Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Krishan K. Chawla
AT temperature interval
Tc critical temperature (of superconductors)
Tm melting temperature
V volume fraction
w subscript: whisker
w width of composite
x thickness of the reaction zone
Y a constant, a geometric factor
(a) cast composite having local rein- 4.1.2 Important Metallic Matrix Materials
forcement.
A variety of metals and their alloys can
(b) cast composite in the form of a billet
used as matrix materials. We describe the
having general reinforcement with a
important characteristics of some of the
wrought alloy matrix. Such composite bil-
more common ones:
lets are forged and/or extruded, followed
by rolling or other forming operations.
Aluminum alloys
Aluminum alloys, because of their low
density and excellent strength, toughness,
and resistance to corrosion, find important
applications in aerospace field. Of special
mention in this regard are the Al-Cu-Mg
and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys, very important
precipitation hardenable alloys. The latest
and by far the most important develop-
ment in the precipitation hardenable alu-
minum alloys is a series of aluminum-lithi-
um alloys. Lithium when added to alu-
minum as a primary alloying element has
the unique characteristics of increasing the
elastic modulus and decreasing the density
of the alloy. Understandably, the aerospace
industry has been the major target of this
development. Al-Li alloys are precipitation
hardenable much like the Al-Cu-Mg and
(a) Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys mentioned above. The
precipitation hardening sequence in Al-Li
alloys is, however, much more complex
than that observed in conventional precip-
itation hardenable aluminum alloys. Gen-
erally, these alloys contain, besides lithi-
um, some copper, zirconium, and magne-
sium. Vasudevan and Doherty (1989)
provide an account of the various alu-
minum alloys.
ration has developed a series of Al-Fe-V-Si um alloys can withstand. Titanium alu-
alloys using rapid solidification (cooling minides are one of the candidate materials
rates > 1 0 6 K s ~ 1 ) having an excellent in this case.
combination of mechanical properties. Titanium has two polymorphs; alpha (a)
The high cooling rate results in an ex- titanium has an h.c.p. structure and is sta-
tremely fine grain size which, in turn, re- ble below 885 °C, and beta (p) titanium
sults in excellent property combinations which has a b.c.c. structure and is stable
unobtainable by conventional metallurgy above 885 °C. Aluminum raises the a -• p
route. Allied-Signal uses what it calls a transformation temperature, i.e., alu-
planar flow casting process to produce minum is an a stabilizer. Most other alloy-
rapidly solidified aluminum-based quater- ing elements (Fe, Mn, Cr, Mo, V, Nb, Ta)
nary alloys having enhanced solubility of lower the a -> P transformation tempera-
iron, vanadium, and silicon with good ture, i.e., they stabilize the phase. Thus,
room temperature strength and ductility. three general alloy types can be produced,
The silicon addition results in a ther- viz., a, a+(3, and P titanium alloys. The
mally stable, 40-50 nm spherical silicides Ti-6%-Al-4%-V, called the work horse Ti
(Al12(Fe,V)3Si). alloy of the aerospace industry, belongs to
the (oc + P) group. Most titanium alloys are
not used in a quenched and tempered con-
Titanium alloys
dition. Generally, hot working in the
Titanium is one of the important (a + p)-region is carried out to break up the
aerospace materials. It has a density of structure and distribute the a phase in an
4.5 gem""3 and a Young's modulus of extremely fine form.
115 GPa. For titanium alloys, the density Titanium has a great affinity for oxygen,
can vary between 4.3 and 5.1 g cm" 3 while nitrogen, and hydrogen. Parts per million
the modulus can have a range of 80- of such interstitials in titanium can change
130 GPa. High strength/weight and modu- mechanical properties drastically, produc-
lus/weight ratios are important. Titanium ing embrittlement. That is why welding of
has a relatively high melting point titanium by any technique requires protec-
(1672°C) and retains strength to high tem- tion from the atmosphere. Electron beam
peratures with good oxidation and corro- techniques, in vacuum, are frequently
sion resistance. All these factors make it an used.
ideal material for aerospace applications.
Titanium alloys are used in jet engine (tur- Magnesium alloys
bine and compressor blades), fuselage
parts, etc. It is, however, an expensive ma- Magnesium and its alloys form another
terial. group of very light materials. Magnesium
is one of the lightest metals, its density
At very high speeds, the skin of an air-
being 1.74 g cm" 3 . Magnesium alloys, es-
plane heats up so much that aluminum al-
pecially castings, are used in aircraft gear-
loys become weak or even melt. Titanium
box housings, chain saw housing, electron-
alloys must be used at such high tempera-
ic equipment, etc. Magnesium, being a
tures. In the U.S. National Aero Space
hexagonal close packed metal, is difficult
Plane (NASP) program, the plane will fly
to cold work.
at speeds over Mach 2 and the tempera-
tures will be even higher than what titani-
128 4 Metal Matrix Composites
posites fabricated with this method have Figure 4-2. Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration
minimal reaction between the reinforce- process. The liquid metal is forced into a fibrous pre-
ment and molten metal, and are free from form. Pressure is applied until the solidification is
complete.
common casting defects such as porosity
and shrinkage cavities. Infiltration of a fi-
brous preform by means of a pressurized pressure forces the melt to infiltrate the
inert gas is another variant of liquid metal preform. The melt generally contains addi-
infiltration technique. Net-shaped compo- tives to aid wetting of the fibers.
nents can be produced inexpensively
(Cook and Warner, 1991). The process is 4.2.2 Solid State Processes
conducted in the controlled environment
Diffusion Bonding
of a pressure vessel and rather high fiber
volume fractions and complex shaped Diffusion bonding is a common solid
structures are obtainable (Cook and state welding technique for joining similar
Warner, 1991). Alumina fiber reinforced or dissimilar metals. Interdiffusion of
intermetallic matrix composites (e.g., TiAl, atoms from clean metal surfaces in contact
Ni 3 Al, and Fe3Al matrix materials) com- at an elevated temperature leads to weld-
posites have been prepared by pressure ing. The major advantages of this tech-
casting or squeeze casting (Nourbakhsh nique are: (i) ability to process a wide vari-
et al. 1990). The matrix alloy is melted in a ety of matrix metals, (ii) control of fiber
crucible in vacuum while the fibrous pre- orientation and volume fraction. Among
form is heated separately. The molten ma- the disadvantages are: (i) processing times
trix material (at about 100 °C above the of several hours, (ii) cost of high process-
Tm) is poured onto the fibers and argon gas ing temperatures and pressures, (iii) only
is introduced simultaneously. Argon gas objects of limited size can be produced.
130 4 Metal Matrix Composites
There are many variants of the basic diffu- posites. Hot isotopic pressing (HIP), in-
sion bonding process; however, all of them stead of uniaxial pressing, can also be
involve a simultaneous application of pres- used. Hipping involves gas pressure push-
sure and high temperature. Matrix alloy ing against a can which consolidates the
foil and fiber arrays, or composite wire, or composite piece contained inside the can.
monolayer laminae are stacked in a prede- With HIP it is relatively easy to apply high
termined order. Figure 4-3 shows a sche- pressures at elevated temperatures over
matic of one such diffusion bonding pro- variable geometries. Hot roll diffusion
cess, while Fig. 4-4 shows the microstruc- bonding is another variant of diffusion
ture of a transverse section of silicon car- bonding technique which can be used to
bide fiber/aluminum composite made by produce a composite consisting of differ-
diffusion bonding. Vacuum hot pressing is ent metals in the sheet form. Such com-
a most important step in the diffusion posites are called sheet laminated metal
bonding processes for metal matrix com- matrix composites.
ULL
:T H K H n n n n.
M M U M )l il Li~i
Pure niobium rods are inserted in holes cm2. Also, their performance deteriorates
drilled in bronze, evacuated, sealed, and as the applied magnetic field increases. At
subjected to wire drawing operations as in a magnetic field of 1 tesla, the Jc«1 -10 A/
the case of Nb-Ti/Cu. The critical step is cm2, whereas one would like to have a
the heat treatment at about 700 °C that / c ^ 105 A/cm2. The inherent brittleness of
drives out the tin from the bronze matrix ceramics is another problem in these oxide
to combine with niobium to form stoichio- superconductors. Due to the phenomenon
metric, superconducting Nb 3 Sn, leaving of Lorentz force, extremely high tensile
behind copper matrix. and shear forces develop in dipole magnets
In view of the highly important and pub- that would shatter the brittle ceramic ox-
licized discovery of high temperature su- ides. This is particularly true for large
perconductivity, made in 1987, we digress magnets which are like pressure vessels
briefly to provide some background on the wherein the pressure on the superconduc-
subject and then come to the processing tor due to the Lorentz force goes as square
problem of these superconductors. Oxide of the magnetic field. It is easy to see that
superconductors, (Y, Ba, Cu)-oxide or the in such a system the mechanical character-
so-called 1-2-3 compound ceramic super- istics of the composite superconductor will
conductors, with a transition temperature dictate the design.
around 90 K were discovered in February, Critical current density, / c , of a super-
1987. Such a high transition temperature conductor is a function of material pro-
enables the use of a cheap and easily avail- cessing. The standard process for making
able coolant, viz., liquid nitrogen (boiling (Y, Ba, Cu)-based superconductors is to
point 77 K). Since the discovery of these take oxide powders of these elements, cold
high-Tc superconductors, a lot of hyper- compact them and then sinter. All that
bole has been made of the potentialities such a material can be used for is to
and possibilities of these superconductors. demonstrate the phenomenon of high tem-
There is no gainsaying the fact that the perature superconductivity. The main rea-
discovery of the high temperature super- sons are the ones given above, viz., low
conductivity does represent an extremely current carrying capacity and brittleness.
important discovery. In all fairness, how- Jin (1991) used a technique called melt tex-
ever, it should be recognized that these tured growth technique which gave impres-
high-Tc superconductors have a number of sive current density values. This technique
problems to be ironed out before they involves melting at 1300°C and cool back
come anywhere close to the conventional to room temperature via a proprietary reg-
superconductors in terms of applications. imen, which results in needle-like crystals
One of the major problems is that these (about 100 \im long). These needle-like
superconductors carry very low current grains are aligned (locally) in the grain
densities. The electric resistance goes to ze- conduction direction. 1-2-3 supercon-
ro at Tc« 90 K, but the supercurrents seem ductors are highly anisotropic with their
to have a great difficulty in going from one ability to superconduct. Their current den-
grain to another. This may be due to impu- sity results are as follows:
rities or misshaped grains. The trouble-
some fact remains that these materials lose / c « 7400 A/cm2 at £ =0
their superconductivity at very modest
current densities of about a few 100 A/ / c « 1000 A/cm2 at B=\T
4.2 Processing 133
with a random fiber orientation. This ma- position or electroplating produces a coat-
terial can become partially oriented by hot ing from a solution containing the ion of
mechanical deformation, usually extrusion the desired material in the presence of an
or hot forming. Cold pressing and sinter- electric current. Fibers are wound on a
ing is a less desirable process since the high mandrel, which serves as the cathode, and
pressure needed to press the powders to placed into the plating bath with an anode
the required density can break the fibers, of the desired matrix material. The advan-
or the sintering process can degrade the tage of this method is that the tempera-
fibers. tures involved are moderate and no dam-
age is done to the fibers. Problems with
electroplating involve void formation be-
4.2.3 Deposition Techniques
tween fibers and between fiber layers, ad-
Deposition techniques for metal matrix hesion of the deposit to the fibers may be
composite fabrication involve coating in- poor, and there are limited numbers of al-
dividual fibers in a tow with the matrix loy matrices available for this processing.
material needed to form the composite, A spray deposition operation typically
followed by diffusion bonding to form a consists of winding fibers onto a foil coat-
consolidated composite plate or structural ed drum and spraying molten metal onto
shape. Since the composite is composed of them to form a monotape. The source of
identical units, the microstructure will be molten metal may be powder or wire feed-
more homogeneous than cast composites. stock which is melted in a flame, arc, or
The main disadvantage of using deposition plasma torch. The advantages of spray de-
techniques is that they are time consuming. position are easy control of fiber alignment
However, there are several advantages: and rapid solidification of the molten ma-
- The degree of interfacial bonding is eas- trix. In a CVD process, a vaporized com-
ily controllable; interfacial diffusion ponent decomposes or reacts with another
barriers and compliant coatings can be vaporized chemical on the substrate to
formed on the fiber prior to matrix de- form a coating on that substrate. The pro-
position, or graded interfaces can be cessing is generally carried out at elevated
formed. temperatures. The product phase can be
- Filament wound thin, monolayer tapes homogeneously nucleated if it occurs in
can be produced which are easier to han- the vapor phase or heterogeneously nucle-
dle and mold into structural shapes than ated if it occurs on a substrate surface.
other precursor forms; unidirectional or Metallic, oxide, carbide, or nitride coat-
angle-plied composites can be easily fab- ings or films can be produced with CVD.
ricated in this way. These films can be grown amorphous, sin-
Several deposition techniques are avail- gle crystal, or polycrystalline form. When
able: immersion plating, electroplating, the matrix material is developed on a rein-
spray deposition, chemical vapor deposi- forced preform, such as a woven mat, it is
tion (CVD), and physical vapor deposition called chemical vapor infiltration (CVI).
(PVD). Dipping or immersion plating is The three basic PVD processes for creating
similar to infiltration casting except that metal matrix composites differ mainly in
fiber tows are continuously passed how the vapor is generated: evaporation,
through baths of molten metal, slurry, sol, ion plating, and sputtering. Evaporation
or organometallic precursors. Electrode- methods for matrix materials under high
vacuum, generally contained in a crucible,
include resistive heating, electron beam
evaporation, arc evaporation, radiation
heating, or laser ablation. Ion plating in-
volves passing the vaporized component
through an argon gas glow discharge
around the substrate which ionizes some of
the vapor molecules. These ionized atoms
subsequently deposit onto the substrate.
Sputtering techniques involve vaporiza-
tion of the coating material (the target or Manufactyre
cathode) via a momentum transfer from of Billets
an ionized argon gas molecule in a glow 1 Tundish
2 Gas atomi/<?r
discharge around the cathode. The prima- 3 Particle injection
ry advantage of the PVD is versatility in 4 Spray chamber
the compositions and micro structure of 5 Product
6 Exhaust i?ar> . """"" ' 6 '
the coating produced. These processes can
Figure 4-5. Cospray process of making an MMC. A
produce coatings with superior bonding to spray gun atomizes a molten alloy matrix, into which
the substrate and excellent surface finishes. heated ceramic particles are injected.
In addition, no chemical reactions by
products are produced by these processes.
The disadvantage is that the processing computer controlled and is quite fast. It
equipment is complex and expensive. should be noted that the process is essen-
tially a liquid metallurgy process. One
avoids the formation of deleterious reac-
Spray-forming of Particulate MMCs tion products because the time of flight is
A relatively new and promising devel- extremely short. Silicon carbide particles
opment for making particle reinforced of an aspect ratio (length/diamter) be-
MMCs deserves a separate description. It tween 3-4 and volume fractions up to
involves the use of spray techniques that 20% have been incorporated into alu-
have been used for some time to produce minum alloys. Alcan can cast 200 kg in-
monolithic alloys (Willis, 1988). One par- gots at a rate of 6-10kg/min (Lloyd,
ticular example of this, a cospray process, 1992).
is shown in Fig. 4-5. This process uses a A great advantage of the process is the
spray gun to atomize a molten aluminum flexibility that it affords in making differ-
alloy matrix, into which heated (to dry ent types of composites. For example, one
them) silicon carbide particles are injected. can make in situ laminates using two
An optimum particle size is required for sprayers. One can have selective reinforce-
transfer. Whiskers, for example, are too ment. This process, however, is more ex-
fine to be transferred. The preform pro- pensive because of the expensive capital
duced in this way can be up to about 97% equipment.
dense. The metal matrix composite is sub-
jected to scalping, consolidation, and sec- 4.2.4 In Situ Processes
ondary finishing processes. The product is In these techniques, as the name sug-
a wrought material. The process is totally gests, one forms the reinforcement phase
136 4 Metal Matrix Composites
in situ. The composite material is pro- techniques are referred to as Self Propagat-
duced in one step from an appropriate ing High Temperature Synthesis (SHS)
starting alloy, e.g., Co-NbC, Ni-TiC, etc., processes. Specifically, the XD Process is a
thus avoiding the difficulties inherent in proprietary process developed by Martin
combining the separate components as Marietta Corp. to produce ceramic parti-
done in a typical composite processing. cle reinforced metallic alloy. Generally, a
Controlled unidirectional solidification of master alloy containing rather high vol-
a eutectic alloy is a classic example of in ume fraction of reinforcement is produced
situ processing. Unidirectional solidifica- by the reaction synthesis. This is mixed
tion of a eutectic alloy can result in one and remelted with the base alloy to pro-
phase being distributed in the form of duce a desirable amount of particle rein-
fibers or ribbon in the other. One can con- forcement. Typical reinforcements are SiC,
trol the fineness of distribution of the rein- TiC, TiB 2 , etc. in an aluminum, nickel, or
forcement phase by simply controlling the an intermetallic matrix. Figure 4-6 gives a
solidification rate. The solidification rate schematic of this process, while Fig. 4-7
in practice, however, is limited to a range shows the microstructure of a 15%-vol-
a of 1 - 5 cm/h because of the need to main- ume fraction TiC/Al composite made by
tain a stable growth front. The stable this process, followed by extrusion.
growth front requires a high temperature
gradient.
Some of the newer processes for produc-
ing metal matrix composites include Lanx- Matrix and reinforcement precursor materials
ide's PRIMEX, pressureless metal infiltra- A+B+C+X+Y+Z
bonding between the fiber and the matrix, inforcement and the matrix. This thermal
but, too thick an interaction zone will ad- mismatch can lead to thermal stresses large
versely affect the composite properties. enough to cause plastic deformation in the
Ceramic/metal interfaces are generally matrix. Plastic deformation in the matrix
formed at high temperatures. Diffusion means introduction of defects such as dis-
and chemical reaction kinetics are faster at locations, vacancies, etc. in the matrix, es-
elevated temperatures. One needs to have pecially in the interface region. The intro-
knowledge of the chemical reaction prod- duction of such defects can and do affect
ucts and, if possible, their properties. It is the phenomena responsible for chemical
thus imperative to understand the thermo- reactions at the interface as well as charac-
dynamics and kinetics of reactions such teristics of the matrix such as the precipita-
that processing can be controlled and opti- tion kinetics. A brief review of the thermal
mum properties can be obtained. stress effects is therefore presented in the
As pointed out above, interfacial bond next section.
degradation can occur by an adverse
chemical reaction between the reinforce- 4.3.4 Thermal Stresses
ment and the matrix. Therefore, it is im- in Metal Matrix Composites
portant to characterize the fiber/matrix in-
In general, ceramic reinforcements
terfacial reaction zone. One generally does
(fibers, whiskers, or particles) have a coef-
this by studying a diffusion couple made
ficient of thermal expansion smaller than
of the components of the composite with
that of most metallic matrices. This means
a planar interface. Diffusion controlled
that when the composite is subjected to a
growth in an infinite diffusion couple with
temperature change, thermal stresses will
a planar interface follows the relationship
be generated in both the components.
x2 = Dt (4-10) A simple two-element model shown in
Fig. 4-10 can be used to make a thermo-
where x is the thickness of the reaction
elastic analysis. It can be shown that for
zone, D is the diffusivity, and t is the time.
For a composite containing cylindrical
fibers of small diameter, the diffusion dis-
tance is very small. However, to a first ap-
proximation, we can write
x2 = kt (4-11)
where k is a material constant and has the
dimensions of diffusivity (m 2 s~ 1 ). Such
parabolic relationships between the reac-
tion zone thickness and time have been
observed by many researchers (see for ex-
ample DiCarlo, 1983; Schulyer et al.,
1990).
A factor that ends up complicating the
simple chemical incompatibility problem Figure 4-10. Simple two-element model for thermo-
at the interface is the ever present thermal elastic analysis, a and b are the radii of the fiber and
expansion incompatibility between the re- matrix, respectively.
142 4 Metal Matrix Composites
this unit fiber composite, using cylindrical of the cylinder, b is the radius of the matrix
coordinates, we have the following princi- shell, and the subscripts m and f denote the
pal stresses in the matrix (Poritsky, 1934; matrix and the fiber, respectively. Figure
Hull and Burger, 1934; Chawla, 1987 c): 4-11 shows the thermoelastic stress distri-
bution for an alumina fiber/magnesium
b2 composite with 35% volume fraction of
(4-12)
fibers as a function of a normalized dis-
tance, r/a, with r/a = 1 representing the fi-
-AU+Z (4-13) ber/matrix interface. Note that or and ae
fall off rapidly with the distance, r. It turns
= B (4-14)
2
Em(am-al)AT(a/b)
A (4-15)
• - [ • l+(a/b)2(i-2v)[(b/a)2-l]EJE
1 + (a/b)2 (1 - 2 v) + (g/b)2 (1 - 2 v) [(b/a)2 - 1 ] g j ^ l
D
(4-16)
l+[(ft/a) 2 -l]£ m /£ f J
where a is the coefficient of linear expan-
sion, v is the Poisson ratio (assuming out that or and oe are relatively insensitive
vf = vm = v), E is the Young's modulus, AT to fiber volume fraction while az depends
is the temperature interval, a is the radius on the fiber volume fraction.
1600 1 1 1 1 1 I ' I • J
1400 ,/Mg
1200 AT= -
1000
800
600
400
200
Figure 4-11. Stress distri-
bution for an alumina
0
fiber/magnesium composite
with 35% volume fraction
-200
of fibers as a function of a
-400
normalized distance, r/a,
with r/a = 1 representing
-600 the fiber/matrix interface.
Note that or and oe fall off
-800 rapidly with the distance, r.
0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 . 0
4.3 Interfaces in Metal Matrix Composites 143
(am-ap)AT
P = 0.5(l+v ) (4-17)
m (l-2v m )F p (l-2v p )
V) E
(4-18)
1- K
-P (4-19)
l-VpUr3
The stresses in the particle are:
GrV = P (constant) (4-20)
°e? ~ P (constant) (4-21)
It can be readily shown from these ex-
pressions that the thermal stresses generat-
ed in a composite, fibrous or particulate,
for rather small temperature changes will
exceed the yield stress of the metal matrix Figure 4-12. Schematic of the stress distribution in a
and, thus, cause plastic deformation of the particulate composite.
144 4 Metal Matrix Composites
TUNGSTEN FIBER
COPPER MATRIX
DISLOCATION
ETCH PITS Figure 4-13. Schematic of a
section along the primary
plane of the single crystal
copper matrix containing
tungsten wires. There exists
a hard zone (high disloca-
tion density) around each
fiber and a soft zone (low
dislocation density) away
from the fiber.
There exists a hard zone (high dislocation been observed by many researchers (see for
density) around each fiber and a soft zone example Mahon etal., 1990). We discuss
(low dislocation density) away from the this subject of aging behavior of an alloy
fiber. Later on, the existence of a plastical- matrix in the presence of a reinforcement
ly deformed zone containing high disloca- in Sec. 4.4.5.
tion density in the metallic matrix in the
vicinity of the reinforcement was con-
4.3.5 Microstructure of the Interface Region
firmed by transmission electron microsco-
py by a number of researchers, both in In this section, we describe the micro-
fibrous and particulate metal matrix com- structural features in some important com-
posites (Arsenault and Fisher, 1983; posites.
Suresh et al., 1989; Christman and Suresh,
1988a; Rack, 1987; Chawla et al., 1991).
Figure 4-14, a TEM micrograph, shows
dislocations in aluminum matrix near an
SiC particle (Chawla etal., 1991). Such
high densities of defects in the metal ma-
trix will, of course, lead to a different set of
properties of the matrix. In nonprecipita-
tion hardening metals, this will simply
cause a strengthening due to a higher dislo-
cation density. In precipitation hardenable
matrix alloys such as aluminum-copper,
one would expect faster aging kinetics (Ar-
senault and Fisher, 1983; Suresh et al.,
1989; Christman and Suresh, 1988 a; Rack,
1987; Chawla etal., 1991). Preferential Figure 4-14. TEM micrograph showing dislocations
precipitation at the reinforcement/matrix in aluminum in the region near a silicon carbide par-
interface in an age-hardenable matrix has ticle (SiCp) (Chawla et al., 1991).
4.3 Interfaces in Metal Matrix Composites 145
Fiber -FP/Al
^Fiber surface o FP/Mg
1300 -^&^
1000- '-Interface reaction zone
~500^
x
Matrix
<D
c
x 100
50-
25
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (r/a)
Figure 4-17. Microhardness profiles of a-Al2O3
(FP)/Al-Li and a-Al2O3 (FP)/Mg alloy composites
from the fiber through the reaction zone to the matrix.
Note the high hardness of the matrix in the vicinity of
the interface, indicating a workhardened matrix.
trated with the preform temperature below 6) reinforced a-Ti, (5-Tx, Ti3Al, and TiAl
the melting point of aluminum and with a matrix composites. He examined the mi-
hold time of less than one minute, no reac- crostructure of these composites in the as-
tion products were visible in an SEM, indi- fabricated state and after thermal expo-
cating thereby that by controlling the reac- sure. SCS-6 silicon carbide fiber has an
tion kinetic conditions, one can control the outer diameter of 142 |im and a core of
extent of interfacial reaction. about 37 }^m diameter of a carbon fila-
ment. The SiC is produced by chemical
vapor deposition onto this core (Chawla,
4.3.5.2 Silicon Carbide/Metal Composites
1987 a). A surface coating rich in carbon is
Silicon carbide in a particulate or fi- applied to heal the "intrinsic" surface
brous form has been incorporated in a flaws due to the chemical vapor deposition
number of metallic matrix materials. Sili- technique and to promote compatibility
con carbide is unstable in titanium alloys. with the matrix. This surface layer consists
Depending on the specific titanium alloy of carbon-rich nonstoichiometric amor-
composition, a series of compounds can phous SiC. There occurs a local change in
form in the interface zone. Generally, a the chemical composition of the matrix in
very brittle interface region forms in titani- the vicinity of the fiber/matrix reaction
um-based composites containing SiC, fiber zone. Figure 4-19 shows a TEM mi-
or composite (Lorreto and Konitzer, 1990; crograph of the reaction zone in SCS-6/
Warren and Andersson, 1984). near a-Ti composite after exposure to
Das (1990 a, b) has characterized the mi- 975°C for 4 hours (Das, 1990a). Recrys-
crostructure of silicon carbide fiber (SCS- tallized grains and voids can be seen in the
reaction zone. The bottom part of this fig- to 975 °C for 16 hours are shown in Fig.
ure shows the concentration profiles of 4-20 (Das, 1990 b). A crack around the in-
various elements as determined by energy dentation near the fiber can be seen. This
dispersive analysis. Knoop indentations is because the matrix around the fiber is
on the matrix in the vicinity of the reaction more brittle than far away.
zone of the same composite after exposure Chou et al. (1991) studied interfacial re-
actions between some refractory metals
(Co, Ni, and Pt) and silicon carbide at
temperatures between 800 and 1200 °C.
FIBER They observed a series of silicides and free
MATRIX COATING unreacted carbon precipitates in the reac-
tion zones. A cross-section of the reaction
zone in SiC/Ni after 6 hours at 1100°C is
shown in Fig. 4-21 (Chou et al., 1991). Ad-
jacent to Ni, there is a carbon precipitation
free zone (C-PFZ). Between C-PFZ and
SiC, random and modulated carbon pre-
cipitates appear. Quantitative electron mi-
croprobe profiles of nickel, silicon, and
carbon across the reaction zone after 6
hours at 1100°C are shown in Fig. 4-22
\ (Chou etal., 1991). The arrows indicate
REACTION the relative nickel concentrations for Ni3Si
ZONE and Ni 5 Si 2 . The layered regions of the un-
CRACK
25jim reacted nickel, carbon precipitate free
zone, and carbon precipitate zone are also
Figure 4-20. Knoop indentations on the matrix in the indicated.
vicinity of the reaction zone of the same composite
after exposure to 975 °C for 16 hours (Das, 1990). A These authors observed that the thick-
crack around the indentation near the fiber can be ness of the reaction zone on the metal side
seen in the brittle matrix. was always greater than on the SiC side.
Figure 4-21. Cross-section of the reaction zone in SiC/Ni after six hours at 1100 °C. C-PFZ next to nickel is the
carbon precipitate free zone (Chou et al., 1991).
4.3 Interfaces in Metal Matrix Composites 149
100
90
*—.•.... Ni .
- ^ 80 Ni
Ni5Si2 Figure 4-22. Quantitative electron
§: 70 microprobe profiles of nickel, sili-
con, and carbon across the reac-
^T 60
o tion zone after six hours at
•"S 50 1100°C. The arrows indicate the
relative nickel concentrations for
40
8 Ni3Si and Ni 5 Si 2 . The layered re-
30 gions of the unreacted nickel, Ni,
20 S
'Ni 5 Si 2 carbon precipitate free zone,
Si
Ni 3 Si C-PFZ, and carbon precipitate
10 zone, CPZ, are also indicated
0 (Chou et al., 1991).
Distance (20jum/Division)
They also did not observe a parabolic reac- Suresh, 1988 a; Rack, 1987; Chawla et al.,
tion zone between the thickness of the SiC 1991; Mahon etal., 1990; Nutt and Car-
reaction zone and the annealing time. This penter, 1990; Lagace and Lloyd, 1989). In
was attributed to the reaction being con- magnesium containing aluminum alloys,
trolled by the decomposition of SiC, rather MgO is frequently observed at the inter-
than by interdiffusion of Si or metal. Fig- face (Nutt and Carpenter, 1990). In the
ure 4-23 shows a series of cross-sectional case of liquid metal infiltration route,
views of the reaction zone in SiC/Ni after molten aluminum can react with SiC to
4 hours at 1170°C (Chou etal., 1991). form aluminum carbide at the interface as
Modulated carbon precipitation, random per the reaction given below:
carbon precipitation, as well as voids are
seen in this figure. Porosity results from 4Al + 3SiC -> A14C3 + 3 Si
melting and solidification. The formation Besides giving a brittle constituent, A14C3
of low melting point metal silicides as well at the interface, such a reaction will inject
as a large enthalpy of mixing between the silicon into the matrix, i.e., a changed alloy
metals and silicon at the interface lead to composition of the matrix will result.
melting. The casting route of making ceramic
Krishnamurthy (1990) studied interfa- particle/metal matrix composites involves
cial reactions in TiAl-based alloys contain- higher temperatures than those in the pow-
ing SCS-6 fibers and single crystal alumina der metallurgy route. Severe interfacial re-
fibers. The former showed significant reac- actions between ceramic particle and metal
tion at the fiber/matrix interface while the matrix can occur. Extensive reaction be-
latter did not show any noticeable reac- tween the ceramic particle and the molten
tion. metal matrix can result in degradation of
Many researchers have examined the in- the reinforcement, formation of brittle
terface region in silicon carbide particle or constituents at the interface, and/or alter-
whisker/aluminum alloy composites made ation in the matrix microstructure. Wang
by powder metallurgy or casting routes etal. (1992) used electron microscopy
(see for example Arsenault and Fisher, techniques to study the interface in a cast
1983; Suresh etal., 1989; Christman and SiCp/Al alloy (A356-7 wt.% Si, 0.3 wt.%
150 4 Metal Matrix Composites
a " ' b
Figure 4-23. Series of cross-sectional views of the reaction zone in SiC/Ni after four hours at 1170 °C. Modulated
carbon precipitation, random carbon precipitation, as well as voids are seen (Chou et al., 1991).
Mg, and the rest Al). They observed mag- minum matrix is commonly resorted to.
nesium aluminate, MgAl 2 O 4 , a spinel, at The Ti-B coating, however, oxidizes in
the interface. air, and molten Mg does not wet the oxi-
dized coating. The option of not exposing
4.3.5.3 Carbon Fiber/Metal the coated fibers to air is not very feasible.
Matrix Composites Katzman (1987) used a silicon dioxide
coating from an organometallic precursor
Carbon fiber reinforced metals have
solution. SiO2 coating facilitates melting
been investigated by a number of re-
and bonding of C fibers by molten Mg.
searchers (Fuet al., 1986; Katzman, 1987).
Such innovative barrier coatings between
Fu et al. did a detailed analysis of the inter-
reinforcement and matrix can be a power-
face region in carbon fiber/aluminum com-
ful means of designing a composite with
posites by TEM and observed fine-grained
appropriate properties.
y-Al 2 O 3 and some A14C3 at the interface.
An interesting example of interface tailor-
ing comes from the C/Mg system. Molten 4.3.5.4 Interaction Between
Mg does not wet and thus does not bond Interfacial Phenomena
C fibers. Codeposition of Ti-B on carbon Various processing parameters such as
fiber before incorporating it into an alu- time, temperature, pressure combined with
4.4 Properties 151
the thermodynamic, kinetic, and thermal a thermally matched composite can have
data can be used to get an optimum set of thermal stresses if an interfacial product
interface characteristics in a given metal forms.
matrix composite. Such a control of inter- The extent of interfacial region in com-
face characteristics can result in an in- posites can be very large. Mechanical as
crease in a given mechanical property of well as chemical bonding can contribute to
the composite. Figure 4-24 shows this idea the bond strength. A controlled interfacial
in a schematic manner. This figure is some- reaction between a metal and a ceramic
what simplistic inasmuch as many of the reinforcement can provide good adhesion.
thermal, mechanical, chemical, and struc- A diffusion barrier coating between the re-
tural factors frequently overlap and it is inforcement and the matrix is frequently
not always easy, in practice, to separate the employed to control the extent of interfa-
effects of these factors. For example, con- cial reaction. It is therefore important to
sider the interaction between chemical in- understand the thermodynamic, kinetic,
teraction and thermal mismatch. A chemi- mechanical, and microstructural aspects of
cal reaction will produce one or more a metal/ceramic interface in order to use
chemical compounds at the interface. It is that information to optimize the process-
of great importance to take into account ing to obtain a desirable set of characteris-
the presence of any new species at the in- tics in the composite. In particular, such an
terface when computing the thermal stress- understanding is important if the com-
es. In other words, if it is known that a posite is to have an ability to sustain high
compound forms at the fiber/matrix inter- temperatures during processing as well as
face, then it is pointless to use a two-ele- long time exposures at operating tempera-
ment cylindrical model to compute the tures.
thermal stress distribution because the new
species is very likely to have a different
coefficient of thermal expansion than ei- 4.4 Properties
ther one of the original components. Even
4.4.1 Importance of the Metallic Matrix
The differential thermal expansion be-
tween the reinforcement and the metal ma-
trix introduces a high dislocation density
in the matrix, especially in the near inter-
face region of the matrix. This high matrix
dislocation density as well as the reinforce-
ment/matrix interfaces can provide high
diffusivity paths in a composite, an impor-
li tant topic that we discuss in Sec. 4.4.5 on
the aging behavior of particle reinforced
MMCs. Most reinforcements for use in
metals are essentially elastic right up to the
fracture point. Once we know their physi-
Processing Parameter — •
(temperature, time, pressure) cal and elastic properties (elastic constants,
Figure 4-24. Schematic of correlation between pro- expansion coefficient, etc.), we have pretty
cessing parameter and property of a composite. well defined their behavior. The interface
152 4 Metal Matrix Composites
region, however, can suffer changes just as volume weighted average of the strength of
the matrix does during processing and/or the fiber and the matrix. On the face of it,
service. The importance of the interface there is nothing wrong with this statement.
region, however, has been recognized on The problem, however, is that one does
all hands almost from the very beginning, not have a very good idea of the <7m and af
and we have described some of these in values, i.e., the in situ values of the stress
Sec. 4.3 above. The recognition of the im- on the fiber and matrix. If the fiber re-
portance of the matrix is more recent. The mains essentially elastic up to the point of
metallic matrix is much more than a mere fracture, then o{9 the fiber strength in the
medium or glue to hold the reinforcement, composite, is the same as that determined
be that fibers, whiskers, or particles in an isolated test of the fiber. This is par-
(Chawla, 1985, McKimpson and Scott, ticularly true of ceramic fibers. The same,
1989). It should be chosen after due con- however, cannot be said for the metallic
sideration of its chemical compatibility matrix. The matrix strength in the com-
and thermal mismatch with the reinforce- posite (the in situ strength) will not be the
ment. Processing induced chemical reac- same as that determined from a test of an
tion and/or thermal stresses can cause unreinforced matrix sample in isolation.
changes in the matrix microstructure of the The metal matrix is likely to suffer several
matrix. These microstructural changes in microstructural alterations during process-
the matrix, in turn, can and do affect the ing and consequently changes in its me-
mechanical and physical behavior of the chanical properties. Let us consider the
composite. Typically, commercial produc- process of liquid metal infiltration of a
ers have taken off-the-shelf wrought or bundle of ceramic fibers. After the fiber
casting alloy compositions for the matrix. bundle is impregnated by the liquid ma-
Let us consider an aligned fiber rein- trix, the composite must cool down to
forced metal matrix composite under a room temperature. In view of the fact that,
load Pc in the direction of the fibers. This in general, ceramic fibers have a coefficient
load is distributed between the fiber and of thermal expansion less than that of most
the matrix. Thus, metallic matrices, thermal stresses will be
generated in both the components, fiber
Pe = PmVm + P( V{ and matrix. A series of events can take
where P m and P f are the loads on the ma- place in response to the thermal stresses:
trix and the fiber, respectively. This equa- (i) plastic deformation of the ductile met-
tion can be converted to the following rule- al matrix (slip, twinning, cavitation,
of-mixtures relationship under conditions grain boundary sliding and/or migra-
of isostrain: tion),
(ii) cracking and failure of the brittle fi-
<7f V( (4-22)
ber,
where a is the stress, V is the volume frac- (iii) failure of the fiber/matrix interface.
tion, and the subscripts c, f, and m denote Some very fundamental work has been
the composite, the fiber, and the matrix, done on a simple system, tungsten fila-
respectively. ment/copper matrix, to elucidate the role
Equation (4-22) is commonly referred to of matrix in MMCs. The tungsten/copper
as the Rule of Mixtures. This equation system is an ideal system for studying pure
says that the strength of the composite is a fiber reinforcement. The two components
4.4 Properties 153
are mutually insoluble in the liquid as well the dislocation cell structure was better de-
as solid states. Thus, there is no interfacial fined. The dislocation densities can be
reaction between the fiber and the matrix. thought of as a combination (not necessar-
In the case of a single crystal matrix, mi- ily a linear one) of two contributions:
crostructural changes induced in the ma- (i) a fiber volume fraction independent
trix by the mere act of incorporating fibers contribution (near the interface)
into it can be studied. Polycrystalline but (ii) a fiber volume fraction dependent con-
pure matrix is the next step in complica- tribution (throughout the matrix).
tion while an alloy matrix will be even In order to understand the origin of
more complex. We provide a summary of this dislocation distribution, Chawla and
these results (Chawla and Metzger, 1972; Metzger (1972) used the simple two-ele-
Chawla, 1973 a, b, 1975 a, b, 1976 a, b). ment model shown in Figure 4-10. For the
Single crystal copper matrix is amenable W/Cu system, a was 114 jam and the radius
to etch-pitting techniques for dislocation b of the equivalent cylinder of matrix var-
density and distribution studies (Liv- ied from 1590 urn at 0.5 % Vf to 290 (im at
ingston, 1962). Low volume fraction (0 to 15% Vf. The enhanced dislocation densi-
15%) and large diameter fibers (228 |im) ties in the copper matrix arise owing to the
were used to ensure the availability of large plastic deformation in response to the ther-
matrix areas for direct structural observa- mal stresses generated because of the ther-
tions. For the etch-pitting technique, the mal mismatch between the fiber and the
copper surface has to be within 3° of (1 1 matrix.
1) plane. According to the Tresca yield criterion
Dislocation density profiles in the cop- [or — ae] = Y, the matrix yielding will occur
per matrix for different fiber volume frac- first at the interface and then spread out
tions of tungsten filament are shown in with continued cycling. The dislocation
Fig. 4-25. Close to the fiber, the curves density gradient will tend to even out with
tend to merge. The differences in the dislo- continued thermal cycling.
cation density were greater away from the In the as-fabricated state, the copper
fiber (the plateau region). Near the fiber matrix had a cell structure with a diameter
7^7.551
10 9
crn" 2
/ i o1°
/ ° ° ! n0.5 1
density
o
15%
10 % , Figure 4-25. Dislocation density profiles
CL in the copper matrix for different fiber
107 7.5%" volume fractions of tungsten filament.
2.5%
~~i '• ! 0.5 %
Close to the fiber, the curves tend to
0% merge. The differences in the dislocation
106 density are greater away from the fiber
i (the plateau region).
L0 80 120 160 jim 200
Normal distance from interface
154 4 Metal Matrix Composites
10 Jim. The cell structure develops due to the unreinforced metal processed in an
the high temperature, low (thermal) stress identical manner.
creep that the matrix sufffers during cool- In what we have discussed in this section
ing from 1200 °C to room temperature. On so far, we have implicitly assumed that the
thermal cycling to low peak temperatures, fibers are uniformly distributed in the ma-
the subgrain size and the cell diameter did trix and that the fiber cross sectional ge-
not change, and the cell diameter did not ometry does not have any effect on the
decrease significantly. The cell walls, how- strength and plastic deformation of the
ever, thickened and the cell structure be- composite. In practice, there invariably
came better defined. It would appear that does occur some fiber clustering and the
the dislocation cell walls formed during the fiber cross sectional shape may also vary.
composite fabrication served as obstacles Christman et al. (1989) used a plane strain
to dislocations generated on subjecting the model to study the effect of fiber clustering
composite to either mechanical or thermal on the plastic deformation of silicon car-
cycling. bide whisker reinforced aluminum. They
Mortensen and coworkers (1991, 1992) found that when the whiskers were clus-
as well as others have focussed their atten- tered, either horizontally or vertically, the
tion on matrix microstructural control in flow stress and strain hardening of the
cast MMCs. The final matrix microstruc- composite decreased significantly com-
ture is a function of fiber type, fiber diame- pared to the situation where the whiskers
ter, fiber distribution as well as conven- were arranged in a perfectly periodic man-
tional solidification parameters. For ex- ner. Brockenbrough and Suresh (1990) an-
ample, in an SCS-2 silicon carbide fiber/ alyzed continuous boron fiber reinforced
Al-4.5 %-Cu matrix, they observed that in aluminum 606 l-O T using the ABAQUS
the unreinforced region of the matrix, nor- finite element code. The fiber packing ar-
mal dendritic structure could be seen while rangement as well as the cross sectional
in the reinforced region the dendritic mor- geometry influenced the plastic deforma-
phology was controlled by the fiber distri- tion behavior when the composite was
bution. Second phase appeared preferen- loaded in the transverse direction. The ef-
tially at the fiber/matrix interface or in the fect of fiber packing arrangement on strain
narrow interfiber spaces. hardening response, however, was more
Porosity is a critical defect that is likely pronounced than that of fiber geometry.
to be present in the matrix, especially in Both these variables did not have much
cast materials. Porosity can be very delete- effect when the composite was loaded par-
rious to the overall performance of cast allel to the fibers. Suresh and Brocken-
MMCs. The main sources of porosity are brough (1993) provide a review of the var-
any gas evolution and shrinkage occur- ious continuum models for deformation of
ring on solidification. A high volume frac- continuous fiber reinforced metal matrix
tion of reinforcement may impede the composites.
flow of the interdendritic liquid and inhibit
any "bulk movement" of the semisolid
4.4.2 Modulus
metal.
In short, the micro structure of the Unidirectionally reinforced continuous
metallic matrix in the fiber composite is fiber reinforced metal matrix composites
likely to differ significantly from that of show a linear increase in the longitudinal
4.4 Properties 155
175 n
Young's modulus of the composite as a
function of the fiber volume fraction. Fig-
ure 4-26 shows an example of modulus in-
crease as a function of fiber volume frac- tf)
l-
r
80-
the modulus increase in a composite with o
LU
reinforcement volume fraction for differ- 60-
ent reinforcement type, continuous fiber, 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
whisker, or particle, is shown in Fig. 4-28. Volume fraction (%)
This schematic shows the loss of reinforce- Figure 4-28. Schematic of modulus increase in a com-
posite with reinforcement volume fraction for differ-
ment efficiency as one goes from continu- ent reinforcement type, continuous fiber, whisker, or
ous fiber to particle. For discontinuous re- particle. Note the loss of reinforcement efficiency as
inforcement, one may use a Halpin-Tsai- one goes from continuous fiber to particle.
156 4 Metal Matrix Composites
14
Kardos type expression to obtain the mod-
ulus (Chawla, 1987 a):
12
l+2sqVp
Pc = Pm 1 _ y
^+2s
Pm
references given in the list of suggested The yield strength and ultimate tensile
reading at the end of the chapter. The strength of aluminum alloys can be in-
shear-lag model would also appear to creased to as much as 60% more than
work for whisker reinforced metal matrix those of the unreinforced matrix. Howev-
composites. It becomes of rather doubtful er, it is important to emphasize that for a
validity when one considers particulate given reinforcement content, yield strength
composites. Clearly, the matrix alloy and and ultimate tensile strength are controlled
the processing induced micro structural by the type and temper of the matrix alloy.
changes in the matrix will influence the The precipitate-hardenable aluminum al-
final properties of the composite much loy matrix has a much more important role
more in this case. The strengthening of a to play in these composites than a non-
precipitation hardenable aluminum alloy hardenable matrix material. A consider-
by incorporating particles of, say, SiC (as- able strength increment results due to the
pect ratio about unity) is not as significant age hardening treatments. The particulate
as in the case of a fiber or whisker of the or whisker type reinforcements such as
same material. It appears that dislocation SiC, B4C, A12O3, etc. are unaffected by the
density increase, and the concomitant mi- aging process. These particles, however,
crostructural alterations in the matrix are can affect the precipitation behavior of the
an important source of strengthening in matrix quite significantly, as we discuss be-
particulate composites. This would appear low.
to explain why the composite shows a The strength, <r, of in situ metal matrix
strength higher than that predicted by con- composites made by directional solidifica-
tinuum mechanics theories. At least in the tion of eutectic alloys is given by a relation-
case of aluminum matrix composites, the ship similar to the Hall-Petch relationship
increase in strength would appear to be used for grain boundary strengthening of
mainly due to the much higher dislocation metals,
density and smaller subgrain size in the
matrix than in the unreinforced aluminum
alloy. The increase in elastic modulus, as where a0 is a friction stress term, k is a
discussed above, can be appreciable. Mc- material constant and X is the spacing be-
Danels (1985) evaluated the effects of rein- tween rods or lamellae. It turns out that
forcement type SiC-whisker, -nodule, or one can vary the interfiber spacing, X,
-particle reinforcement in various matrix rather easily by controlling the solidifica-
alloys, 6061, 2024/2124, 7075, and 5083 Al tion rate, R, because X2 R = constant.
matrices. His results showed that in these Thus, one can easily control the strength of
cases, the elastic modulus of the com- the resultant composite.
posites was independent of both reinforce-
ment type and the matrix alloy. The rein-
forcement content was the dominant fac- 4.4.4 Matrix Aging Response
tor in the improvement of elastic modulus in Composites
in these composites. However, the yield We have pointed above that the mi-
and ultimate tensile strength of the com- crostructure of a metallic matrix is modi-
posites were primarily controlled by the fied by the presence of ceramic reinforce-
intrinsic yield/tensile strengths of the ma- ment (particle, whisker, or fiber). In partic-
trix alloys and by reinforcement content. ular, a higher dislocation density in the
158 4 Metal Matrix Composites
matrix metal or alloy than that in the unre- have dislocations shear the coherent zones.
inforced metal or alloy has been observed. The hardness increases as the GP zone size
The higher dislocation density in the ma- increase with time, making it ever more
trix has its origin in the thermal mismatch, difficult for the dislocations to shear them.
Aa, between the reinforcement and the The peak hardness or strength is associat-
metal matrix. For example, the thermal ed with a critical dispersion of coherent or
mismatch in the case of SiC/Al has a high semicoherent precipitates. With still fur-
value of 21 x 10" 6 K" 1 , which will lead to ther increase in time, equilibrium precipi-
thermal stresses high enough to deform the tates with incoherent interface start ap-
matrix plastically and thus leave the matrix pearing, and the mechanism of Orowan
workhardened. One would expect that the bowing of dislocations around the parti-
high dislocation density will also affect the cles becomes operative. The stress required
precipitation kinetics in a precipitation for dislocation bowing varies inversely as
hardenable matrix such as 2XXX series the interparticle spacing, which decreases
aluminum alloys. with increasing aging time. Continued
aging results in an increase in precipitate
Aging Process in Al-Cu-Mg Alloys size and interparticle distance, and a lower
strength results as dislocation bowing be-
The general sequence of precipitation comes easier. It is well known that me-
from a supersaturated Al-Cu-Mg alloy chanical deformation prior to aging can
when aged at a temperature above room accelerate the formation of S' at the ex-
temperature is: pense of GP zones. The S' precipitate has
supersaturated alloy -> GP zones -• the same chemical composition as the
equilibrium phase S, orthorhombic struc-
ture with [10 0], [010], and [001] direc-
This aging behavior is commonly analyzed tions of S' being parallel to the [100],
in terms of a hardness or strength vs. aging [0 2 1], and [0 1 2] directions of the matrix.
time curve as shown in Fig. 4-30. The The S' precipitates nucleate on dislocations
shape of the aging curve can be explained and grow as laths on {2 1 0} planes along
as follows: Immediately after quenching, [1 0 0] directions.
only solid solution hardening is present. One expects that the quenching from the
As GP zones form, hardness or strength solutionizing temperature to room temper-
increases because extra stress is needed to ature, a AT of about 450°C, will result in
a large zone of matrix plastically deformed
around each ceramic particle in which the
dislocation density will be very high. One
would expect that this high dislocation
Equilibrium density will tend to accelerate the aging
precipitates
kinetics. Nieh and Karlak (1984) showed
that the presence of B4C particles in 6061
Al made the matrix reach the peak hard-
ness in 3 hours at 450 K while a control
Aging time (particle size) powder metallurgy processed alloy took 10
Figure 4-30. Aging curve, hardness vs. aging time, of hours. This accelerated aging behavior was
a precipitation hardenable aluminum alloy. attributed to the high diffusivity character-
4.4 Properties 159
istics of the composite. A considerable 1988; Dutta and Bourell, 1988; Christman
strength increment can be due to the age etal., 1989; Suresh etal., 1989; Chawla
hardening treatments in a precipitation et al., 1991; Dutta et al., 1991). Dutta and
hardenable aluminum alloy composite. Bourell (1989) considered the effect of elas-
The particle or whisker type reinforce- tic strain field induced in the matrix by the
ments such as SiC, B4C, A12O3, etc. are ceramic particles to cause an enhanced ma-
unaffected by the aging process. These trix diffusivity and accelerated aging kinet-
particles, however, can affect the precipita- ics. Dutta et al. (1991) made a theoretical
tion behavior of the matrix quite signifi- analysis and experimental observations
cantly. Arsenault and Fisher (1983) used leading them to conclude that precipitate
transmission electron microscopy to ob- growth rate was accelerated because of
serve a high density of dislocations short circuit, pipe-diffusion, through dislo-
(4x 109 cm" 2 ) clustered around the ends cations.
of SiC whiskers (SiCw) and forming low An interesting aspect of the effect of ce-
angle cell boundaries in a 20%-SiCw/Al ramic particles on aging kinetics of a ma-
6061 composite. They also observed very trix is that the aging kinetics are a very
fine precipitates along the dislocations. sensitive function of the aging tempera-
Mahon et al. (1990) observed decoration ture. Specifically, the aging behavior of
of dislocations by precipitates in SiC parti- the matrix in SiCp/Al 2014 (Chawla et al.,
cle reinforced aluminum composites. In 1991; Esmaeili et al., 1991) and in Al 2 O 3p /
situ observation of dislocations generated Al 2014 (Chawla et al., unpublished) com-
due to thermal mismatch have been made posites made by casting route, was exam-
by using a hot stage in a high voltage trans- ined at four different aging temperatures
mission electron microscopy (Vogelsang and compared with the unreinforced Al
etal., 1986). These authors also observed 2014. The time to peakage for the Al 2014
that the presence of SiC particles hindered matrix and the unreinforced Al 2014 as a
the subgrain growth in the aluminum ma- function of aging temperature is shown in
trix. It was also observed that the disloca- Fig. 4-31. As the aging temperature in-
tion density in the matrix was smaller creased, the difference in peak aging time
around small, equiaxial SiC particles. As between Al 2014 matrix and the unrein-
the particle size increased from 1 |j,m to forced Al 2014 became larger. Note at
5 jim, the dislocation density in the matrix 150°C the difference in peak aging time
around a particle increased. Such an effect between the reinforced and unreinforced
of the matrix particle size on the size of the material was rather negligible. At 195 °C
matrix plastic zone around the particle was this difference was about 7 hours. The rel-
verified by Kim et al. (1990). These dislo- atively large difference between thermal
cations form heterogeneous nucleation expansion coefficient of SiC and Al result-
sites for the precipitates in the matrix dur- ed in substantial stresses which generated
ing subsequent aging treatments. This in dislocations at and near the interface on
turn results in the alteration of the precip- quenching. During aging at 195 °C, high
itation kinetics in the matrix of the com- density of dislocations would provide a
posite as compared to those of the unrein- short-circuit path for heterogenous nucle-
forced material (Nieh and Karlak, 1984; ation and fast growth of S' precipitates re-
Arsenault and Shi, 1986; Rack, 1987; sulting in accelerated aging of the matrix.
Christman and Suresh, 1988 a; Papazian, As the aging temperature was lowered, the
160 4 Metal Matrix Composites
or whisker reinforced MMCs show a range Table 4-1. Toughness of particle reinforced MMCs
of about 5-10 MPa m 1/2 . The reader is vis-a-vis unreinforced alloy (Friend, 1989).
cautioned that a lot of data in the literature Material Klc (MPa m1/2)
has been obtained from invalid fracture
toughness tests! A summary of fracture Al 6061 (T6) 37
toughness results for some particle and A12O3/A1 6061 15
SiC/Al 6061 7-18
whisker reinforced composites with alu-
minum 6061 matrix and unreinforced alu-
minum 6061 are given in Tables 4-1
Table 4-2. Toughness of Al 6061 and SiC whisker and
(Friend, 1989) and 4-2 (Hasson and
particle reinforced composites (Hasson and Crowe,
Crowe, 1985). Table 4-2 shows that by sub- 1985).
stituting silicon carbide whiskers with par-
ticles, one can increase the toughness of Material Klc (MPa m1/2)
the composite. 20 vol. % SiCw/A16061 T6 7.1
Continuous fiber reinforced metal ma- 25 vol. % SiCp/A16061 T6 15.8
trix composites show anisotropy in tough- Al 6061 T6 37.0
ness just as in other properties. Table 4-3
shows the results of impact energy for the
B/Al system in the longitudinal and trans- Table 4-3. Anisotropy in impact fracture energy
verse directions. Note that, for a given ma- (kJ m~2) of B/Al (McDanels and Signorelli, 1976).
trix alloy, the longitudinal fracture energy
System Longitudinal Transverse
is higher than the transverse energy. Table
4-4 gives the results of 0°, 90°, and 0°/90° B/Al 1100 200-300 0.53
reinforcement of aluminum by boron B/Al 5052 90 0.85
fibers. The 0° and 90° arrangements of B/Al6061 80 0.27
fibers result in two extremes of toughness B/Al2024 40 0.31
while the 0°/90° arrangement, a sort of
pseudo-random arrangement, reduces the
degree of anisotropy (Sun and Prewo, Table 4-4. Toughness as function of ply orientation in
1977). Using fibers in the form of a braid a B/Al composite (Sun and Prewo, 1977).
can make the crack propagation toughness Ply angle K IC (MPam 1/2 )
increase tremendously due to extensive
matrix deformation, fiber bundle debond- 0° 100
ing, and pullout. Table 4-5 shows this for 90° 34
0°/90° 61-63
alumina/Al-2.5 % -Li composite (Majidi
and Chou, 1987). Note the increase in the
transverse toughness on three-dimensional
Table 4-5. Anisotropy in toughness reduced by 3 D
braiding of the fibers. braiding in an alumina FP (36 vol.%)/Al-2.5 Li com-
Matrix alloy composition can also have posite (Majidi and Chou, 1987).
significant effect on toughness of a com-
iC lc (MPam 0 - 5 )
posite. Table 4-6 shows the effect of differ-
ent aluminum matrix alloys on Charpy en- Longitudinal Transverse
ergy of boron/aluminum alloy composites
Unidirectional 32 15-17
(McDanels and Signorelli, 1976). The 3 D braided 32.3 21.1
tougher the matrix, the tougher will be the
162 4 Metal Matrix Composites
Table 4-6. Effect of matrix alloy on Charpy energy of ficients of thermal expansion of com-
B/Al alloy composites (McDanels and Signorelli, 1976). posites (Kerner, 1956; Turner, 1946;
Composite Charpy impact energy (kJ m 2) Schapery, 1968), determined experimental-
ly these coefficients and analyzed the gen-
Thin sheet Standard eral thermal expansion characteristics of
20-300 200-300
metal matrix composites (Vaidya and
B/1100
B/5052 90 170 Chawla, 1991; Premkumar etal., 1992;
B/6061 80 126 Zweben, 1992). Figure 4-32 shows the vari-
B/2024 40 120-170 ation of thermal expansion coefficient of
SiCp/Al composite as a function of particle
volume fraction. The solid line represents
Table 4-7. Effect of fiber diameter on impact fracture the Turner model prediction of the expan-
energy (kJm~ 2 ) of B/A11100 (McDanels and Sig- sion coefficient as
norelli, 1976).
matching the expansion coefficient of the dominant at higher particle volume frac-
composite with that of a given substrate, tions.
all one needs to do is to use the appropriate Thermal conductivity is another thermal
particle volume fraction. Varying the alu- property of great significance. Unidirec-
minum alloy composition can allow some tionally aligned carbon fibers in an alu-
additional control of thermal expansion minum matrix can have very high thermal
coefficient of the composite. Figure 4-33 conductivity along the fiber direction. The
shows the predicted influence of the silicon conductivity transverse to the fibers is
content in the matrix on the coefficient of about two-thirds that of aluminum. In
thermal expansion of the composite as a fact, in the temperature range of-20°C to
function of silicon carbide volume fraction 140 °C, the thermal conductivity of the
(Premkumar etal., 1992). Understand- composite along the fiber direction is
ably, the influence of SiCp becomes more greater than that of copper. On a per unit
weight basis, the composite is about four
12 1
1
times as conductive as pure aluminum and
'
2.6 times as conductive a Al 6061. Figure
11 AI-5%S1 matrix " 4-34 compares the thermal conductivity of
10 X A M 0%SI matrix
...... AI-20%SI matrix - copper and carbon fiber/aluminum (Sharp
AI-25%SI matrix
N and Loftin, 1992). Such a C/Al composite
- ^
i: VS.
-
can find applications in heat transfer appli-
cations where weight reduction is an im-
S4 portant consideration. For example, in
high-density, high-speed integrated-circuit
6 -
packages for computers and in base plates
5 - for electronic equipment. Another possi-
1 1 i i i bility is to use this composite to dissipate
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Volume fraction of SIC
heat from the leading edges of wings in
high-speed airplanes.
Figure 4-33. Predicted influence of silicon content in
the matrix on the coefficient of thermal expansion of
the composite as a function of silicon carbide volume 4.4.7 Fatigue
fraction (Premkumar et al., 1992). The influence of
SiCp becomes more dominant at higher particle vol- We can define fatigue as the phe-
ume fractions. nomenon of mechanical property degrada-
Composite
5.000
Pure copper /^3
2.000
2.000
C
o
o 1.000 Figure 4-34. Comparison of thermal
2
I 1.000
conductivity of copper and carbon
fiber/aluminum as a function of tem-
perature.
-200 -100 0 100 200
Temperature (°C)
164 4 Metal Matrix Composites
tion leading to failure of a material or a the stress vs. cycles (S-N) curves or the
component under cyclic loading. Under- application of linear elastic fracture me-
standing of the fatigue behavior of com- chanics (LEFM), is not straightforward.
posites has lagged that of other aspects The main reasons for this being the inher-
such as the elastic stiffness or strength. An ent heterogeneity and anisotropic nature
understanding of the fatigue behavior of of the composites. This results in damage
composites of all kinds (polymer matrix mechanisms in composites being very dif-
composites - PMCs, metal matrix com- ferent from those encountered in conven-
posites - MMCs, and ceramic matrix com- tional, homogeneous, or monolithic mate-
posites - CMCs) is of vital importance, rials. Despite these limitations, conven-
because without such an understanding it tional approaches have been used, and we
would be virtually impossible to gain ac- describe them briefly before describing
ceptance of the design engineers. It is well some novel approaches to the problem of
known that a high proportion of failures in fatigue in composites. In particular, we
metals can be traced to the phenomenon of shall describe some of the techniques that
fatigue. Many high volume applications of have been used to analyze the fatigue be-
composite materials involve cycling load- havior of PMCs, and are beginning to be
ing situations, e.g., automobile compo- applied to MMCs as well. Following this,
nents. we briefly touch upon the important prob-
In general, it would appear that the fa- lem of thermal fatigue in composites.
tigue resistance of a given material can be
enhanced by reinforcing it by short discon- S-N Curves
tinuous fibers (or whiskers) or continuous
A very popular conventinal fatigue test-
fibers. Not unexpectedly, the improvement
ing technique used with metals involves de-
is the greatest when the fibers are aligned
termination of the so-called S-N curves,
parallel to the stress direction.
where S is the stress amplitude and N is the
While conventional approaches such as
number of cycles to failure (Fig. 4-35). In
stress vs. cycles (S-N) curves or fatigue
general, for ferrous metals, one obtains a
crack propagation tests based on the frac-
ture mechanics concepts can be used for
comparative purposes and for obtaining
information on the operative failure mech-
anisms, they do not provide information
useful to designers. Novel approaches as
that epitomized by the measurement of
stiffness reduction as a function of cycles
in polymer matrix composites are desir-
able. Since many applications of com-
posites involve temperature changes, it is
important that thermal fatigue characteris-
tics of composites be evaluated in addition
Cycles to failure A/f
to their mechanical fatigue characteristics.
Figure 4-35. S-N curve obtained in conventional fa-
A major difficulty in this regard is that tigue testing. S is the stress amplitude, and N is the
the application of conventional approach- number of cycles to failure. Curve A shows an en-
es to fatigue of composites, for example, durance or fatigue limit, SL, while curve B does not.
4.4 Properties 165
\
\ /
/
/
'V/
\ / \v / Time
I.O
40 v/o B/6061 Al - Room Temp.
if) •»,a;ss^s
- — ,, - ° ~"~
- ———-
? —
n
~u u ^} Figure 4-37. S-N curves in
3======== tension-tension for unidi-
0.5 - o 50 v
/o rectionally reinforced bo-
* 50 v
/o FP/Mg-RT
FP/AI-RT ron (40 vol.%)/Al 6061, alu-
v
• 50 /o FP/Mg-260°C Mg Alloys -RT—*|
b 6061-T6 AI-RT-^XL mina-FP (50 vol.%)/Al, and
7079-T6 A I - R T ^ alumina-FP (50 vol.%)/Mg
Al Alloy- 260°C—"" composites (Champion
I etal., 1978).
I02 I0 3 I04 I0 5 I0 7
CYCLES TO FAILURE
McGuire and Harris (1974) studied the between the crack initiation phase and the
fatigue behavior of tungsten fiber rein- crack propagation phase.
forced aluminum-4%-copper alloy under
tension-compression cycling (R= — 1). Fatigue Crack Propagation Tests
They found that increasing the fiber vol-
Such tests are generally conducted in an
ume fraction from 0 to 24% resulted in
electrohydraulic closed-loop testing ma-
increased fatigue resistance. This was a di-
chine on notched samples. The results are
rect result of increased monotonic strength
presented as log (da/dN) (crack growth per
of the composite as a function of the fiber
cycle) vs. log AK (the alternating stress in-
volume fraction. It should be mentioned
tensity factor). Crack growth rate, da/dN,
that due to the highly anisotropic nature of
is related to the cyclic stress intensity fac-
the fiber reinforced composites in general,
tor range, AK, according to the power low
the fatigue strength of off-axis MMCs, just
relationship first formulated by Paris and
like that of any fibrous composite, decreas-
Erdogan (1963):
es with increasing angle between the fiber
axis and the stress axis.
Fatigue crack propagation studies have
been done on aligned eutectic or in situ where A and m depend on the material and
composites as well. Since many of these in test conditions. The applied cyclic stress
situ composites are meant for high temper- intensity range is given by
ature applications in turbines, their fatigue
AK= YAa(a)1/2
behavior has been studied at temperatures
ranging from room temperature to where Y is a geometric factor, ACT is the
1100°C. The general consensus is that the cyclic stress range, and a is the crack
mechanical behavior of in situ composites, length. The major problem in this kind of
static and cyclic strengths, is superior to tests is to make sure that there is one and
that of the conventional cast superalloys only one dominant crack that is propagat-
(Stoloff, 1978). ing.
A major drawback of studies of fatigue It was mentioned above that the com-
behavior of a material using this S-N ap- plexities in composites lead to the presence
proach is that no distinction can be made of many modes of damage, such as matrix
4.4 Properties 167
the unbonded silicon carbide whiskers as whiskers in 2124 aluminum. They also ob-
well as non-SiC intermetallies. Not unex- served arrest of short cracks at the
pectedly, a reduction in the clustering of whisker/Al interfaces.
SiC particles and the number and size of Frequently in aluminum matrix com-
the intermetallics led to an increased fa- posites, especially those made by casting
tigue life. The composite showed a slower route, there are present particles other
crack growth rate than the unreinforced than SiC, such as CuAl2, (Fe,Mn) 3 SiAl 12 ,
matrix. However, the unreinforced 2124- and Cu 2 Mg 5 Si 6 Al 5 (Kumai and Knott,
T6 matrix was able to support cracks as 1991). The phenomenon of particle push-
long as 500 \xm at the peak cycle stress ing ahead of the solidification front results
close to its yield stress while the composite in SiC particles and the so-called constitu-
could support only a crack 30 \xm long at ent particles decorating the cell boundaries
60% of its yield strength. in the aluminum alloy matrix. The slow
Silicon carbide particle reinforced alu- cooling rate in conventional castings pro-
minum alloy composites have been studied cess leads to rather coarse constituent par-
by researchers (Crowe and Hasson, 1982; ticles and SiC segregating to the interden-
Williams and Fine, 1985 a, b; Logsdon and dritic region. Some possible reinforcement
Liaw, 1986; Shang etal., 1988; Davidson and crack tip interactions are shown in
1989; Kumai etal., 1990; Bonnen etal., Fig. 4-41 while Fig. 4-42 shows schematic
1990; Williams and Fine, 1987; Christman representations of crack growth vs. cyclic
and Suresh, 1988 a, b). In general, in terms intensity factor (Kumai et al., 1990).
of S-N curve behavior, the composite It would appear that choosing an opti-
shows an improved fatigue behavior vis a mum particle size and volume fraction to-
vis the reinforced alloy. Such an improve- gether with a clean matrix alloy will result
ment in stress controlled cyclic loading or in a composite with improved fatigue char-
high cyclic fatigue is attributed to the acteristics. Shiang et al. (1988) examined
higher stiffness of the composite. Howev- the effect of particle size on fatigue crack
er, the fatigue behavior of the composite, propagation as a function of cyclic stress
evaluated in terms of strain amplitude vs. intensity in a silicon carbide particle rein-
cycles or low cycle fatigue, was observed to forced aluminum. They observed that for
be inferior to that of the unreinforced alloy fine particle size, the threshold stress inten-
(Bonnen et al., 1990). This was attributed sity, AKth, for the composite was less than
to the generally lower ductility of the com- that for the unreinforced alloy, i.e., initial
posite compared to unreinforced alloy. fatigue crack growth resistance of the com-
posite was less than that of the unrein-
forced alloy. For coarse particles, the
Fatigue Crack Initiation threshold intensity values were about the
Particles on short fibers can provide same for the two, while at very high values
easy crack initiation sites. The detailed be- of the cyclic stress intensity, the fatigue
havior can vary depending on the volume crack growth rate of the composite was
fraction of the reinforcement, shape, size, less than that of the unreinforced alloy.
and most importantly on the reinforce- As was pointed out above, laminated
ment/matrix bond strength (Williams and fibrous composites can sustain a variety of
Fine, 1987). For example, they observed subcritical damage (cracking of matrix, fi-
fatigue crack initiation at the poles of SiC ber/matrix decohesion, fiber fracture, ply
4.4 Properties 169
where A and n are constants and amax is the tional aramid fibers in an epoxy matrix.
peak fatigue stress. Stiffness loss in conti- It is called aramid aluminum laminates
nous fiber reinforced MMCs and be a use- (ARALL). Improved fatigue resistance of
ful parameter for detecting fatigue damage ARALL over that of monolithic alu-
initiation and growth (Johnson, 1989). minum structures is the main attractive
feature. Cracks can grow only a short dis-
Laminated MMCs tance before being blocked by the aramid
fibers spanning the crack tip. Figure 4-43
There are two type of laminated MMCs: shows the slow fatigue crack growth char-
(i) Metallic matrix containing fibers ori- acteristics of ARALL laminates compared
ented at different angles in different to two monolithic aluminum alloys
layers. This is similar to that of poly- (Mueller and Gregory, 1988). Applications
meric laminates, of ARALL are envisaged in tension domi-
(ii) Two or more different metallic sheets nated fatigue structures such as aircraft fu-
bonded to each other. selage, lower wing, and tail skins. It is ex-
In the case of the fibrous laminate, pected that the use of ARALL will result in
Johnson (1982) observed a significant loss 15-30% weight savings over conventional
of stiffness in boron/aluminum laminate construction.
when cycled in tension-tension. Also, in
manner similar to that in the laminated Structural Observations on MMCs
PMCs, the ply stacking sequence affected
Subjected to Fatigue
the fatigue behavior. For example, the 90°
surface plies in a 90°/0° sequence would Structural observations on metal matrix
develop damage more rapidly than the 0° composites after subjecting them to fatigue
plies. In the case of laminated composites can reveal a lot of important information
made out of metallic sheets, e.g., stainless on the operating deformation mecha-
steel and aluminum, enhanced resistance nisms, in particular such observations can
against fatigue crack propagation was ob-
served than in either one of the compo-
nents in isolation (Chawla and Liaw,
1979).
tell us how the metal matrix composites the high dislocation region immediately
behave under cyclic loading vis a vis the next to the fiber stayed relatively elastic at
monolithic metallic materials. Chawla this stage. The preexisting sub-boundaries
(1975 a) examined the dislocation struc- and, to a lesser extent some cell walls, act-
tures produced in tungsten fiber reinforced ed as obstacles to dislocation motion. The
single crystal copper matrix composites. dislocation structure produced on further
As pointed out above, in single crystal cop- cycling to the same stress amplitude
per one can use etch-pitting technique to showed that more plastic deformation
study the dislocation structure in the bulk took place in this soft matrix region, lead-
material unlike the TEM techniques which ing to a greater number of pileups against
give information about an extremely small the above-mentioned obstacles and also
region. The fiber/matrix thermal coeffi- thickening of the sub-boundaries by col-
cient mismatch results, in cooling through lection of dislocations in their vicinity.
a temperature range of more than 1000 °C, Williams and Fine (1985 a, b, 1987) used
in a very heterogeneous dislocation distri- TEM technique to study the structural
bution in the matrix. Recall that the dislo- changes occurring in SiC whisker rein-
cation density in the matrix rose to very forced aluminum matrix composites. The
high value near the fiber/matrix interface unfatigued foil showed a nonuniform dis-
and decreased with distance from the inter- location distribution. High initial disloca-
face (see Figs. 4-13 and 4-25). There was a tion density near the pole of a whisker pro-
high dislocation density, hard zone moted fatigue crack initiation.
(marked H) immediately next to the fiber
and a low dislocation density, soft zone
(marked S) away from the fiber. All struc- Thermal Fatigue
tural observations on fatigue cycling were As pointed out above, thermal stresses
made in the plateau or soft region, i.e., at in composite materials are very important
distances greater than 100 |im from the fi- because, in general, there is a large differ-
ber. At distances less than that the cell ence in the thermal expansion coefficient
structure was well developed to start with of the ceramic and the metallic compo-
and the only difference observed on cy- nents. Thus, even a small change in tem-
cling was a reduction in cell size from the perature can cause rather large thermal
original 10 jim diameter (approximate) to stresses. The presence of these thermal
a final 5 to 6 |im. stresses of large magnitude makes it imper-
The dislocation structure produced after ative that we understand the microstruc-
the first cycle up to a stress of 15 MPa, and tural changes and the mechanical behavior
which give a permanent strain of of composites under thermal cycling con-
8.6xlO~ 6 , showed dislocation pileups in ditions. In particular, structural damage
the copper matrix against well-defined can occur on thermal cycling, which
sub-boundary obstacles and less well-de- should be taken into account in any appli-
fined cell wall obstacles. Near the fiber the cation involving cyclic temperature
dislocation distribution, after the first cy- changes. At the risk of repetition, we wish
cle, was indistinguishable from that exist- to reiterate that thermal stresses arise in
ing in the as-prepared state. It would thus composite materials due to the large differ-
appear that plastic deformation started in ences in the thermal expansion coefficient,
this soft region away from the fiber while a, of the fiber and the matrix. It should be
172 4 Metal Matrix Composites
0.05
0.04
tertiary
. 0.03 -
i steady state stage
:
' 0.02
10 20 30
Time (h)
Figure 4-45. Microstructural changes from thermal Figure 4-46. Typical creep curve showing the pri-
cycling, (a) Void formation occurred at grain mary, secondary, and tertiary stages.
boundaries in a polycrystalline copper matrix in a
W/Cu composite, (b) Grain boundary sliding oc-
curred on further cycling.
• matrix
3 A composite
io-
4.4.8 Creep
Creep behavior of metals and alloys can
be conveniently described by combining
two types of expressions, a power and an
exponential relationship (Meyers and 8
Chawla, 1984). The basic governing equa-
tion of creep can be written in the follow-
io- 5
ing form 0.5 1 10
n
e = A (a/G) exp ( - AQ/kT) Stress, MPa
Figure 4-47. Incorporation of tungsten wires in silver
where e is the strain rate, A is a constant, can reduce the steady state creep rate (Kelly and
a is the applied stress, G is the shear mod- Tyson, 1966).
174 4 Metal Matrix Composites
T = 350°C / o
range of 1100-1400 °C. They observed
/
5.5- O/ that the overall creep rate of the composite
^=6.3
/ was lower than that of unreinforced
n=6.0-
7 / / molybdenum silicide. Some efforts have
a -6.5-
/ / / been made at modeling the creep behavior
0
/ n=io.oy // of MMCs. The main problem is that in the
/ regime where the metal matrix shows a
E --7.5-j
/ AISi7Cu3
AISi7Cu3Mg /
/ jf
/
steady state creep, the fibers will generally
o AISi7Cu3-F / / be deforming elastically.
/ A AISi7Cu3Mg-F / / * - n = 1 0.2
J
A
-8.5- /
r /
log (stress/MPa)
4.4.9 Tribological Properties
Figure 4-48. Minimum creep rate as a function of ap-
plied stress for Saffil short fiber reinforced aluminum Wear or tribological characteristics are
alloys and unreinforced aluminum alloys (Dlouhy system properties rather than material
et al., 1993). Note that the creep rate for the composite properties, i.e., operating wear mecha-
is lower than that of the control alloy, but the slope
of the composite line is higher than that of the unrein-
nism^) depends on the contact type
forced alloy. (rolling, sliding, etc.), the operating condi-
tions, environment, the material character-
istics of the test material and the mating
Figure 4-48 shows the minimum creep rate material. In the case of metal matrix com-
as a function of applied stress for Saffil posites, the hard ceramic constituents such
short fiber reinforced aluminum alloys and as silicon carbide will be more wear resis-
unreinforced aluminum alloys (Dlouhy tant than the metal matrix, the soft matrix
etal., 1993). Note that the creep rate for keeps the reinforcement in place and trans-
the composite is lower than that of the fers the applied load to the reinforcement.
control alloy, but the slope of the com- Many of the conventional materials, gen-
posite line is characteristically much higher erally not considered to be composites, do
than that of the unreinforced alloy. Many have the characteristics of particulate com-
researchers have verified the high stress ex- posites because they have hard, brittle in-
ponent, n around 20, for a discontinuously termetallics or carbides distributed in a
reinforced aluminum vis a vis a stress ex- soft metallic matrix (Fine, 1991).
ponent of n around 4 for the unreinforced There is a variety of tests available for
aluminum (Nieh, 1984; Nardone and wear resistance testing. Lubricated rolling
Strife, 1987; Morimoto etal., 1988; Drag- and sliding wear are two common ones.
one and Nix, 1992). Also, the activation For rolling contact tests, or roller-on-cyl-
energy for these composite has generally inder is used, the roller is made of the
been observed to be very high, in the range MMC test material and the cylinder is
of 225-400 kJ/mol while the activation made of cast iron. The sliding test, called
energy for self diffusion in aluminum is block-on-ring test, involves a stationary
about 150kJ/mol. test block (MMC) and a rotating steel ring.
Vasudevan et al. (1991) and Sadananda The wear test is done at specific applied
etal. (1991) examined the creep behavior normal load and rotational speed while a
of monolithic and SiC reinforced MoSi2, jet of lubricant is sprayed on the steel ring.
in compression, and in the temperature The wear of the test material (MMC) is
4.4 Properties 175
duce a wrought alloy product. The cost where E is the Young's modulus, L is the
factors in the extrusion process are the length of shaft, g is the acceleration due to
speed of extrusion, die cost, die wear, etc. gravity, d is the density, Ro and R{ are the
Cutting, machining, forming, welding, sur- outer and inner radii, respectively. This ex-
face finishing, and transportation are the pression says that in terms of geometric
other cost drivers before a finished product parameters, a shorter shaft length and
is available. Further items that should be larger diameter will give a higher critical
included in this list are recycling and recla- speed, Nc, while in terms of material
mation, particularly so in aluminum ma- parameters, the higher the specific stiffness
trix composites because recycling has been (stiffness/density), the higher will be Nc.
extremely successful in the aluminum in- The specific stiffness of two common ma-
dustry. The two terms, recycling and recla- terials used for shafts, steel and aluminum,
mation, are used advisedly for composites. are about equal. Thus, the driveshafts
Recycling means reuse of a worn out prod- made out of these materials will have quite
uct as a composite while reclamation in- similar dynamic properties. Hoover ana-
volves a recovery of the individual compo- lyzed the use of a 6061 aluminum alloy
nents, i.e., aluminum and ceramic particles reinforced with 20 vol. % alumina parti-
separately (Lloyd, 1993). Cast MMCs can cles. This particulate MMC had a specific
be remelted and reused as a composite. modulus about 40% higher than that of
Although some of the issues such as parti- steel or aluminum. The measured critical
cle/molten metal reaction are the same in speed, Nc was over 6000 rpm. Driveshafts
remelting, it should be appreciated that of identical dimensions but made of unre-
scrap sorting and melt cleanliness and de- inforced aluminum have a critical speed of
gassing can be rather tricky problems in 5200 rpm. One can also make changes in
MMCs. Special fluxing and degassing the driveshaft geometry (increase in length
techniques have been developed at Dural- or a reduction in the diameter) while main-
can (Lloyd, 1993). It would appear the taining a constant critical speed. A de-
powder processed MMCs will also involve crease in the driveshaft diameter can be
remelting. The reclamation route also in- important because of under-chassis space
volves remelting. According to Lloyd limitations.
(1993), using combined argon and salt Copper based composites having Nb,
fluxing, silicon carbide particles can be re- Ta, or Cr as the second phase in a discon-
moved from the melt, and 85-90% of the tinuous form are of interest for certain ap-
aluminum can be reclaimed. plications requiring high thermal conduc-
Hoover (1992) provides a good example tivity and high strength. Sometimes we
of a potential commercial application of refer to these as Cu-X composites, where
particle reinforced aluminum composite to X is insoluble in copper at room-tempera-
make automotive driveshafts. In the de- ture and forms the second phase. One
sign of a driveshaft, one needs to consider specific example is high heat flux appli-
the speed at which it becomes dynamically cation in rocket engine thrust chambers.
unstable. This critical speed (in rpm) is giv- Cu-X systems are very useful for process-
en by ing such composites. The second phase ap-
pears in a dendritic form at room tempera-
0.5
15K ture, which can be converted into a fila-
N = 2 g(R2o-R?) mentary or ribbon form by mechanical
L \d
178 4 Metal Matrix Composites
working. It should be pointed out that the tor. Dividing the superconductor material
ribbon morphology is thermodynamically into smaller volume units in the form of
unstable at high temperatures because the ultrathin (diameter in the jum range) fila-
ribbons tend to spherodize as a function of ments is helpful because in this way the
time and temperature. heat capacity of the material is high
Carbon fiber reinforced copper can find enough to limit the temperature increase.
applications in the aerospace as a very high This is called adiabatic stabilization.
thermal conductivity material. The prob- Putting a high conductivity, normal mate-
lem with carbon fibers and metallic ma- rial such as high purity copper can dampen
trices is that the surface energy consider- the rate of flux change and can serve as an
ations preclude wetting of the carbon efficient heat sink. This is called dynamic
fibers by the molten metals. The surface stabilization (Foner and Schwarz, 1981;
energy of carbon fiber is about 100 mJ/m 2 Luhman and Dew-Hughes, 1979; Krauth,
while most molten metals have surface en- 1991). Krauth (1991) shows that for a
ergy of about 1000 mJ/m 2 . Wetting occurs magnetic field perpendicular to the fila-
when the surface energy of the substrate ment axis in the case of Nb-Ti supercon-
(fiber) is higher than that of the molten ductors at 4.2 K, a filament diameter of
metal. Thus, one does not expect the wet- less than 100 jim is required. Note that this
ting of carbon fibers by molten copper. requirement of fine diameter filaments will
Two possible routes around this difficulty hold for the high temperature supercon-
are: fiber surfaces modification or matrix ductors as well. If we can use them at 77 K,
modification. then larger diameter filaments may be per-
missible because at 77 K, the specific heat
capacity values will be higher than at
Filamentary Superconductors
4.2 K. Because the current carrying capac-
Conventional commercial superconduc- ity of ultrathin filaments will be rather low,
tors are referred to as niobium-based su- a large number of them are incorporated in
perconductors because Nb-Ti and Nb 3 Sn a normal conductor matrix such as copper.
are the superconducting materials. It Copper matrix, of course, provides the dy-
should be recognized that these conven- namic stabilization.
tional superconductors became commer- Niobium-titanium superconductors are
cially viable after techniques were devel- used in the magnetic resonance imaging
oped to put the superconducting material (MRI) techniques for medical diagnostics.
in the form of extremely fine filaments in a The superconducting solenoid made from
copper matrix (Chawla, 1987 a, p. 165), Nb-Ti/Cu composite wire, is immersed in
i.e., the final product is a copper matrix a liquid helium cryogenic Dewar. The liq-
composite in the real sense of the word. uid helium is consumed at about 4 mL per
There are two reasons for using the super- hour, and each refill of the Dewar lasts
conducting material in a filamentary com- about three months. Nb-Ti/Cu supercon-
posite form. Both of them have to do with ducting composites are also used in vari-
stabilization of the superconductor. Pin- ous high-energy physics applications, such
ning of magnetic flux lines is an absolute as particle accelerators. They are also like-
necessity because a flux jump due to any ly to find applications in magnetically levi-
reason (magnetic, thermal, or mechanical) tated train project of the future. They are
can lead to quenching of the superconduc- being used in experimental test beds of
4.6 References 179
magnetically levitated trains. The Nb 3 Sn/ tolerance in space environment was devel-
Cu superconducting composites are used oped from carbon fiber (pitch-based)/Al
for magnetic fields greater than 12 T. Such composite.
high fields are encountered in a thermonu- Continuous boron fiber reinforced alu-
clear fusion reactor, representing a sizeable minum composites made by diffusion
fraction of the capital cost of such a fusion bonding have been used as heat sinks in
power plant. chip carrier multilayer boards. Lanxide
Electronic Components makes silicon car-
bide reinforced aluminum by their pres-
Electronic Grade MMCs
sureless infiltration process for high pow-
Metal matrix composites can be tailored er, high density electronic circuit enclo-
to have optimized thermal and physical sures, with a specific gravity about lA of
properties to meet the requirements of Kovar. Many other companies make such
electronic packaging systems (e.g., cores, components by different methods, for ex-
substrates, carriers, and housings). We can ample, DWA makes SiC particle or carbon
list the following as the desirable attributes fiber reinforced powder metallurgy alu-
for electronic grade applications: minum alloy composites, Advanced Com-
- Dimensional stability. This can be ob- posite Materials Corporation makes SiC
tained by controlling the following char- whisker reinforced powder metallurgy alu-
acteristics of a composite: minum alloy composites, while PCast
- Coefficient of thermal expansion. For Equipment Corp. makes SiC/Al, A1N/A1,
example, the very high coefficient of C/Al, C/Cu, TiB2/Al composites by pres-
thermal expansion of aluminum, sure infiltration casting using an inert gas
(24 x 10 ~6 K~ x ) can be easily lowered to force liquid metal into a fibrous pre-
to a desirable value by adding an ap- form.
propriate amount of ceramic particle
such as SiC or alumina (for isotropy)
or carbon fibers (for anisotropy). 4,6 References
- high thermal conductivity for efficient Arsenault, R.J., Fisher, R.M. (1983), Scr. MetalL 17,
heat transfer from the substrate and 67-71.
to even out any hot spots generated Arsenault, R.J., Shi, N. (1986), Mater. Sci. Eng. 81,
175-186.
on components. Bonnen, J.J., You, C.P., Allison, J.E., Jones, XW.
- Lightness or low density is an important (1990), Proc. Int. Conf. on Fatigue, pp. 887-892.
consideration for airborne and space ap- Brooksbank, D., Andrews, K.W. (1972), /. Iron Steel
Inst. 4, 246-255.
plications. Brockenbrough, J.R., Suresh, S. (1990), Scr. MetalL
- Surface quality (as smooth as possible). Mater. 24, 325-330.
Use of MMCs for electronic packaging Champion, A.R., Krueger, W.H., Hartman, H.S.,
Dhingra, A.K. (1978), in: Proc. Int. Conf. Com-
must be regarded as a major application posite Materials (ICCM/2), New York: TMS-
that has come about in the last quarter of AIME, pp. 883-904.
the twentieth century. Many MMCs have Chawla, K.K. (1973 a), Metallography 6, 155-169.
Chawla, K.K. (1973 b), Phil. Mag. 28, 401-413.
been produced that meet these require- Chawla, K.K. (1974), Microstructural Science, Vol. 2,
ments. Examples include: SiCp/Al, SiCw/Al, New York: Elsevier, p. 115.
carbon fiber (pitch-based)/Al, etc. A con- Chawla, K.K. (1975 a), Fibre Sci. Technol. 8, 49-56.
Chawla, K.K. (1975 b), in: Grain Boundaries in Engi-
trolled thermal expansion space truss, i.e., neering Materials, Proc. 4th Bolton Landing Conf.
one having a high precision dimensional Baton Rouge, LA.: Claitor's Publ. Div., p. 435.
180 4 Metal Matrix Composites
Chawla, K.K. (1976a), /. Mater. Sci. 11, 1567-1569. Dutta, I., Allen, S.M., Hafley, XL. (1991), Metall.
Chawla, K.K. (1976 b), in: Proc. Int. Conf. Composite Trans. 22A, 2553.
Materials (ICCM/75), New York: TMS-AIME, Eliezer, Z., Khanna, V.D., Amateau, M.F. (1979),
p. 535. Wear 53, 387-389.
Chawla, K.K. (1976 c), J. Mater. Sci. 11, 1567-1569. Esmaeili, A.H., Chawla, K.K., Datye, A.K., Vasude-
Chawla, K.K. (1985), /. Met. 37, 25-28. van, A.K., Mei, Q., (1991), in: Proc. Int. Conf. on
Chawla, K.K. (1987 a), Composite Materials: Science Composite Materials VIII.
and Engineering. New York: Springer. Fine, M.E. (1991), in: Advances in Engineering Tribol-
Chawla, K.K. (1987 b), Composite Materials: Science ogy. Soc. of Tribologists and Lubrication Engi-
and Engineering. New York: Springer, p. 110. neers, pp. 151-162.
Chawla, K.K. (1987c), Composite Materials: Science Foner, S., Schwarz, B.B. (Eds.) (1981), Superconduct-
and Engineering, New York: Springer, p. 191. ing Materials Science. New York: Plenum.
Chawla, K.K., Liaw, P.K. (1979), J. Mater. Sci. 14, Friend, CM., Luxton, S.D. (1988), /. Mater. Sci. 23,
2143-2150. 3173.
Chawla, K.K., Metzger, M. (1972), J. Mater. Sci. 7, Friend, C M . (1989), Mater. Sci. Technol. 5, 1-7.
34-39. Fu, L.-X, Schmerling, M., Marcus, H.L. (1986), in:
Chawla, K.K., Metzger, M. (1978), in: Advances in Composite Materials: Fatigue and Fracture, ASTM
Research on Strength and Fracture of Materials, STP 907. Philadelphia: Am. Soc. for Testing Ma-
Vol. 3, New York: Pergamon, p. 1039. ter, p. 51.
Chawla, K.K., Esmaeili, A.H., Datye, A.K., Vasude- Garmong, G. (1975), Metall. Trans. 6A, 1179.
van, A.K. (1991), Scr. Metall. Mater. 25, 1315— Girot, F , Quenisset, J.M., Naslain, R. (1987), Rev.
1319. Compos. Sci. Technol. 30, 155-184.
Chou, T.C., Joshi, A., Wadsworth, J. (1991), /. Mater. Greenfield, I.G., Vignaud, R.R. (1985), in: Advances
Res. 6, 796-809. in Composites: Proc. Metals Park, ASM, OH:
Christman, T., Suresh, S. (1988 a), Acta Metall. 36, pp. 213-221.
1691-1704. Hahn, H.T., Kim, R.Y. (1976), /. Composite Mater.
Christman, T., Suresh, S. (1988 b), Mater. Sci. Eng. 10, 156.
102'A, 211-216. Hancock, J.R., (1974), in: Composite Materials: Frac-
Christman, T., Needleman, A., Suresh, S. (1989), Ac- ture and Fatigue, Vol. 5. New York: Academic,
ta Metall. 37, 3029-3047. p. 371.
Cline, H.E., Walter, E.F., Koch, E.F., Osika, L.M. Hasson, D.F., Crowe, C.R. (1985), in: Strength of
(1971), Ada Metall. 19, 405-414. Metals and Alloys. Oxford Pergamon, pp. 1515-
Cook, A.J., Warner, P.S. (1991), Mater. Sci. Eng. 1520.
A144, 189. Highsmith, A.T., Reifsnider, K.L. (1982), in: Damage
Crowe, C.R., Hasson, D.F. (1982), in: Proc. 6th Int. in Composite Materials, ASTM STP 775, Philadel-
Conf. on the Strength of Metals and Alloys. Oxford: phia: Am. Soc. for Testing Mater., p. 103.
Pergamon, pp. 859-865. Hill, R.G.R.P., Nelson, R.P., Hellerich, C.L (1969),
Das, G. (1990 a), in: Metal and Ceramic Matrix Com- in: Proc. 16th Refractory Working Group Meeting,
posites, Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Oct., Seattle, WA.
Materials Soc, p. 413. Hillmann, H. (1981), in: Superconductor Materials
Das, G. (1990b), Metall. Trans. 21A, 1571-1578. Science: Foner, S., Schwarz, B.B. (Eds.). New
Davidson, D.L. (1989), Eng. Fract. Mech. 33, 965- York: Plenum, p. 275.
977. Hillmann, H., Rudinger, K., Heisterkamp, F , Wag-
DiCarlo, J.A. (1983), in: Mechanical Behavior of Met- ner, K.P., Hulka, K., Sibum, H. (1989), /. Miner.
al Matrix Composites. New York: TMS-AIME, Met. Mater. Soc, Oct. 20-22.
p.l. Hoover, W. (1992), Mater. Eng., 30-32.
Dhingra, A.K. (1980), Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Hosking, F.M., Portillo, S.V., Wunderlin, R., Mehra-
A294, 559-564. bian, R. (1982), J. Mater. Sci. 17, 411-498.
Dickson, R.F., Jones, C.J., Harris, B., Leach, D.C., Hull, A. W, Burger, E. E. (1934), Physics 5, 384-405.
Moore, D.R. (1985), /. Mater. Sci. 20, 60-70. Isaacs, J.A., Taricco, F , Michaud, V.X, Mortensen, A.
Dlouhy, A., Merk, N., Eggeler, G. (1993), unpub- (1991), Metall. Trans. 22A, 2855-2862.
lished work. Jin, S. (March, 1991), J. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc. 43,
Donomoto, T, Miura, N., Funatani, K., Miyake, N. 7-12.
(1983), SAE Tech. Paper No. 83052, Detroit, MI. Johnson, W.S. (1982), in: Damage in Composite Mate-
Dragone, T.L., Nix, W.D. (1992), Ada Metall. Met. rials, ASTM STP 775, Philadelphia: Am. Soc. for
40, 27'81. Testing Mater., p. 83.
Dunand, D.C., Mortensen, A. (1991), Mater. Sci. Johnson, WS. (1989), in: Metal Matrix Composites:
Eng. A144, 179. Testing, Analysis, and Failure Modes, ASTM STP
Dutta, I., Bourell, D.L. (1989), Mater. Sci. Eng. 1032: Johnson, W.S. (Ed.). Philadelphia: Am. Soc.
A112, 67-77. for Testing Mater, p. 194.
4.6 References 181
Katzman, H.A. (1987), J. Mater. Sci. 22, 144-148. McKimpson, M.G., Scott, T.E. (1989), Mater. Sci.
Kelly A, Lilholt, H. (1969), Phil. Mag., 311-328. Eng. A107, 93-106.
Kelly, A., Tyson, W.R. (1966), /. Mech. Phys. Solids Meyers, M.A., Chawla, K.K. (1984), Mechanical
14, 177. Metallurgy: Principles and Applications. Engle-
Kerner, E.G. (1956), Proc. Phys. Soc. 69, 808-813. wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kim, C.T., Lee, J.K., Plichta, M.R. (1990), Metall. Mitra, R., Chiou, W.A., Weertman, J.R., Fine, M.E.,
Trans. 21A, 673. Aikin, R.M. (1991), Scr. Metall. Mater. 25, 2689-
Krishnamurthy, S. (1990), in: Interfaces in Metal-Ce- 2694.
ramics Composites. Warrendale, PA: The Mineral, Morimoto, T, Yamaoka, T., Lilholt, H., Taya, M.
Metals and Materials Soc, p. 75. (1988), /. Eng. Mater. Technol. 110, 71.
Koss, D.A., Copley, S.M. (1971), Metall. Trans. 2, Mueller, L.R., Gregory, M. (1990), Paper presented
1557-1560. at I Annual Metals and Metals Processing Conf. of
Krauth, H. (1991), in: Superconducting Technology, SAMPE Aug., Cherry Hill. NJ.
Fossheim, K. (Ed.). Singapore: World Scientific, Nardone, V.C., Strife, J.R., Metall. Trans. 18A, 109-
p. 149. 114.
Kumai, S., Knott, IF. (1991), Mater. Sci. Eng. A146, Nieh, T.G. (1984), Metall. Trans. 15A, 139-146.
317-326. Nieh, T.G., Karlak, R.F (1984), Scripta Metall. 18,
Kumai, S., King, J.E., Knott, J.F. (1990), Fatigue 25.
Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct. 13, 511-524. Nourbakhsh, S., Liang, R.L., Margolin, H. (1990),
Kwei, L., Chawla, K.K. (1992), J. Mater. Sci. 27, Metall. Trans. 21 A, 213-228.
1101-1106. Nutt, S.R., Carpenter, R.W (1990), Mater. Sci. Eng.
Lagace, H., Lloyd, D.J. (1989), Can. Met. Quarterly 76, 169-177.
28, 145-152. Pan, Y.M., Cheng, H.S., Fine, M.E. (1990), in: Funda-
Levi, C.G., Abbaschian, G.X, Mehrabian, R. (1978), mental Relationship between Microstructure and
Met. Trans. 9A, 696. Mechanical Properties of Metal Matrix Com-
Lewis, D. (1991), in: Metal Matrix Composites; Pro- posites. Warrendale, PA: The Mineral, Metals and
cessing and Interfaces. San Diego: Academic, Materials Soc, p. 637-653.
p. 121. O'Brien, T.K., Reifsnider, K.L. (1981), /. Composite
Li, C.-S., Chawla, K.K., Rigsbee, J.M., Pfeifer, M. Mater. 15, 55.
(1989), in: Cast Metal Composites. Materials Park, Ogin, S.L., Smith, P.A., Beaumont, P.WR. (1985),
OH: ASM Int., p. 301. Compos. Sci. Technol. 22, 23-31.
Liaw, P.K., Ijiri, Y, Taszarek, B.J., Frohlich, S., Gun- Pan, Y.M., Fine, M.E., Cheng, H.S. (1992), Tribol.
gor, M.N. (1988), Metall. Trans. 19A, 2215-2224. Trans. 35, 482-490.
Livingston, ID. (1962), Ada Metall. 10, 229. Papazian, J.M. (1988), Metall. Trans. 19A, 2945-
Lloyd, D.J. (1992), in: Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Alu- 2953.
minum Alloys, June 22-26,1992, Trondheim, Nor- Paris, P.C., Erdogan, F. (1963), J. Basic Eng. (Trans.
way. ASME, Ser. D) 85, 528-534.
Lloyd, D.J. (1994), Int. Mater. Rev., to be published. Pfeifer, M., Rigsbee, J.M., Chawla, K.K. (1990), /.
Logsdon, W.A. (1990), Metall. Trans. 21A, 529-538. Mater. Sci. 25, 1563-1567.
Logsdon, W.A., Liaw, P.K. (1986), Eng. Fract. Mech. Poritsky, H. (1934), Physics 5, 406-411.
24, 737-751. Porter, D.A., Easterling, K.E. (1981), Phase Transfor-
Lorimer, G.W. (1978), Precipitation Processes in mation in Metals and Alloys, New York: Van Nos-
Solids. Warrendale, PA. Metallurgical Society, trand Reinhold, p. 308.
p. 88. Premkumar, M.K., Hunt, W.H., Sawtell, R.R. (1992),
Lorreto, M.H., Konitzer, D.G. (1990), Metall. Trans. /. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc. July 24-28.
21A, 1579-1587. Prewo, K.W. (1977), United Technologies Res. Cen-
Luhman, T., Dew-Hughes, D. (Eds.) (1991), Metal- ter. Rep. R77-912245-3.
lurgy of Superconducting Materials. New York: Rack, H.J. (1987), in: Proc. 6th Int. Conf. on Com-
Academic. posite Materials. New York: Elsevier, p. 382.
Mahon, G.J., Howe, J.M., Vasudevan, A.K. (1990), Reed, R.P., Mikesell, R.P., Clark, A.F. (1977), Adv.
Ada Metall. Mater. 38, 1503-1512. Cryog. Eng. 22, 463.
Majidi, A.P., Chou, T.W (1987), Proc. ICCM VI, Rohatgi, P.K., Blau, P.J., Yust, C.S. (Eds.) (1990),
Vol. 2, pp. 422-430. Tribology of Composite Materials. Materials Park,
McDanels, D.L. (1985), Metall. Trans. 16A, 1105- OH: ASM International.
1115. Rohatgi, P.K., Ray, S., Liu, Y. (1992), Int. Mater.
McDanels, D.L., Signorelli, R.A. (1976), NASA TN Rev. 37, 129.
D 8204. Sadananda, K., Jones, H., Feng, C.R., Petrovic, I I ,
McGuire, M.A., Harris, B. (1974), /. Phys. D: Appl. Vasudevan, A.K. (1991), in: Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc.
Phys. 7, 1788-1802. Westerville, OH: Am. Ceram. Soc
182 4 Metal Matrix Composites
Sandhage, K.H., Riley, Jr., G.N., Carter, W.L. Vasudevan, A.K., Petrovic, J.J., Sadananda, K.
(1991), J. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc. March, 21-25. (1991), in: Metal Matrix Composites-Processing,
Schapery, R.A. (1968) J. Compos. Mater. 2, 380-404. Microstructure and Properties. Roskilde, Denmark;
Schulyer, D.R., Sohi, Mahapatra, R. (1990), in: Inter- Ris0 Natl. Lab., p. 707-712.
faces in Metal-Ceramics Composites. Warrendale, Vogelsang, M., Arsenault, R.J., Fisher, R.M. (1986),
PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Soc, p. 5. Metall. Trans., 17A, 379-389.
Shang, J.K., Yu, W., Ritchie, R.O. (1988), Mater. Sci. Wang, L., Arsenault, RJ. (1991), Metall. Trans. 22A,
Eng. A102, 181-192. 3013-3021.
Sharp, G.R., Loftin, T.A. (1992), Personal communi- Wang, N., Wang, Z., Weatherly, G.C. (1992), Metall.
cation from DWA Speciality Composites Co., CA. Trans., 23A, 1423-1430.
Singh, R.K., Narayan, J. (1991), /. Miner. Met. Ma- Warren, R., Andersson, C.-H. (1984), Composites 15,
ter. Soc, March, 13-20. 101-111.
Stoloff, N.S., in: Advances in Composite Materials. Williams, D.R., Fine, M.E. (1987), Proc. 6th Int.
London: Applied Sci. Publ., p. 247. Conf on Composite Materials, Vol. 2. London: El-
Sun, C.T., Prewo, K.M. (1977), J. Compos. Mater. 11, sevier, pp. 113-118.
164. Williams, D.R., Fine, M.E. (1985), Proc. 5th Int.
Suresh, S., Brockenbrough, J.R. (1993), in: Metal Conf Composite Materials., pp. 275-290.
Matrix Composites, Suresh, S., Needleman, A., Williams, D.R., Fine, M.E. (1985), in: Proc. 5th Int.
Mortensen, A. (Eds.) Stoneham, MA: Butter- Conf. Composite Materials (ICCM/V), Warren-
worth-Heinemann. dale, PA: TMS-AIME, p. 639.
Suresh, S., Chawla, K.K. (1993), in: Fundamentals of Willis, T.C. (1988), Met. Mater., Aug., 485.
Metal Matrix Composites: Suresh, A., Needleman, Yoda, S., Kurihara, N., Wakashima, K., Umekawa,
A., Mortensen, A. (Eds.). Stoneham, MA: Butter- S. (1978), Metall. Trans. 9A, 1229-1236.
worth-Heinemann. Zweben, C. (1992), /. Miner. Met. Mater. Soc, July,
Suresh, S., Christman, T., Sugimura, Y. (1989), Scr. 15-23.
Metall 23, 1599-1602.
Talreja, R. (1985), Fatigue of Composite Materials,
Lyngby: Technical Univ. of Denmark.
Turner, P.S. (1946), J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 37, 239-
250. General Reading
Vaidya, R.U., Chawla, K.K. (1991), in: Developments
in Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites: Upad- Arsenault, R.J., Everett, R. (Eds.) (1990), Metal Ma-
hya, K. (Ed.). Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, trix Composites. Orlando, FL: Academic.
Metals, and Materials Society, pp. 253-272. Chawla, K.K. (1987), Composite Materials: Science
Vasudevan, A.K., Doherty, R.D. (Eds.) (1989), Alu- and Engineering. New York: Springer.
minum Alloys-Contemporary Research Applica- Suresh, S., Mortensen, A., Needleman, A. (Eds.)
tions. Boston: Academic. (1993), Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites.
Vasudevan, A.K., Petrovic, J.J. (Eds.) (1992), High Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Temperature Structural Silicides, Amsterdam: Taya, M., Arsenault, RJ. (1989), Metal Matrix Com-
North-Holland. posites. Oxford: Pergamon.