UNIT I ROCKETS SYSTEM

Ignition system
An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. Ignition systems are well known in the field
of internal combustion engines such as those used in petrol (gasoline) engines used to power the
majority of motor vehicles, but they are also used in many other applications such as in oil-fired and gas-
fired boilers, rocket engines, etc.

Diesel engines rely on air compression for ignition, but usually also have glowplugs that preheat the
combustion chamber to allow starting of the engine in cold weather. Other engines may use a flame, or
a heated tube, for ignition.

Types

1. Magneto systems
2. Switchable systems
3. Battery and coil-operated ignition
4. Modern ignition systems
5. Mechanically timed ignition
6. Electronic ignition
7. Digital electronic ignitions

Magneto systems

Magneto ignition coil.

For more details on this topic, see Ignition magneto.

The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside a coil, or,
in the earlier designs, a coil inside a fixed magnet, and also operates a contact breaker, interrupting the
current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a small gap. The spark plugs are
connected directly from the magneto output. Early magnetos had one coil, with the contact breaker
(sparking plug) inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto,
with a fixed sparking plug, and the contact breaker outside the cylinder. Magnetos are not used in
modern cars, but because they generate their own electricity they are often found on piston-engined
aircraft engines and small engines such as those found in mopeds, lawnmowers, snowblowers,
chainsaws, etc. where a battery-based electrical system is not present for any combination of necessity,
weight, cost, and reliability reasons.

Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit and miss" engine which was
used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors before battery starting
and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines. Magnetos were used in these engines
because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and because magnetos
weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator.
Aircraft engines usually have dual magnetos to provide redundancy in the event of a failure, and to
increase efficiency by thoroughly and quickly burning the fuel air mix from both sides towards the
center. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in 1903 by Dayton,
Ohio inventor, Vincent Groby Apple.[1] Some older automobiles had both a magneto system and a
battery actuated system (see below) running simultaneously to ensure proper ignition under all
conditions with the limited performance each system provided at the time. This gave the benefits of
easy starting (from the battery system) with reliable sparking at speed (from the magneto).

Switchable systems

Switchable magneto ignition circuit, with starting battery.

The output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be
problematic. Some magnetos include an impulse system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper
moment, making easier starting at slow cranking speeds. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the
Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, (similar to a large flashlight
battery, and which was not maintained by a charging system as on modern automobiles) to start the
engine or for starting and running at low speed. The operator would manually switch the ignition over to
magneto operation for high speed operation.

To provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, a 'tickler' was used, which was
essentially a larger version of the once widespread electric buzzer. With this apparatus, the direct
current passes through an electromagnetic coil which pulls open a pair of contact points, interrupting
the current; the magnetic field collapses, the spring-loaded points close again, the circuit is
reestablished, and the cycle repeats rapidly. The rapidly collapsing magnetic field, however, induces a
high voltage across the coil which can only relieve itself by arcing across the contact points; while in the
case of the buzzer this is a problem as it causes the points to oxidize and/or weld together, in the case of
the ignition system this becomes the source of the high voltage to operate the spark plugs.

In this mode of operation, the coil would "buzz" continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The
entire apparatus was known as the 'Model T spark coil' (in contrast to the modern ignition coil which is
only the actual coil component of the system). Long after the demise of the Model T as transportation
they remained a popular self-contained source of high voltage for electrical home experimenters,
appearing in articles in magazines such as Popular Mechanics and projects for school science fairs as late
as the early 1960s. In the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in
cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting.

The Model T (built into the flywheel) differed from modern implementations by not providing high
voltage directly at the output; the maximum voltage produced was about 30 volts, and therefore also
had to be run through the spark coil to provide high enough voltage for ignition, as described above,
although the coil would not "buzz" continuously in this case, only going through one cycle per spark. In
either case, the low voltage was switched to the appropriate spark plug by the 'timer' mounted on the
front of the engine. This performed the equivalent function to the modern distributor, although by
directing the low voltage, not the high voltage as for the distributor. The timing of the spark was
adjustable by rotating this mechanism through a lever mounted on the steering column. As the precise
timing of the spark depends on both the 'timer' and the trembler contacts within the coil, this is less
consistent than the breaker points of the later distributor. However, for the low speed and the low
compression of such early engines, this imprecise timing was acceptable.

Battery and coil-operated ignition

Inductive discharge ignition

With the universal adoption of electrical starting for automobiles, and the availability of a large battery
to provide a constant source of electricity, magneto systems were abandoned for systems which
interrupted current at battery voltage, using an ignition coil (a transformer) to step the voltage up to the
needs of the ignition, and a distributor to route the ensuing pulse to the correct spark plug at the correct
time.

The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co.
(Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was developed by Charles Kettering and was a
wonder in its day. It consisted of a single coil, points (the switch), a capacitor and a distributor set up to
allocate the spark from the ignition coil timed to the correct cylinder. The coil was basically a
transformer to step up the low battery voltage (6 or 12 V) to the high ignition voltage required to jump a
spark plug gap.

The points allow the coil magnetic field to build. When the points open by a cam arrangement, the
magnetic field collapses and a large output voltage (20 kV or greater) is produced.

The capacitor has two functions. Its main function is to form a series resonant circuit with the ignition
coil. During resonance, energy is repeatedly transferred to the secondary side until the energy is
exhausted. As a result of this resonance the duration of the spark is sustained and so implements a good
flame front in the air/fuel mixture. The capacitor, by default minimizes arcing at the contacts at the
point of opening. This reduces contact burning and maximizes point life. The Kettering system became
the primary ignition system for many years in the automotive industry due to its lower cost, higher
reliability and relative simplicity.

 Modern ignition systems

 The ignition system is typically controlled by a key operated Ignition switch.
 Mechanically timed ignition
 Distributor cap

Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the
system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive, a set of
breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil,
the spark plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition coil.

The system is powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system using a
dynamo or alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an
induction coil (known as the ignition coil).

The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings — the primary and secondary. These windings
share a common magnetic core. An alternating current in the primary induces an alternating magnetic
field in the core and hence an alternating current in the secondary. The ignition coil's secondary has
more turns than the primary. This is a step-up transformer, which produces a high voltage from the
secondary winding. The primary winding is connected to the battery (usually through a current-limiting
ballast resistor). Inside the ignition coil one end of each winding is connected together. This common
point is taken to the capacitor/contact breaker junction. The other end of the secondary is connected to
the rotor. The distributor cap sequences the high voltage to the respective spark plug.

Ignition circuit diagram for mechanically timed ignition

The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady current flows
from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the primary coil, through the closed
breaker points and finally back to the battery. This current produces a magnetic field within the coil's
core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark.

As the engine turns, the cam inside the distributor rotates. The points ride on the cam so that as a piston
reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, the cam causes the breaker points to open. This
breaks the primary winding's circuit and abruptly stops the current through the breaker points. Without
the steady current through the points, the magnetic field generated in the coil immediately collapses.
This severe rate of change of magnetic flux induces a high voltage in the coil's secondary windings.

At the same time, current exits the coil's primary winding and begins to charge up the capacitor
(condenser) that lies across the open breaker points. This capacitor and the coil’s primary windings form
an oscillating LC circuit. This LC circuit produces a damped, oscillating current which bounces energy
between the capacitor’s electric field and the ignition coil’s magnetic field. The oscillating current in the
coil’s primary produces an oscillating magnetic field in the coil. This extends the high voltage pulse at the
output of the secondary windings. This continues beyond the time of the initial field collapse pulse. The
oscillation continues until the circuit’s energy is consumed.

The ignition coil's high voltage output is directed to the distributor cap. A turning rotor, located on top
of the breaker cam within the distributor cap, sequentially directs the output of the secondary winding
to the spark plugs. The high voltage from the coil's secondary (typically 20,000 to 50,000 volts) causes a
spark to form across the gap of the spark plug. This, in turn, ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture
within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the energy that was stored in the
ignition coil’s magnetic field.

The flat twin cylinder 1948 Citroën 2CV used one double ended coil without a distributor, and just
contact breakers, in a wasted spark system.

Citroen 2CV wasted spark ignition system

Some two-cylinder motorcycles and motor scooters had two contact points feeding twin coils each
connected directly to the spark plug without a distributor; e.g. the BSA Thunderbolt and Triumph
Tigress.

High performance engines with eight or more cylinders that operate at high r.p.m. (such as those used in
motor racing) demand both a higher rate of spark and a higher spark energy than the simple ignition
circuit can provide. This problem is overcome by using either of these adaptations:
Two complete sets of coils, breakers and condensers can be provided - one set for each half of the
engine, which is typically arranged in V-8 or V-12 configuration. Although the two ignition system halves
are electrically independent, they typically share a single distributor which in this case contains two
breakers driven by the rotating cam, and a rotor with two isolated conducting planes for the two high
voltage inputs.

A single breaker driven by a cam and a return spring is limited in spark rate by the onset of contact
bounce or float at high rpm. This limit can be overcome by substituting for the breaker a pair of breakers
that are connected electrically in series but spaced on opposite sides of the cam so they are driven out
of phase. Each breaker then switches at half the rate of a single breaker and the "dwell" time for current
buildup in the coil is maximized since it is shared between the breakers. The Lamborghini V-8 engine has
both these adaptations and therefore uses two ignition coils and a single distributor that contains 4
contact breakers.

A distributor-based system is not greatly different from a magneto system except that more separate
elements are involved. There are also advantages to this arrangement. For example, the position of the
contact breaker points relative to the engine angle can be changed a small amount dynamically, allowing
the ignition timing to be automatically advanced with increasing revolutions per minute (RPM) or
increased manifold vacuum, giving better efficiency and performance.

However it is necessary to check periodically the maximum opening gap of the breaker(s), using a feeler
gauge, since this mechanical adjustment affects the "dwell" time during which the coil charges, and
breakers should be re-dressed or replaced when they have become pitted by electric arcing. This system
was used almost universally until the late 1970s, when electronic ignition systems started to appear.

Electronic ignition

The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low-voltage
high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where
they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the
constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the opening of the
contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations.

In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to
lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average ignition current
of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may limit the power of the
spark and ultimate engine speed.

Example of a basic electronic ignition system.

Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used but they
handled only a low current which was used to control the high primary current through a solid state
switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by an angular sensor
of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall
effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on the distributor shaft. The sensor output
is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor,
which switches a large current through the coil.
The first electronic ignition (a cold cathode type) was tested in 1948 by Delco-Remy, while Lucas
introduced a transistorized ignition in 1955, which was used on BRM and Coventry Climax Formula One
engines in 1962. The aftermarket began offering EI that year, with both the AutoLite Electric Transistor
201 and Tung-Sol EI-4 (thyratron capacitive discharge) being available.[4] Pontiac became the first
automaker to offer an optional EI, the breakerless magnetic pulse-triggered Delcotronic, on some 1963
models; it was also available on some Corvettes. The first commercially available all solid-state (SCR)
capacitive discharge ignition was manufactured by Hyland Electronics in Canada also in 1963. Ford fitted
a Lucas system on the Lotus 25s entered at Indianapolis the next year, ran a fleet test in 1964, and
began offering optional EI on some models in 1965.Beginning in 1958, Earl W. Meyer at Chrysler worked
on EI, continuing until 1961 and resulting in use of EI on the company's NASCAR hemis in 1963 and 1964.

Rocket Combustion chamber

For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically just a cylinder, and flame holders are rarely
used. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to combust thoroughly;
different rocket propellants require different combustion chamber sizes for this to occur. This leads to a
number called
:

where:

 is the volume of the chamber

 is the area of the throat
L* is typically in the range of 25–60 inches (0.64–1.52 m).
The combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion chamber is usually
extreme by any standards. Unlike in airbreathing jet engines, no atmospheric nitrogen is present to
dilute and cool the combustion, and the temperature can reach true stoichiometric ratios. This, in
combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very
high.
Fluid Slosh dynamics (Propellant)
In fluid dynamics, slosh refers to the movement of liquid inside another object (which is, typically, also
undergoing motion).
Strictly speaking, the liquid must have a free surface to constitute a slosh dynamics problem, where the
dynamics of the liquid can interact with the container to alter the system dynamics
significantly.Important examples include propellant slosh in spacecraft tanks and rockets (especially
upper stages), and the free surface effect (cargo slosh) in ships and trucks transporting liquids (for
example oil and gasoline). However, it has become common to refer to liquid motion in a completely
filled tank, i.e. without a free surface, as "fuel slosh".
Such motion is characterized by "inertial waves" and can be an important effect in spinning spacecraft
dynamics. Extensive mathematical and empirical relationships have been derived to describe liquid
slosh.These types of analyses are typically undertaken using computational fluid dynamics and finite
element methods to solve the fluid-structure interaction problem, especially if the solid container is
flexible. Relevant fluid dynamics non-dimensional parameters include the Bond number, the Weber
number, and the Reynolds number.
Slosh is an important effect for spacecraft, ships, and some aircraft. Slosh was a factor in the Falcon 1
second test flight anomaly, and has been implicated in various other spacecraft anomalies, including a
near-disaster with the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR Shoemaker) satellite.
Spacecraft effects
Liquid slosh in microgravity is relevant to spacecraft, most commonly Earth-orbiting satellites, and must
take account of liquid surface tension which can alter the shape (and thus the eigenvalues) of the liquid
slug. Typically, a large part of the mass fraction of a satellite is liquid propellant at/near Beginning of Life
(BOL), and slosh can adversely affect satellite performance in a number of ways. For example, propellant
slosh can introduce uncertainty in spacecraft attitude (pointing) which is often called jitter. Similar
phenomena can cause pogo oscillation and can result in structural failure of space vehicle.
Another example is problematic interaction with the spacecraft Attitude Control System (ACS),
especially for spinning satellites which can suffer resonance between slosh and nutation, or adverse
changes to the rotational inertia. Because of these types of risk, in the 1960s the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) extensively studied liquid slosh in spacecraft tanks, and in the 1990s
NASA undertook the Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment on the space shuttle. The European Space
Agency has advanced these investigations with the launch of SLOSHSAT. Most spinning spacecraft since
1980 have been tested at the Applied Dynamics Laboratories drop tower using sub-scale models.
Extensive contributions have also been made by the Southwest Research Institute, but research is
widespread in academia and industry.
Research is continuing into slosh effects on in-space propellant depots. In October 2009, the Air Force
and United Launch Alliance (ULA) performed an experimental on-orbit demonstration on a modified
Centaur upper stage on the DMSP-18 satellite launch in order to improve "understanding of propellant
settling and slosh", "The light weight of DMSP-18 allowed 12,000 pounds (5,400 kg) of remaining LO2
and LH2 propellant, 28% of Centaur’s capacity", for the on-orbit tests. The post-spacecraft mission
extension ran 2.4 hours before the planned deorbit burn was executed.

NASA's Launch Services Program is working on two on-going slosh fluid dynamics experiments with
partners: CRYOTE and SPHERES-Slosh.ULA has additional small-scale demonstrations of cryogenic fluid
management are planned with project CRYOTE in 2012-2014 leading to a ULA large-scale cryo-sat
propellant depot test under the NASA flagship technology demonstrations program in 2015.SPHERES-
Slosh with Florida Institute of Technology and Massachusetts Institute of Technology will examine how
liquids move around inside containers in microgravity with the SPHERES Testbed on the International
Space Station.
The geyser effect
The geyser effect is observed in vertical pipelines with an overhead reservoir when circulation of the
cryogenic product ceases. Under the action of a thermal influx, a low fluid boil, which proceeds in an
avalanche like process, develops at first in the pipeline; this leads to a fluid discharge into the overhead
propellant tank. A hydraulic hammer of significant magnitude, which may cause the system to rupture
and lead to an emergency situation, develops as the pipeline is subsequently filled with fluid from the
overhead propellant tank under gravity. The periodic nature of the geyser eruptions depends on the
magnitude and distribution of the thermal influx over the length of the pipeline; therefore, the cyclic
repetition of impact loading is also a risk.
Injectors
The injector implementation in liquid rockets determines the percentage of the theoretical performance
of the nozzle that can be achieved. A poor injector performance causes unburnt propellant to leave the
engine, giving extremely poor efficiency.
Additionally, injectors are also usually key in reducing thermal loads on the nozzle; by increasing the
proportion of fuel around the edge of the chamber, this gives much lower temperatures on the walls of
the nozzle.
Types of injectors
Injectors can be as simple as a number of small diameter holes arranged in carefully constructed
patterns through which the fuel and oxidiser travel. The speed of the flow is determined by the square
root of the pressure drop across the injectors, the shape of the hole and other details such as the
density of the propellant.The first injectors used on the V-2 created parallel jets of fuel and oxidizer
which then combusted in the chamber. This gave quite poor efficiency.
Injectors today classically consist of a number of small holes which aim jets of fuel and oxidiser so that
they collide at a point in space a short distance away from the injector plate. This helps to break the flow
up into small droplets that burn more easily.
The main types of injectors are
 Shower head
 Self-impinging doublet
 Cross-impinging triplet
 Centripetal or swirling
 Pintle
The pintle injector permits good mixture control of fuel and oxidizer over a wide range of flow rates. The
pintle injector was used on the Apollo Lunar Module engines See Descent Propulsion System and the
current Merlin and Kestrel engines designed by SpaceX and used on Falcon 9 and planned Falcon Heavy
rockets.

The Space Shuttle Main Engine uses a system of fluted posts, which use heated hydrogen from the
preburner to vaporize the liquid oxygen flowing through the center of the posts[9] and this improves the
rate and stability of the combustion process; previous engines such as the F-1 used for the Apollo
program had significant issues with oscillations that led to destruction of the engines, but this was not a
problem in the SSME due to this design detail.
Valentin Glushko invented the centripetal injector in the early 1930s, and it has been almost universally
used in Russian engines. Rotational motion is applied to the liquid (and sometimes the two propellants
are mixed), then it is expelled through a small hole, where it forms a cone-shaped sheet that rapidly
atomizes. Goddard's first liquid-fuel engine used a single impinging injector. German scientists in WWII
experimented with impinging injectors on flat plates, used successfully in the Wasserfall missile.
Combustion stability
To avoid instabilities such as chugging which is a relatively low speed oscillation the engine must be
designed with enough pressure drop across the injectors to render the flow largely independent of the
chamber pressure. This is normally achieved by using at least 20% of the chamber pressure across the
injectors.
Nevertheless, particularly in larger engines, a high speed combustion oscillation is easily triggered, and
these are not well understood. These high speed oscillations tend to disrupt the gas side boundary layer
of the engine, and this can cause the cooling system to rapidly fail, destroying the engine. These kinds of
oscillations are much more common on large engines, and plagued the development of the Saturn V,
but were finally overcome.
Some combustion chambers, such as the SSME uses Helmholtz resonators as damping mechanisms to
stop particular resonant frequencies from growing.
To prevent these issues the SSME injector design instead went to a lot of effort to vapourise the
propellant prior to injection into the combustion chamber. Although many other features were used to
ensure that instabilities could not occur, later research showed that these other features were
unnecessary, and the gas phase combustion worked reliably.
Testing for stability often involves the use of small explosives. These are detonated within the chamber
during operation, and causes an impulsive excitation. By examining the pressure trace of the chamber to
determine how quickly the effects of the disturbance die away, it is possible to estimate the stability and
redesign features of the chamber if required.
 UNIT II AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
Airframe Components of Rockets and Missiles
A tactical missile comprises of many components or subsystems. Each of them are important in their
own right and require considerable care and expertise to design. In this lecture we shall discuss those
components which have a direct bearing on the guidance of the missile. In particular, we will study the
following subsystems: Airframe, Flight Control System, Guidance System, Fuze, Warhead, and Propulsion
System. The usual locations of these subsystems in a tactical missile are shown in the schematic diagram
in Figure 3.1. 3.1 Airframe The airframe is the structure that houses all the missile subsystems. In
general,
Tactical missile airframes can be classified as,
• Cruciform
• Planform
Cruciform missiles are those that have control surfaces and/or lifting surfaces at 90 degrees from each
other. In planform missiles these surfaces are located at 180 degrees from each other (see Figure 3.2).
Based on the source of lift and the location of the control surfaces a further classi- fication of the basic
missile airframe is possible.
For this we follow the following set of notations:
B (body), T (tail), W (wing), C (canard), l (lift), c (control).
An airframe designated by BlTlCc will indicate an airframe that generates lift using its body and its tail
surfaces, and in which the control is provided by forces acting on the canards. Below, we list five such
airframes, along with the names of some existing missiles which have these airframe configurations. The
cause-and effect sequence by which a missile generates the lateral acceleration from a guidance
command is as follows: The guidance computer generates the guidance command. This guidance
command is fed into the flight control system which deflects the control surfaces by an appropriate
amount. The control surface deflection produces a small lift force which, in turn, deflects the lifting
surfaces and the body of the missile about its CG and changes the angle of attack.

(a) (b)

Fig: Configuration
 Guidance GUIDANCE
command
Instructiontoautopilot

Flightcontrol
system
AUTOPILOT
Instructiontocontrol

Controlsurface

deflection
CONTROL
Small
Actiontomaneuvera
irframe
lift(control)f
orce

Liftsurface/body
AIRFRAME

Responsetoc
ontrolaction
deflection
Changein

angle-of-attack

Large lift

force(latax)
Figure: The cause-and-effect sequence by which lataxisgeneratedina tactical missile

Control Theory and Flight Vehicles

 Flight path planning

 Navigation
 Guidance
 Control
 Input Output

Perfect autopilot

Underdamped

autopilot

Overdamped

Figure3.5: Commanded and achieved latax

Rocket aerodynamics

Rocket aerodynamics is the study of how air flows over a rocket and how this affects drag and stability.

The nose cone and fins of a rocket are designed to minimise drag (air resistance) and to provide stability
and control (keep it pointing in the right direction without wobbling).

Nose cone and rocket diameter affect drag

The amount of air resistance that opposes a rocket’s motion depends mainly on the shape of the nose
cone, the diameter of the rocket and the speed of the rocket.
The first point that meets the air is the nose cone at the front end of the rocket.
If the speed of a rocket is less than the speed of sound (1200 km/h in air at sea level), the best shape of a
nose cone is a rounded curve. At supersonic speeds (faster than the speed of sound), the best shape is a
narrower and sharper point.
Rockets with a larger diameter have more drag because there is more air being pushed out of the way.
Drag depends on the cross-sectional area of the object pushing through the air. Making a rocket as
narrow as possible is the best way to reduce drag.
The speed of a rocket through the air similarly increases drag. As speed doubles, drag increases four
times as much.

Fins control direction and stability

The stability of a rocket is its ability to keep flying through the air pointing in the right direction without
wobbling or tumbling.
Fins are used on smaller rockets to provide this stability and control direction. It works in the same way
as placing feathers at the tail of an arrow. The greater drag on the feathers keeps the tail of the arrow at
the back so that the point of the arrow travels straight into the wind.
To understand how to place fins and how large to make them, it is important to understand about centre
of mass and centre of pressure.

Centre of mass

The centre of mass of an object is the point at which all of the mass of an object can be thought to be
concentrated.
To find the centre of mass of a rigid object such as a water bottle rocket, balance the rocket on your finger
so that the rocket is horizontal. The centre of mass is a point directly above your finger.
The centre of mass can be moved closer to the nose cone end of a rocket by adding some mass near the
nose cone. This will increase stability.

Centre of pressure

The single point at which all of the aerodynamic forces are concentrated is called the centre of pressure.
To find the approximate position of the centre of pressure, draw an outline of the rocket on a piece of
paper. The centre of the area of the outline shape is approximately the centre of pressure.
For a rocket to be stable, the centre of pressure needs to be closer to the tail end than the centre of mass. If
the centre of pressure is at the same position as the centre of mass, the rocket will tumble. Stability
increases as the distance between the centre of mass and the centre of pressure increases.
Placing fins at the tail end of a rocket moves the centre of pressure closer towards the tail end and
increases stability. However, this also increases drag, so there is an optimal size for fins so that the rocket
has enough stability without having too much drag.
LIFT FORCE
A rocket will launch and keep speeding up as long as the force pushing it upwards (thrust) is greater
than the forces pulling and pushing it downwards (gravity and drag).
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law helps us understand how forces get objects such as rockets moving.
An object at rest (not moving) will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. Also, an object
in motion will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced
force.
Balanced forces before lift-off
When a rocket is sitting on the launch pad and not moving, there are forces acting on it, but these forces
are balanced. This means that the force pulling it downwards (gravity) is equal to the force pushing it
upwards (support force of the ground). These forces are balanced. The rocket will keep on not moving, as
described by Newton’s first law.
Unbalanced forces during lift-off
For an object to start moving, there needs to be an unbalanced force. This means that the forces pushing
an object in one direction are greater than the forces pushing it in the opposite direction. The resultant
force is the difference between the force(s) pushing in one direction and the force(s) pushing in the
opposite direction.
There are two forces acting on a rocket at the moment of lift-off:
Thrust pushes the rocket upwards by pushing gases downwards in the opposite direction.
Weight is the force due to gravity pulling the rocket downwards towards the centre of the Earth. For
every kilogram of mass, there is 9.8 newtons (N) of weight.
As the rocket increases speed, there is a third force of drag that begins to increase. The resultant force is
the sum of these individual forces.
Thrust needs to be greater than weight
A rocket launches when the force of thrust pushing it upwards is greater than the weight force due
to gravity downwards. This unbalanced force causes a rocket to accelerate upwards. A rocket will
continue to speed up as long as there is a resultant force upwards caused by thethrust of the rocket
engine.
As an example, think of a rocket with a mass of 10 kg. The force of gravity pulling it downwards is 10 x
9.8, which equals 98 N. To get the rocket off the launch pad, the thrust must be greater than 98 N. For
example, if the thrust is 120 N, the resultant force is 120 – 98 = 22 N upwards.
Momentum keeps things moving, once the thrust from the rocket engines finishes, the resultant force is
now downwards. Asuborbital rocket will keep moving upwards because of its momentum, but it will
slow down until it momentarily stops and falls back to Earth The launch of a rocket to the Moon
The Apollo 11 mission to the moon was launched in 1969 by a Saturn V (pronounced ‘Saturn five’) rocket.
The height of the rocket was 111 metres (longer than a rugby field). The diameter at the widest part was
over 10 m (about the length of a classroom). The total mass of the rocket was 2 923 387 kilograms (nearly
3000 tonnes!), which is about the same as the mass of 417 school buses.
To launch this enormous rocket off the ground, NASA used five F-1 rocket engines, the most powerful
rocket engines ever flown. The thrust needed to be greater than the weight force of nearly 28 700 000 N.
The engines produced a thrust at lift-off of 33 400 000 N (enough to lift 487 school buses!).
This means that the resultant force was about 5 300 000 N upwards.
G-forces acting on the astronauts
The g-force is a measure of how much force acts on a person or an object compared with the normal
weight force due to the Earth’s gravity. To calculate g-force, divide the resultant force by the weight. This
means that, at lift-off, the Apollo astronauts experienced 1.8 g, nearly twice the normal force due
to gravity (5 300 000 divided by 2 923 387). This increased to a maximum value of 4 g as the mass of the
rocket decreased.
 UNIT III ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

What is a rocket pushing against to make it start moving? Is it pushing against the ground?

The air? The flames?

To make any object start moving, something needs to push against something else. When you walk, you
are pushing against the ground, so the ground pushes back against you to make you start to move. A
plane uses its propellers to push air backwards, so the air pushes back against the plane to make it start
moving.

In the same way, a rocket needs to push against something. It is pushing against the gasesinside it. As
these gases are pushed out in one direction, there is a reaction force that pushes the rocket in the other
direction. This reaction force is called thrust.

Newton’s third law

Newton’s third law explains how rocket produce thrust – for every force pushing on one object, there is
an equal but opposite force pushing on another object.
Another way of saying this is that, for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Forces always
come in pairs.
A rocket pushes gases (or liquid) from inside it in one direction, and this pushes the rocket in the
opposite direction. If the mass is thrown out at faster speeds, there will be more force pushing the rocket.

Canister rockets, balloon cars and water rockets

A film canister rocket uses a chemical reaction to build up gas pressure inside the canister. When the
pressure is high enough, the lid pops off. The gases inside the rocket are pushed downwards so the
canister rocket is pushed upwards.
For a balloon-powered toy car, the pressure inside the balloon pushes the gases in one direction, so the
toy car is pushed forwards in the opposite direction.
A water rocket has air inside a plastic bottle with some water added. More air is pumped into the bottle
to build up the pressure. When the rocket is released, the air pushes the water in one direction, so the
bottle rocket is pushed in the other direction.

Rocket engines push against the reacted gases

Rockets that produce lots of flames as they burn their fuel (for example, liquid hydrogen) with an
oxidiser (for example, liquid oxygen) are doing a similar thing. They are using a chemical reaction to
produce enormous pressures inside a combustion chamber. The reacted fuel particles are then ejected
(thrown out) from a narrow hole at one end of the combustion chamber called a throat.
The pressure inside the combustion chamber pushes the gases out of this hole in one direction, and the
rocket is pushed in the opposite direction. This same pressure also pushes forwards against the walls on
the inside of the combustion chamber. (There is also some pressure pushing forwards against the inside
walls of the expansion nozzle as the gases exit.)
This force that pushes a rocket is called thrust.
Rockets and mass

The mass of a rocket is important for two reasons – an object with less mass accelerates more quickly, and
an object with more mass has more gravitational force acting on it.To understand these ideas, it is useful
to think of objects moving in a horizontal direction before thinking about the vertical motion of a rocket.

Horizontal rocket motion

If you push two people with different masses on different swings, the person with less mass (measured in
kilograms) is easier to get moving. This is because a person with less mass speeds up more quickly than a
heavy person pushed with the same amount of force.

Newton’s second law of motion sums up this idea. This is often stated as force = mass x acceleration. If
the same force is applied to two objects, the object with less mass will have more acceleration.

For a balloon-powered toy car (which is a simple rocket in action), a lighter car (less mass) will speed up
more quickly than a car with more mass.

Vertical rocket motion

A rocket launched vertically has the same effect. A rocket with more mass will speed up more slowly, just
as in the horizontal example, but there is another effect. The force of gravity is now acting in the opposite
direction to the thrust, so the resultant force pushing the rocket upwards is also less.
Making a rocket as light as possible will affect how quickly the rocket will speed up and the height that it
will be able to reach.

What affects the overall size of a rocket?

The first Space Shuttle launch. Some rockets are much bigger than others. If rockets with less mass speed
up more quickly, then why are some rockets so huge? The three contributors to the overall size of the
rocket are:

payload – the total amount of measuring devices, satellites, spacecraft or astronauts that needs to be
carried into space, the Moon or towards other planets

propellant load – the fuel plus oxidiser that is needed to get a rocket into space or its desired location, and
any extra fuel needed also needs fuel to provide the thrust to lift it and the extra tanks that are also
required to carry all of this fuel rocket engines, fuel tanks and so on. For an ideal rocket getting into orbit,
the payload should make up 6% of the total mass. The rocket engines, fuel tanks and so on should be 3%.
The propellants should be 91%.Any saving of unnecessary mass can markedly reduce the amount of
propellant needed.As the fuel reacts and its combustion products are ejected from the rocket, the mass of
the rocket decreases. This lower mass means that the rocket starts to accelerate more quickly. Thrust is
carefully reduced during launches for rockets carrying astronauts to protect them from this increasing
acceleration. Getting rid of excess mass.

Multistage rockets use the idea of keeping mass as low as possible. As soon as the fuel from one tank is
used up, the fuel tanks and the rocket engine(s) for that tank are released. The remaining stage of the
rocket now has less mass so less thrust is needed to accelerate it.

Separation of the first stage of a Saturn V rocket .

The Saturn V rocket used for the Apollo Moon missions had three stages. The first stage (tanks plus
propellant plus five F-1 engines) was 10 m wide and 42 m tall. The tanks were filled with refined
kerosene and liquid oxygen. Fully fuelled, this stage had a mass of 2 300 000 kg. Once all propellant had
been used, the mass remaining was only 131 000 kg. At an altitude of 61 km and a speed of 8300 km/h,
the empty tanks and engines were discarded.

The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation

The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation, describes the motion of vehicles that follow the
basic principle of arocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself (a thrust) by expelling part of its
mass with high speed and thereby move due to the conservation of momentum. The equation relates
the delta-v (the maximum change of velocity of the rocket if no other external forces act) with
the effective exhaust velocity and the initial and final mass of a rocket (or other reaction engine).
For any such maneuver (or journey involving a number of such maneuvers):

Where:
is the initial total mass, including propellant. The mass measurements can be made in any
unit form (kg, lb, tonnes, etc). This is because the ratios will still be the same.
is the final total mass without propellant, also known as dry mass.
is the effective exhaust velocity,
 is delta-v - the maximum change of velocity of the vehicle (with no external forces acting),
and
Refers to the natural logarithm function.
(The equation can also be written using the specific impulse instead of the effective exhaust velocity by
applying the formula where is the specific impulse expressed as a time period
and is standard gravity ≈ 9.8 m/s^2.)
The equation is named after Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky who independently derived it and
published it in his 1903 work.
The equation had been derived earlier by the British mathematician William Moore in 1813
 UNIT IV STAGING AND CONTROL OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES

MULTISTAGE ROCKETS

A multistage (or multi-stage) rocket is a rocket that uses two or more stages, each of which contains its
own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of another stage; a parallel
stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively two or more rockets stacked on top of
or attached next to each other. Taken together these are sometimes called a launch vehicle. Two-stage
rockets are quite common, but rockets with as many as five separate stages have been successfully
launched. By jettisoning stages when they run out of propellant, the mass of the remaining rocket is
decreased. This staging allows the thrust of the remaining stages to more easily accelerate the rocket to
its final speed and height.

In serial or tandem staging schemes, the first stage is at the bottom and is usually the largest, the second
stage and subsequent upper stages are above it, usually decreasing in size. In parallel staging schemes
solid or liquid rocket boosters are used to assist with lift-off. These are sometimes referred to as 'stage
0'. In the typical case, the first-stage and booster engines fire to propel the entire rocket upwards. When
the boosters run out of fuel, they are detached from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind of
small explosive charge) and fall away. The first stage then burns to completion and falls off. This leaves a
smaller rocket, with the second stage on the bottom, which then fires. Known in rocketry circles as
staging, this process is repeated until the final stage's motor burns to completion. In some cases with
serial staging, the upper stage ignites before the separation- the interstage ring is designed with this in
mind, and the thrust is used to help positively separate the two vehicles.

Performance

The main reason for multi-stage rockets and boosters is that once the fuel is exhausted, the space and
structure which contained it and the motors themselves are useless and only add weight to the vehicle
which slows down its future acceleration. By dropping the stages which are no longer useful to the
mission, the rocket lightens itself. The thrust of future stages is able to provide more acceleration than if
the earlier stage were still attached, or a single, large rocket would be capable of. When a stage drops
off, the rest of the rocket is still traveling near the speed that the whole assembly reached at burn-out
time. This means that it needs less total fuel to reach a given velocity and/or altitude.
 A further advantage is that each stage can use a different type of rocket motor each tuned for
its particular operating conditions. Thus the lower-stage motors are designed for use at atmospheric
pressure, while the upper stages can use motors suited to near vacuum conditions. Lower stages tend to
require more structure than upper as they need to bear their own weight plus that of the stages above
them, optimizing the structure of each stage decreases the weight of the total vehicle and provides
further advantage.

On the downside, staging requires the vehicle to lift motors which are not yet being used, as
well as making the entire rocket more complex and harder to build. In addition, each staging event is a
significant point of failure during a launch, with the possibility of separation failure, ignition failure, and
stage collision. Nevertheless, the savings are so great that every rocket ever used to deliver a payload
into orbit has had staging of some sort.

One of the most common measures of rocket efficiency is its specific impulse, which is defined
as the thrust per flow rate (per second) of propellant consumption

When rearranging the equation such that thrust is calculated as a result of the other factors, we have:

These equations show that a higher specific impulse means a more efficient rocket engine, capable of
burning for longer periods of time. In terms of staging, the initial rocket stages usually have a lower
specific impulse rating, trading efficiency for superior thrust in order to quickly push the rocket into
higher altitudes. Later stages of the rocket usually have a higher specific impulse rating because the
vehicle is further outside the atmosphere and the exhaust gas does not need to expand against as much
atmospheric pressure.

When selecting the ideal rocket engine to use as an initial stage for a launch vehicle, a useful
performance metric to examine is the thrust-to-weight ratio, and is calculated by the equation

The common thrust-to-weight ratio of a launch vehicle is within the range of 1.3 to 2.0. Another
performance metric to keep in mind when designing each rocket stage in a mission is the burn time,
which is the amount of time the rocket engine will last before it has exhausted all of its propellant. For
most non-final stages, thrust and specific impulse can be assumed constant, which allows the equation
for burn time to be written as

1. Partition the problem calculations into however many stages the rocket system comprises.

2. Calculate the initial and final mass for each individual stage.

3. Calculate the burnout velocity, and sum it with the initial velocity for each individual stage. Assuming
each stage occurs immediately after the previous, the burnout velocity becomes the initial velocity for
the following stage.

4. Repeat the previous two steps until the burnout time and/or velocity has been calculated for the final
stage. It is important to note that the burnout time does not define the end of the rocket stage's
motion, as the vehicle will still have a velocity that will allow it to coast upward for a brief amount of
time until the acceleration of the planet's gravity gradually changes it to a downward direction. The
velocity and altitude of the rocket after burnout can be easily modeled using the basic physics equations
of motion.
When comparing one rocket with another, it is impractical to directly compare the rocket's certain trait
with the same trait of another because their individual attributes are often not independent of one
another. For this reason, dimensionless ratios have been designed to enable a more meaningful
comparison between rockets. The first is the initial to final mass ratio, which is the ratio between the
rocket stage's full initial mass and the rocket stage's final mass once all of its fuel has been consumed.
The equation for this ratio is

Where is the empty mass of the stage, is the mass of the propellant, and is the mass of the
payload.The second dimensionless performance quantity is the structural ratio, which is the ratio
between the empty mass of the stage, and the combined empty mass and propellant mass as shown in
this equation

The last major dimensionless performance quantity is the payload ratio, which is the ratio between the
payload mass and the combined mass of the empty rocket stage and the propellant.

After comparing the three equations for the dimensionless quantities, it is easy to see that they are not
independent of each other, and in fact, the initial to final mass ratio can be rewritten in terms of
structural ratio and payload ratio

These performance ratios can also be used as references for how efficient a rocket system will be when
performing optimizations and comparing varying configurations for a mission

TRUST VECTOR CONTROL

Thrust vectoring, also thrust vector control or TVC, is the ability of an aircraft, rocket, or other vehicle to
manipulate the direction of the thrust from itsengine(s) or motor in order to control the attitude or
angular velocity of the vehicle.

In rocketry and ballistic missiles that fly outside the atmosphere, aerodynamic control surfaces are
ineffective, so thrust vectoring is the primary means ofattitude control.

For aircraft, the method was originally envisaged to provide upward vertical thrust as a means to give
aircraft vertical (VTOL) or short (STOL) takeoff and landing ability. Subsequently, it was realized that
using vectored thrust in combat situations enabled aircraft to perform various maneuvers not available
to conventional-engined planes. To perform turns, aircraft that use no thrust vectoring must rely on
aerodynamic control surfaces only, such as ailerons orelevator; craft with vectoring must still use control
surfaces, but to a lesser extent.

In missile literature originating from Russian sources,[1] thrust vectoring is often referred as "gas-
dynamic steering" or "gas-dynamic control".

Thrust vectoring methods

Rockets and ballistic missiles

Thrust vector control (TVC) is used when the propulsion system is creating thrust. At other stages of
flight, separate mechanisms are required for attitude andflight path control.

Thrust vectoring can be achieved by five basic means:[2][3]

• Gimbaled engine(s) or nozzle(s)

• Reactive fluid injection

• Auxiliary engines (fixed or movable)

• Exhaust vanes

• Aerodynamic vanes (within atmosphere)

Nominally, the line of action of the thrust vector of a rocket nozzle passes through the vehicle's center of
mass, generating zero net moment about the mass center. It is possible to generate pitch and yaw
moments by deflecting the main rocket thrust vector so that it does not pass through the mass center.
Because the line of action is generally oriented nearly parallel to the roll axis, roll control usually
requires the use of two or more separately hinged nozzles or a separate system altogether, such as fins,
or vanes in the exhaust plume of the rocket engine, deflecting the main thrust.

Thrust vectoring for many liquid rockets is achieved by gimbaling the rocket engine. This often involves
moving the entire combustion chamber and outer engine bell as on the Titan II's twin first-stage motors,
or even the entire engine assembly including the related fuel and oxidizer pumps. The Saturn V and the
Space Shuttle used gimballed engines.

Another method of thrust vectoring used on early solid propellant ballistic missiles was liquid injection,
in which the rocket nozzle is fixed, but a fluid is introduced into the exhaust flow from injectors
mounted around the aft end of the missile. If the liquid is injected on only one side of the missile, it
modifies that side of the exhaust plume, resulting in different thrust on that side and an asymmetric net
force on the missile. This was the control system used on theMinuteman II and the early SLBMs of the
United States Navy.

A later method developed for solid propellant ballistic missiles achieves thrust vectoring by deflecting
the rocket nozzle using electric servomechanisms orhydraulic cylinders. The nozzle is attached to the
missile via a ball joint with a hole in the center, or a flexible seal made of a thermally resistant material,
the latter generally requiring more torque and a higher power actuation system. The Trident C4 and D5
systems are controlled via hydraulically actuated nozzle.

The Apollo Lunar Module had fixed engines in the descent and ascent stages. TVC was achieved by using
16 auxiliary (vernier) engines in 4 clusters mounted on the ascent stage. The V-2 used exhaust vanes and
aerodynamic vanes, as did the Redstone, derived from the V-2.

Tactical missiles and small projectiles

Some smaller sized atmospheric tactical missiles, such as the AIM-9X Sidewinder, eschew flight control
surfaces and instead use mechanical vanes to deflect motor exhaust to one side.

Thrust vectoring is a way to reduce a missile's minimum range, before which it cannot reach a speed
high enough for its small aerodynamic surfaces to produce effective maneuver. For example, anti-tank
missiles such as the ERYX and the PARS 3 LR use thrust vectoring for this reason.

Some other projectiles that use thrust-vectoring:

• 9M330

• Strix mortar round uses twelve midsection lateral thruster rockets to provide terminal course
corrections

• Aster missile family combines aerodynamic control and the direct thrust vector control called
"PIF-PAF"

• AIM-9X uses four jet vanes inside the exhaust that move as the fins move.

• 9M96E uses a gas-dynamic control system enables maneuver at altitudes of up to 35 km at

forces of over 20g, which permits engagement of non-strategic ballistic missiles.

• 9K720 Iskander is controlled during the whole flight with gas-dynamic and aerodynamic control
surfaces

Vectoring nozzles

Thrust-Vectoring flight control (TVFC) is obtained through deflection of the aircraft jets in some
or all of the pitch, yaw and roll directions. In the extreme, deflection of the jets in yaw, pitch and roll
creates desired forces and moments enabling complete directional control of the aircraft flight path
without the implementation of the conventional aerodynamic flight controls (CAFC). TVFC can also be
used to hold stationary flight in areas of the flight envelope where the main aerodynamic surfaces are
stalled. TVFC includes control of STOVL aircraft during the hover and during the transition between
hover and forward speeds below 50 knots where aerodynamic surfaces are ineffective.

When vectored thrust control uses a single propelling jet, as with a single-engined aircraft, the ability to
produce rolling moments may not be possible. An example is an afterburning supersonic nozzle where
nozzle functions are throat area, exit area, pitch vectoring and yaw vectoring. These functions are
controlled by 4 separate actuators. A simpler variant using only 3 actuators would not have independent
exit area control.

When TVFC is implemented to complement CAFC, agility and safety of the aircraft are maximized.
Increased safety may occur in the event of malfunctioning CAFC as a result of battle damage.

To implement TVFC a variety of nozzles both mechanical and fluidic may be applied. This includes
convergent and convergent-divergent nozzles that may be fixed or geometrically variable. It also
includes variable mechanisms within a fixed nozzle, such as rotating cascades and rotating exit vanes.
Within these aircraft nozzles, the geometry itself may vary from two-dimensional (2-D) to axisymmetric
or elliptic. The number of nozzles on a given aircraft to achieve TVFC can vary from one on a CTOL
aircraft to a minimum of four in the case of STOVL aircraft.

It is necessary to clarify some definitions used in thrust-vectoring nozzle design.

• Axisymmetric: Nozzles with circular exits.

• Conventional Aerodynamic Flight Control (CAFC): Pitch, Yaw-Pitch, Yaw-Pitch-Roll or any other
combination of aircraft control through aerodynamic deflection using rudders, flaps, elevators and/or
ailerons.

• Converging-Diverging Nozzle (C-D) generally used on supersonic jet aircraft where nozzle
pressure ratio (npr) >3. The engine exhaust is expanded through a converging section to achieve Mach 1
and then expanded through a diverging section to achieve supersonic speed at the exit plane, or less at
low npr.

• Converging Nozzle generally used on subsonic and transonic jet aircraft where npr<3. The
engine exhaust is expanded through a converging section to achieve Mach 1 at the exit plane, or less at
low npr.

• Effective Vectoring Angle: The average angle of deflection of the jet stream centerline at any
given moment in time.

• Fixed Nozzle: A Thrust-Vectoring Nozzle of invariant geometry or one of variant geometry

maintaining a constant geometric area ratio, during vectoring. This will also be referred to as a civil
aircraft nozzle and represents the nozzle thrust vectoring control applicable to passenger, transport,
cargo and other subsonic aircraft.

• Fluidic Thrust Vectoring: The manipulation or control of the exhaust flow with the use of a
secondary air source, typically bleed air from the engine compressor or fan.

• Geometric Vectoring Angle: Geometric centerline of the nozzle during vectoring. For those
nozzles vectored at the geometric throat and beyond, this can differ considerably from the effective
vectoring angle.

• Three bearing swivel duct nozzle: Three angled segments of engine exhaust duct rotate relative
to one another about duct centerline to produce nozzle thrust axis pitch and yaw.

• Three-Dimensional (3-D): Nozzles with multi-axis or pitch and yaw control

• Thrust Vectoring (TV): The deflection of the jet away from the body-axis through the
implementation of a flexible nozzle, flaps, paddles, auxiliary fluid mechanics or similar methods.

• Thrust Vectoring Flight Control (TVFC): Pitch, Yaw-Pitch, Yaw-Pitch-Roll or any other
combination of aircraft control through deflection of thrust generally issuing from an air-breathing
turbofan engine.

• Two-Dimensional (2-D): Nozzles with square or rectangular exits. In addition to the geometrical
shape 2-D can also refer to the degree-of-freedom (DOF) controlled which is single axis, or pitch-only, in
which case round nozzles are included

• Two-Dimensional Converging-Diverging (2-D C-D): Square, rectangular or round supersonic

nozzles on fighter aircraft with pitch-only control.

• Variable Nozzle: A thrust vectoring nozzle of variable geometry maintaining a constant, or

allowing a variable, effective nozzle area ratio, during vectoring. This will also be referred to as a military
aircraft nozzle as it represents the nozzle thrust vectoring control applicable to fighter and other
supersonic aircraft with afterburning. The convergent section may be fully controlled with the divergent
section following a pre-determined relationship to the convergent throat area.[11] Alternatively, the
throat area and the exit area may be controlled independently, to allow the divergent section to match
the exact flight condition.

Methods of Nozzle Control

• Geometric Area Ratios – Maintaining a fixed geometric area ratio from the throat to the exit
during vectoring. The effective throat is constricted as the vectoring angle increases.

• Effective Area Ratios – Maintaining a fixed effective area ratio from the throat to the exit during
vectoring. The geometric throat is opened as the vectoring angle increases.

• Differential Area Ratios – Maximizing nozzle expansion efficiency generally through predicting
the optimal effective area as a function of the mass flow rate.

• Methods of Thrust Vectoring

Type I – Nozzles whose base frames mechanically is rotated before the geometrical throat.

Type II – Nozzles whose base frame is mechanically rotated at the geometrical throat.

Type III – Nozzles whose base frame is not rotated. Rather, the addition of mechanical deflection post-
exit vanes or paddles enables jet deflection.

Type IV – Jet deflection through counter-flowing or co-flowing (by shock-vector control or throat
shifting) auxiliary jet streams. Fluid-based jet deflection using secondary fluidic injection.

Additional type - Nozzles whose upstream exhaust duct consists of wedge-shaped segments which
rotate relative to each other about the duct centerline.

STAY SEPARATION TECHNIQUES:

• The separation of mixtures may be done to enhance the purity of substances

• Accomplished using different characteristic properties, such as density, boiling point, melting
point, solubility, etc

Some Types of Separation Techniques:

• filtration

• mechanical separation

• floatation

• centrifugation

• simple distillation
• fractional distillation

• crystallization

• chromatography

Filtration

Technique used to separate mixtures of an insoluble solid and a liquid.

Mechanical Separation:

• Physical separation methods that involve the use of tools such as forceps and sieves, to
separate the components of a mixture.

• Ex. Gravel and sand

Missile Aerodynamics versus Airplane Aerodynamics:

One of the principal differences between missiles and airplanes is that X the former are
usually expendable, and, consequently are usually uninhabited. For this reason increased ranges
of speed, altitude, and maneuvering accelerations have been opened up to missile designers, and
these increased ranges have brought with them new aerodynamic problems. For instance, the
higher allowable altitudes ,and maneuvering accelerations permit operation in the nonlinear range
of high angles of attack. A missile may be ground-launched or air-launched and in consequence can
undergo large longitudinal accelerations, can utilize very high wing loadings, and can dispense with
landing gear. In the absence of a pilot the missile can sometimes be permitted to roll and thereby to
introduce new dynamic stability phenomena. The problem of guiding the missile without a pilot
introduces considerable complexity into the missile guidance system. The combination of an
automatic guidance system and the air frame acting together introduces problems in btabilityand
control not previously encountered. Many missiles tend to beslender, and many utilize more than the
usual two wing panels. These -}trends have brought about the importance of slender-body theory
and cruciform aerodynamics for missiles.

Classification of Missiles

Missiles can be classified on the basis of points of launching and impact, type of guidance
system, trajectory, propulsive system, trim and control device, etc. An important classification on the
basis of points of launching and impact is given in Table 1-1.Another source of distinction among
missiles is the guidance system .In a command system the missile and the target are continuously
tracked from one or more vantage points, and the necessary path for the missile to intercept the
target is computed and relayed to the missile by some means such as radio. A beam-riding missile
contains a guidance s) stem to constrain it to a beam. The beam is usually radar illuminating the target
so that, if the missile stays in the beam, it will move toward the target. A homin4g missile has a
seeker, which sees the target and gives the necessary directions to the missile to intercept the
target. The homing missile can be subdivided into classes having active, semi active and passive
guidance systems. In the active class the missile illuminates the target and receives the reflected signals.
In the semi active class the missile receives reflected signals from a target illuminated by means
external to the missile. The passive type of guidance system depends on a receiver in the missile
sensitive to the radiation of the target itself.

UNIT V MATERIALS FOR ROCKETS AND MISSILES

ROCKETS MATERIALS:

One of the basic problems that all new rocketeers experience knows which materials to use.
This article is intended to explain the materials that are used to make model rockets, and where they are
used. The list is not exhaustive, but reflects the most common materials and their properties.

The first lesson is that a rocket doesn’t need to be heavy to be strong. Materials such as wood,
cardboard and plastic are very good for making the bodies and nosecones. Not only are these materials
really light, but they contributed to the safety of the design as they crumple on impact. This is very
useful if things go wrong during flight. Metals are only used where extreme strength is required, for
example motor hooks and shock cord attachments. This is because metallic parts don’t crumple on
impact, and add a lot of weight to models.

Nosecones:

There are many excellent nosecones on the market. Most of them are made from plastic or
balsa wood, and are very strong for their weight. Plastic nosecones tend to be easier to paint and are
normally hollow. This can be useful if you need to add any weight to the nose of the rocket for stability.
Balsa nosecones are generally lighter than plastic so if weight is your main concern go for balsa. Unless
you’re planning on going at speeds of over 600 mph the shape of the nosecone will Have very little
impact on performance, so choose a cone that looks right. Specialist Nosecones for carrying payloads
such as eggs are available, but these can sometimes be hard to obtain.

Tubes:

There are several inexpensive and strong specialist tubes that can be used in model rocketry. Spiral
wound tubes from Estes and Apollo are purpose made for model rocketry. If you need a stiffer rocket
then tubes with thicker walls are available from LOC. Forget using kitchen roll tubes or other domestic
materials. They won’t be strong enough to take the forces on a rocket and will crumple in flight. Fins.
There are three main materials that are used for fins: wood, plastic or fibre glass. Balsa wood is a very
good material for fins as its strong and light, and perfect for rockets up to around D impulse. Balsa has
a tendency to dent or split if it’s handled roughly, and some rocket fliers use basswood as a stronger
alternative. Some model shops stock thin plywood, which makes excellent fin material for rockets in the
E to H impulse range. Sheet plastic can also be useful as a fin material in low power rockets, though it
can be quite flexible which precludes its use for large fins. Fibre glass is very common for F motors and
above as it is light, stiff and strong. Glueing plastic and fibre glass to cardboard tubes can be quite
difficult, so most low and medium power rockets use wooden fins.

Centering rings & Bulkheads:

These can be made from many materials. For low power rockets (up to C impulse) cardboard is
generally strong enough. It’s worth using a good quality card, 1mm thick, to ensure strength. Apollo
does a range of fibre centering rings that are stronger than card and are very useful for A-D impulse
rockets. Plywood is a very versatile material. It comes in various thicknesses and is particularly good for
medium power rockets and clusters. Get a good quality plywood from a hobby shop, not the stuff you
get from hardware shops. For most medium power rockets in the E-G impulse range 2-3 mm thick ply is
adequate. Shock Cord. There are two excellent material for making shock cords: elastic and Kevlar.
Elastic is cheap, widely available from sewing shops, and is very good at absorbing the shocks of a
parachute deployment. It’s only weakness is that it can get scorched by the hot gas for the ejection
charge, and this can weaken it after a few flights. Avoid using elastic that is coated in synthetic materials
and always go for cotton coated elastic. Kevlar does not stretch as easily as elastic, but has the
advantage that is fireproof. It is more expensive than elastic, but will probably outlast the rocket! A
good tip is to use Kevlar to anchor the shock cord inside the rocket, but use elastic as the main shock
cord.

Launch Lugs:

Launch lugs can be made from many materials. Card and paper are often use for small models. You
can buy lengths of card launch lug for 1/8 inch and 3/16 inch launch rods. For ¼ inch and above its
better to use a stronger material such as plastic or brass. Lengths of plastic and brass tubes are available
from most model shops.

Motor Hooks:

Standard motor hooks for 13mm and 18mm motors are available from rocket shops. They are
inexpensive and easy to use. A cheaper alternative is to use the flat wire from old windscreen wipers.
This cuts and bends easily, and can be made to fit your project exactly. Parachutes. The parachutes that
come with model rocket kits are made from polythene. They are not good quality and tend to burn or
tear easily. For large, lightweight parachutes try experimenting with dustbin liners, space blankets and
other plastic sheets. These can provide inexpensive parachutes, but will only last a few Flights. Nylon
parachutes are much more durable. They can either be bought ready Made or can be run up by anyone
competent with a sewing machine. Good Windproof nylon can be bought from a few specialist supplier
of outdoor materials. The parachute cords should be of comparable strength and flame resistance to
the parachute. Kevlar string is very good for medium sized parachutes, and good quality nylon kite
string is a good alternative.

Glues:

A good way to start an argument in rocketry is to ask for an opinion about which glue to use. Opinions
are divided, and generally rocketeers hold strong views about glues. The main glues used by rocketeers
are white glue (PVA), yellow glue (aliphatic), cyanoacrylate, plastic cement and epoxy. It is very
important to read the safety instructions on the packaging.

The properties and uses of each are:

• White glue has many applications, and comes in many forms. It is particularly good on low power
rockets for all wood, cardboard and fibre joints. It is also very useful for filleting joints as it doesn’t
shrink when it sets. Steer clear of the white glues from art shops as they tend to have very poor
adhesion; EvoStik Wood Adhesive is about the best white glue on the market.
• Yellow glue is stronger than white glue for wood, cardboard and fibre joints. It tends to shrink as it
dries, so it shouldn’t be used for fillets. Titebond Original Wood Glue is very good, and has held many
rockets together up to G impulse.

• Cyanoacrylate has a few specialised uses in model rocketry. Cyanoacrylate comes in various
thicknesses, the most useful of which is “thin” as it runs easily into joints before it binds. Joints made
with cyanoacrylate tend to be brittle, so it is generally not used for structural purposes. A small drop of

cyanoacrylate is sometimes used to tack parts in place while slower-setting glues set. Thin
cyanoacrylate is also very good for stiffening tubes and cardboard.

• Plastic cement is useful for bonding plastics, and not much else. Keep away from tubes of the thick
glue used for making plastic models as these do not provide very strong joints. Humbrol Precision Poly
is very useful for many plastics, and its applicator allows small amounts to be applied precisely where
they are needed. A more useful alternative is EMA Plastic Weld which is painted onto the joints (with a
plastic-free brush) and sets fairly quickly. The author has yet to find a plastic that EMA can’t join.

• Epoxies are a two-part adhesive that can be immensely strong, but are tricky to use. Epoxy can join
many materials, but it is best to scuff the surfaces with sandpaper to get the best joint. Epoxy can add a
lot of weight to a rocket, and are generally unnecessary in low and medium power rockets. Epoxies
come in a number of setting times from 5 minutes to two hours. As a general rule the epoxies with
longer setting times will provide stronger joints as the resin will soak deeper into the joint before it
cures. The NHP and Devcon ranges are good epoxies.

Other Materials. There are other materials that are useful in certain circumstances,

and this section gives a few ideas.

• Foam board is a sandwich of foam between two layers of cardboard. It has been used successfully
for low power centering rings, and lightweight flat surfaces. It is not strong enough to be used as a fin
material on its own, but has been sandwiched between two sheets of balsa to make very thick fins. The
foam can melt if it gets hot, for example the trailing edge of fins, but a smear of white glue along the
edge of the board has been shown to significantly prevent melting.

• Bristol board is a cardboard made from randomly oriented fibres. Unlike normal card it doesn’t have
a grain so it can be made to crease in any direction. It is useful for decorative features, such as fake air
inlets.

• Polystyrene foam has no structural uses, but can be useful for padding delicate payloads.

• Styrene sheet is not much use for structural components but is very useful for making alignment jigs.
These jigs can be used to hold pieces in place while white and yellow glue joints set. The sheet can be
cut with a craft knife and steel rule, then glued together with Humbrol precision Poly.

• Metal repair tape is a sticky-backed aluminium foil. It is very useful for protecting flammable parts
neat the rocket plume, for example cardboard tubes and centering rings.