-efficacy, general education teachers

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Introduction
Pre-referral intervention is the systematic and collaborative effort to assist classroom
teachers before initiating formal referral, assessment and placement procedures (Dodd, Nelson,
& Spint, 1995). The outcomes of a Pre-referral Intervention encompass (a) reduction of the need
for special education services through the provision of support to general classroom education,
(b) decrease in the over identification of students as having handicaps, (c) integrating children
with exceptionalities (CWE) into the general education environment and (d) enhancement of the
self-efficacy of teachers to handle students with difficulties and the improvement of attitudes of
teachers towards such students (Nelson, Smith, Taylor, Dodd, & Reavis, 1991). Pre-referral
intervention programs are effective in reducing the referral rates of students to special education
services (Burns, Vanderwood, & Ruby, 2005; Nelson, et al., 1991; Straut, Kluth, & Papandrea,
2001). In fact, teachers prefer to exhaust interventions possible within their means before
referring a student to specialized services. Furthermore, pre-referral intervention programs have
several favorable effects for the teachers such as improving teachers’ perspective and attitudes
towards CWE and their ability to handle maladaptive behaviors without the urgent need of
referring the child to special education services (Burns, et al., 2005; Nelson, et al., 1991; Fuchs
& Fuchs 1987).
It is however imperative that these pre-referral intervention programs are provided with
suitable and specific training for the teachers who will be implementing them in their respective
classrooms to ensure that inclusion is observed. In a study by Mulhivill, Cotton & Gyaben in
2004 (as cited in Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg, 2009) highlighted that one of the significant
barriers of inclusion is the lack of specific training and support for child care providers to include
CWE in their programs. This study also reported that teachers who received training showed
fewer attitudinal barriers than those who did not receive training. Accordingly, this positive
attitude in turn increased the willingness of these teachers to include CWE in their classrooms
(Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg, 2009). A study by Fukkink and Lont (2007) underscored the
positive effects of specialized training on the skills of teachers and found a direct link from
training to the improvement of their skills in teaching. Further, another study found that teachers
who received disability-specific training for at least three days were more likely to demonstrate
more positive attitudes and in turn an improved sense of efficacy in terms of their teaching
(Kuester, 2000). Additionally, Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg (2009) and Lee, Yeung, Tracey,
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& Barker (2015) found that teachers who attended more training sessions showed an improved
sense of teaching competence and attitudes towards their students’ exceptionalities.
Correspondingly, Fleva and Khan’s (2015) study reinforced how teacher training on special and
inclusive education provided an increase of teacher’s sense of self-efficacy in dealing with CWE.
Hence, providing teachers with appropriate training will enable them to overcome their
perceived lack of knowledge, competence and skill in effectively dealing with CWE in their
classrooms.
Self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s personal belief in their capability to organize
and perform an action required in producing given attainments (Bandura, 1977 as cited in Fisher,
2017; Fleva & Khan, 2015; Hofman & Kilimo, 2014). On the subject of inclusive education,
self-efficacy can be defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can impact their student’s
performance (Bergman, McLaughlin, Bass, Pauly, & Zellman, 1977 as cited in Fleva & Khan,
2015). In some cases, a teacher’s self-efficacy is seen in their roles of being the decision makers
in managing their student’s learning and behavior (Soodak, Podell & Lehman, 1998). Hence, it
can be said that if teachers believe that educating their students with exceptionalities is a
manageable task, this can in turn impact their confidence in their ability to perform any task
(Fleva & Khan, 2015). For a teacher with low self-efficacy, it was revealed that they were less
likely to take responsibility for the learning and behavioral needs of CWE and were faced with
more problems in the implementation of inclusion (Fisher, 2017; Soodak, et al., 1998). A
teacher’s self-efficacy is also reflected in their use of effective instructional practices geared
towards the abilities and needs of CWE. It is said that this is one of the most cited performance
indicators associated with successful inclusion (Hofman & Kilimo, 2014; Soodak, et al., 1998).
Hence, it is suggested that for successful inclusion to occur in classrooms, teachers should be
knowledgeable and able to differentiate their instruction based on their student’s abilities and
needs. Bandura (as cited in Hofman & Kilimo, 2014) concluded that teachers with high sense of
self-efficacy are most likely to remain motivated and confident and are more capable of coping
with stress and negative feelings even when faced with immense educational demands.
Most research studies done on the self-efficacy of teachers in inclusive education has
been conducted in developed countries. Studies on inclusive education in developing countries
such as the Philippines mostly highlight the promotion, accessibility, implementation of
strategies and the current state of inclusion in the country. Hence, this study aims to determine
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how the Pre-referral instructional support program (PRISP) training for inclusion contributes to
the self-efficacy skills of select regular kindergarten and first grade public school teachers.

Method
Research Design
Case study was utilized in this qualitative research. Austin and Sutton (2014) stated that
qualitative research involves asking participants about their experiences of things that occur in
their lives. It also investigated the causality of a particular trend or issue among one or more
participants. It also narrowed indications on how one or more variables establish descriptions or
clarifications from the research method used. According to Minniti, Melo, Oliveira and Salles
(2017) case study as a method provides thorough exploration of realities. This design also
involves investigation of an individual matter or case with the purpose of identifying the progress
of participants as well as their interaction with a certain context or situation. As cited by Starman
(2013), case study also delivers in-depth exploration of a situation, phenomenon or case from
multiple perspectives of the complexity of a certain project or program.

Subjects and Study Site

With the objective to determine the self-efficacy skills of regular public school teachers
in an inclusive classroom, this study was conducted in Juan Sumulong Elementary School
(JSES) in Manila which has an existing memorandum of agreement with the University of Santo
Tomas that would allow the University to conduct studies in the school. Teachers handling
kindergarten and first grade classes were chosen to take part in the study. For school year 2017-
2018, there were six (6) regular school teachers. Two (2) regular teachers handling kindergarten
classes and four (4) regular teachers teaching in the first grade level. The table below shows the
profile of the teacher participants.
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Years of
Participant Gender Age Degree Completed
Service

Teacher 1 Female 52 Bachelor of Elementary Education 25

Teacher 2 Female 31 Bachelor of Elementary Education 6
Teacher 3 Female 37 Bachelor of Elementary Education 10
Teacher 4 Female 39 Bachelor of Elementary Education 15
Teacher 5 Female 31 Bachelor of Elementary Education 10
Teacher 6 Female 32 Bachelor of Elementary Education 9

Table 1: Profile of Teacher Participants

Data Measure/Instrumentation
In gathering the data for the study, triangulation method was used. This method involved
multiple perspectives and methods, such as collating two or more sources of data (Yeasmin &
Rahman, 2012). Triangulation also determines the similarities and differences among the
collected data that reveals different perspectives of the phenomenon being studied (Jespersen &
Wallace, 2017).
The first instrument used was a robotfoto, a cartographic sketch for the subjects,
purposively prepared by the researchers for this study used to collate the demographic and
personal information of the participants (De Guzman, Nieto, Albela, Ferrer & Santos, 2006)
through the following data: (1) full name, age, gender; (2) educational attainment,
degree/program completed, number of years in teaching; and (3) basic contact information.
Focus group discussion (FGD) was also used to elicit information and comprehensive
insights of the teachers’ experiences in the implementation of the PRISP in their respective
classrooms. According to Nyumba, et al. (2018), FGDs are frequently used as a qualitative
approach to gain an in‐depth und erstanding of social issues. Furthermore, Colando (2011)
highlighted that FGD is a useful method to explore the nuances of participants’ opinions
regarding an issue to capture the interpretations of a program’s target participants.
The Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001)
was also given to the teacher participants to gain better understanding of the kinds of scenarios
and events that create difficulties for them in their classrooms. This 12-item scale questionnaire
focused on efficacy on student engagement, instructional strategies and classroom management.
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Permission to use the questionnaire in this study was sought from and was granted by the
authors.

Data Gathering Procedure

Prior to the implementation of the training program, a letter of request to conduct the
study was sent to both the Division Office Department of Education (DepEd) and Juan
Sumulong Elementary School’s principal. Thereafter, the participants were given a letter of
consent informing them of the significance and purpose of the training. Once they had given
their consent, the questionnaire was distributed to the teacher participants. Thereafter, four (4)
training sessions were conducted with the participants on consecutive weekends to introduce the
PRISP and train them on how to implement the activities inside the classroom. After the training
and implementation of the PRISP, the researcher gathered the participants for a FGD, which
allowed the participants to share and compare observations from the training and the
implementation of the program. Permission was sought from the participants to have the latter
activity audio and video recorded.

Ethical Considerations
The researcher ensured the integrity of the study to all who were involved in the course of
this research. A letter of request was written to the division superintendent in Manila and also to
the principal of the school seeking permission to conduct the study with their teachers as
participants. Prior to the training sessions, an informed consent form was personally handed to
the teacher participants for them to review the content and sign as their permission to participate
in the study. Further, permission to use the TSES questionnaire (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk
Hoy, 2001) in this study was sought from and was granted by the authors.

Data Analysis
The audio-recorded responses during the FGD were transcribed and encoded into a cross-
case analysis table. Through the repertory grid, cool and warm analyses were completed.
Significant statements were extracted in the cool analysis phase. These significant statements
were then categorized based on the cohesions which directed to the formulation of themes for the
warm analysis. Each theme was sensibly examined to authenticate its consistency. The items in
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the TSES questionnaire showing noteworthy connections were also used to support the themes
that emerged in the study.

Findings
After having analyzed all the participants’ responses from the focus group discussion
using cool and warm analyses supported by the results of the TSES questionnaire, three themes
surfaced, namely: Observation, Integration, and Implementation.

Figure 1: The Cupped Hands Model

Upon gathering and analyzing all the necessary data, the researcher came up with the
Cupped Hands Model, a framework showing the three salient themes that emerged from this
research: Observation, Integration, and Implementation. These themes represent the self-efficacy
skills of teacher participants that were reinforced and utilized in their classrooms after having
gone through the PRISP training. The wrist of the cupped hands represent the observation skills
of the teachers – the base of the two other skills, that they noticed had become more focused,
detailed and directed towards the skills and needs of their learners. The palm of the cupped hands
signifies the teachers’ integration skills – the groundwork for planning, in incorporating the
different activities presented to them in the Pre-referral Instructional Support Manual (PRISM) to
the curriculum topics of their respective grade levels. Finally, the fingers of the cupped hands
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embody the teachers’ implementation skills – the movement or action source, of the various
activities in the PRISM based on their learner’s current skills, interests, and needs.
The Cupped Hands Model is seen to be holding jigsaw gears which represent the
relationship between the process on how the teacher participants acquired their knowledge and
experiences from the PRISP training for inclusion and implementation of the program. Further,
present at the center of the jigsaw gears is a profile silhouette. This silhouette epitomizes the
attitudes of the teacher participants towards the PRISP training for inclusion. These inner
structures denote the framework of two other research studies conducted concurrent to this
research on teacher’s awareness and teacher’s attitudes towards a PRISP for inclusion. These
frameworks are supported and made tangible by the Cupped Hands Model which targets
teacher’s self-efficacy skills. Although the Cupped Hands Model is an independent framework in
itself, the concept of self-efficacy is made more holistic with an individual’s knowledge
(awareness) and attitude.
Quantitative analysis showed that there were differences in the sense of self-efficacy in
all areas of the TSES, although not significant enough. Nonetheless, interview with the key
informants revealed that there were changes in their self-efficacy skills in observation,
integration, and implementation. These changes are reflected in the following statements the
teacher participants remarked, “Ako, mas naiintinidihan ko na kung papaano po i-approach yung
bata.”; “Ako after the training mas naintindihan ko kung paano iaapproach sila. Parang, ah eto
pala yung sinabi ni Ma’am, na ganito pala, pwede naming Makita naming doon na.”; “Meron
po. Syempre kami kasi kung madalian, pwede pala yung ganito. Bakit hindi ko naisip?
Nakatulong po talaga.”

Observation
As generated in the study, Observation skills emerged in relation to the teacher
participants’ remarking they paid more attention to their learners’ body language, skills and
needs. Teacher 1 and Teacher 2’s responses indicated that they started to notice students’ body
language in terms of behaviors and skills. Teacher 2 explained, “Parang na-aano siya doon sa
kaklase niya kasi yung kaklase niya kayang kaya niya parang ‘Wow ganda ang galing’ siya,
nawawala na siya ng ano. Parang ano yung self-esteem niya bumababa na doon” pertaining to a
child’s response towards a peer who appears to be praised more often. Further, Teacher 1
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described, “Yung pahawak niya po sa mga shapes, gigil na po siya. So parang as teachers,
pinacify ko. Anak ko sila, kaya ko yan.” concerning a child who appeared to hold on to an object
with tension.
Meanwhile, some teachers’ observation skills became more directed towards particular
needs of their students. Teacher 3 declared, “Parang kapag hindi niyo po siya pinansin, talagang
tulala na po siya forever. Kaya talaga nilapit ko po sila para makita ko sila ng same. **
kailangan lang po talaga tutukan.” referring to a child who when not given attention seemed to
zone out. On the other hand, Teacher 2 revealed, “Kaya minsan po doon sa, yung sa, yung ibang
activities po na individual inapply ko sakanya kasi ano parang ang observation ko sakanya pag
meron siyang kaklase na nagawa na yun ng mas maayos, parang siya nawawalan na ng guts na
gawin yung kasi baka magkamali siya.” hinting that one of her students appears to lose courage
in attempting to do activities whenever he sees someone else succeed in it, fearing he would
commit an error. Additionally, two other teachers communicated how they had noticed
improvement as they were implementing activities in the PRISM. They declared, “Kumabaga,
nung ichineck ko na po kasi yung ano ni Ruby mas madali kop o siyang kumabaga ang laki ng
improvement. Wow!” and “Pero nung binigyan ko po siya ng activity na galing sa PRISM, lalo
na sa Letter I. Wow nakita ko yung improvement. Kaya sinabi ko sa Nanay niya ‘Tingnan niyo
nakatulong na ang pag ano niya.’” indicating improvement of particular skills based on the
activities given in the PRISM.

Integration
The responses of teacher participants stressed elements focusing on their ability to
integrate curriculum topics with activities presented in the PRISM. Correspondingly, Integration
skills arose as the second theme in this study. When asked on how they were able to use the
activities in their respective classrooms, one teacher responded, “Integrated po. Outdoor plays.
Indoor and outdoor plays. Pwede po yon. Kapag makakapasok po sila doon sa, hindi lang po
doon sa lesson. Indoor play pwede po. Ahh, indoor play... Aside from that, playing tapos
ipapasok sa curriculum. Mas marami po akong nakita na pwede pumasok sa indoor play.”
explaining how some activities can be integrated in both indoor and outdoor play. Another
teacher mentioned, “Naisip ko nga po, pwede pala yan. Meron na tayong boxes. Kaya sinasabi
ko sayo ma’am eh, kailangan naka ready na siya anytime kukuhain nalang naming.” suggesting
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that materials set for the activity of the day can also be used in some of the activities provided in
the PRISM.
Some teachers also felt encouraged to plan their lessons around the PRISM activities
after noting the benefits of the activities during the previous weeks of implementation. One
teacher revealed, “Dahil nga po busy kami, ginawa ko na sa bahay at inilatag ko nalang doon sa
classroom.”; “So siguro po para talagang maipasok namin, kailangan naming upuan iyon tapos
tingnan ang guide namin.” Other teachers verbalized future planning of lessons taking in to
account PRISM activities, “So siguro po talagang, kumbaga, magagawa naming ngayon
summer at hindi kami mahihirapan na ipasok yung mga activities sa competency namin. Kasi
meron naman pong mga activities po doon sa PRISM na pwedeng ipasok.” indicating that
PRIMS activities do target specific learning competencies in their grade level.

Implementation
Another noteworthy theme that emerged in this research is the Implementation skills of
the various activities in the PRISM based on the learner’s current skills, interests, and needs.
Some of the teacher’s responses showed how much they took into account a learner’s interest in
particular activities as basis for selecting activities to implement. They recounted, “Katulad ko
Ma’am, ako ang nagbigay kay Daniel ng TOMAS kaya po alam ko po kung ano na ang
maibibigay ko sakanya, yung PRISM, kaya nga sabi ko po siguro mageenjoy itong bata na ito
dito.” ; “Yon, inisipan ko po talaga ng activities for them and then the rest ginawa ko din po sa
iba and then nagawa naman po nila and then tuwang tuwa naman po sila.” specifying activities
that are of interest to the child.
Moreover, the teachers also selected activities based on the needs and skills of their
students. One teacher noted, “Tiningnan ko po yung results niya sabi ko, eto pala yung pinaka
ano niya mababa niya eto dito pala siya dapat…” associating the results of the screening tool
(Tool for Measuring Acquired Skills - TOMAS) to the learner’s actual needs and skills. Other
teachers stressed, “Clay molding po. Talagang ano namin, start po naming ng fine motor. Kapag
ganoon sila sa fine motor activities. Kumbaga nirerequire po talaga namin.”; “Naipasok po yun
sa case ko po sa bata ko po. Nahanapan ko po ng activity na sasakto po sa kanila.” referencing
to how they were able to find activities in the PRISM specific to the needs and skills of a child.
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Likewise, the teachers also showed how much they regarded making accommodations,
modifications, and differentiations in activities where children presented with difficulties. A
couple of teachers explained, “Pero yung iba po doong play activities sa prism, naka u-shaped
po ang mga bata. Kumbaga parang may participation po sila magcheer or mag ano.” They
further reiterated, “Pero kung yung plinano ng that magtuturo, plano mo eto, pagdating mo
diyan, may commercial so mag aadjust lang ganon po yung nangyari sa kin.”; “Kasi yung
approach na ito ay hindi pwede sakanya, yung itong approach na to hindi rin pwede sa isa.
Meron nga pong ito pwede magamit sakanya pero ito hindi dahil masyadong sensitive. Kaya
mapapaisip ka talaga.” Additionally, they mentioned, “Repetition po yung ginawa ko para po
makuha po nung bata pero inano ko muna po yung mood ng bata isinet ko kasi umiyak na po
siya eh parang napipikon na po siya kasi hindi niya po magawa.” pertaining to all the necessary
accommodations, modifications and differentiation strategies they used in implementing
activities and managing student’s behaviors.

Discussion
As reflected in the study, it was evident that the participants’ observational skills became
more focused, detailed and directed towards specific skills, interests and needs of their learners.
According to Taweechaisupapong (2011), there is a demand from teachers to receive
appropriate, efficient, and practical inclusive education training to help them develop deeper
knowledge, forward looking attitude and deeper understanding to deliver appropriate education.
Being that the role of a teacher is to observe individual students engaged in particular classroom
situations (Orland-Barak & Leshem, 2009), the “how to” and “what to” - observe in learners
poses as a challenge to general education teachers in inclusive classrooms. Based on the findings
of this study, it was evident that after having gone through the PRISP training for inclusion,
teachers became more perceptive in looking into their learner’s body language, interests, needs,
and understated movements. It is quite evident here that the teacher participants made sense of
their observations (Kvernbekk, 2000 as cited in Orland-Barak & Leshem, 2009) as they were
able to identify changes in behaviors brought about by particular activities and even novel
responses generated in new situations. Even more significantly, all the responses of the teacher
participants reflected curricular and pedagogical decisions made based on their observations of
particular learners. According to Orland-Barak & Leshem (2009), when teachers are able to
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examine the gaps and discrepancies based on what they know about a student and what they
observe, most often than not, it leads them to reconsider and carry out pedagogical, curricular,
and relational decisions. Hence, it can be deduced that when translated into action-driven
movements, observations impact “practical and pedagogical insights and ideas about the use of
particular strategies and curricular activities” (Orland-Barak & Leshem, 2009, p. 29).
Moreover, based on the teacher’s responses, it was apparent that after the PRISP training
for inclusion, they were able to identify content areas of possible integration with PRISM
activities. In a study by Allday, Neilsen-Gatti & Hudson (2013), for teachers to be able to
successfully create an inclusive classroom environment, they need to learn strategies to
communicate and collaborate effectively with their colleagues handling various content areas.
According to Hofman & Kilimo (2014), the availability of support services specifically on
teaching methods and materials for students with all kinds of abilities contribute positively to
teacher’s attitudes and self-efficacy skills. Sharma, Forlin & Loreman (as cited in Allday, et al.,
2013) emphasized that the integration of content and pedagogy are significant predictors of a
teacher’s attitudes and self-efficacy on inclusion. Hence, a teacher’s ability to combine and
utilize appropriate teaching strategies with curriculum topics make teachers more reflective in
their practice and more informed in pedagogy and content. Thus, when teachers are able to
evidently employ integrated teaching strategies into current curriculum activities, they become
more self-assured and competent.
Additionally, the teacher participants expressed various ways of implementation of
PRISM activities based on the interests of their learners and seeing possible potential in making
accommodations, modifications and recommendations. According to Bateman & Bateman and
Romi & Leyser (as cited in Allday, et al., 2013), one of the global categories to successfully
include CWE in a general education classroom is to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of
all learners. A study by Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg (2009) indicated that when teachers are
trained on the use of specific strategies on making curriculum adaptations and even how to
manage different types of behaviors, they displayed improved positive attitudes, knowledge and
perceived competence and skills to include CWE in their classrooms. These improvements in
turn enhanced their ability to work effectively with all children. Further, Fleva & Khan (2015)
purported that teachers who attended special education trainings were more likely to increase the
self-efficacy skills of teachers in teaching typically and atypically developing young learners.
 13

Mulvihill, et al. (as cited in Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg, 2009) and Hoffman & Kilimo
(2014) indicated that the most essential area in inclusion training programs is the adaptation of
teaching strategies to the needs of CWE. The PRISP training for inclusion conducted in this
study provided not just a PRISM of teaching strategies for teachers but also hands-on
experiences during the training for the teacher participants to be able to visualize how these
activities may play out in their respective classrooms. Principally, this finding is anchored on a
study by Baker-Ericzén & Mueggenborg (2009) indicating that when training programs provide
opportunities for practicing skills through simulation activities, trainees were seen to be more
confident in applying specific strategies towards particular needs of students.

Lessons Learned
This qualitative case study substantially elicited information to identify how the Pre-
referral instructional support program (PRISP) training for inclusion contributes to the self-
efficacy skills of select regular kindergarten and first grade public school teachers. Hence, this
study revealed that the following skills were reinforced and utilized by the teacher participants
after the PRISP training for inclusion: Observation, Integration, and Implementation. All the
responses of the teacher participants reflected changes and improvement in their self-efficacy
skills in the abovementioned areas.

The PRISP training for inclusion conducted by the researchers provided hands-on,
interactive experiences that ran for four sessions. According to Baker-Ericzen & Mueggenborg
(2009), teachers who attended three or more training sessions displayed “the most positive
attitudes towards inclusion and demonstrated the greatest perceived competence regarding how
to include a child with special needs into their program” (p. 204). Evidently, the teacher
participants did show improvement in their self-efficacy skills as they were provided with
opportunities for implementation in their respective classrooms after every training session and
discussed with the researchers coming into the next session. Henceforth, it is essential that
teachers are provided with opportunities to practice what they had learned in the training sessions
not only in a simulated environment but in their actual classroom setting to ensure competence.
 14

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