CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment is of high importance in the present-day industrialized world due to the

fact that more than 97% of the water source in the world is from seas and oceans, saline water,

and 2% of freshwater is not obtainable for human consumption resulting in a very little amount

of water available for consumption. With the increasing world population which also increases

the daily consumption per person that gives substantial load to technology and engineering in

coping up with the demands of water treatment and supply. (Rao, et al., 2013.

(Metcalf and Eddy) If wastewater remain untreated, it will go septic and the organic matter

decomposition will pose nuisance to the nearby communities. Numerous pathogenic

microorganisms are contained in wastewater that will cause a lot of health problems to the

people exposed to it. It also contains toxic, potential carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds. It

contains nutrients that is a stimulant in the growth of aquatic plants that may disturb the

ecological balance in the ecosystem that causes nutrient pollution.

There are specific ways to treat wastewater based on the pollutants or contaminants present.

These methods include:

1. Physical Methods

2. Biological Methods

3. Chemical Methods

4. Combined Physical and Chemical Methods

Wastewater goes through several stages in its treatment process for the protection of the

environment. The treatment process generally includes preliminary, primary treatment,

secondary treatment and tertiary treatment. (“Sewage Treatment Process Explained”, n.d., para.

3)

 Preliminary Treatment

Removal of wastewater components such as large debris, tree branches, sticks, floating wastes,

rags and oil/fat/grease that may cause operational, maintenance or efficiency problems to the

treatment process (EPA). This stage mainly uses physical methods for the removal of pollutants.

Conventional preliminary treatment processes conducted at a wastewater treatment plant

includes, Screening – suspended materials are intercepted with coarse and fine screens and are

mechanically removed for offsite disposal (EPA). Grit Removal – sand, gravel or small stones

are removed to prevent accumulation in the downstream that may cause problems in the process

units (EPA). Oil, Grease and Fat Removal – floatation and skimming mechanism is used for

the removal or oil, fat and grease for these will cause blockages and formation of oil film in the

treatment equipment that will cause excessive requirements for maintenance and reduced

efficiency of the treatment works (EPA).

 Primary Treatment

Removal of a portion of the organic matter and suspended solids. Sedimentation process is

usually used to remove settleable and floating materials. Preliminary treatment uses physical

methods, but advanced primary treatment uses chemicals or additives to improve the removal of

suspended and dissolved solids (Metcalf and Eddy, page 11) Insert primary treatment diagram
  Secondary Treatment

According to the DPWH, secondary treatment process focuses on removing the organic materials

and suspended solids of the primary treatment effluent. Generally, secondary treatment uses

biological methods in removing dissolved and colloidal biodegradable organics using biological

treatment processes. It uses microorganisms to decompose organic materials biologically and can

be aerobic or anaerobic, each procedure utilizing different specific type of bacterial community.

(Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production (1996) Treatment of municipal

wastewater is commonly accomplished by biological treatment of suspended microorganisms

(Activated Sludge Process) or attached to media microorganism (Trickling Filter).

Activated Sludge – (Environmental Management Iyyanki V.Muralikrishna Valli

Manickam) the basic principle is that air is introduced to the waste water and allows

microorganisms to grow and as they do, they tend to stick together forming a clumped mass

referred to as the “flocs” which will be allowed to settle in the clarifier tank. A part these settled

solids will be disposed and the other will be returned to the aeration tank as the activated sludge

to start the process again. The partly treated water then goes to another treatment process.

Figure __: Activated Sludge Process

Trickling Filter – consists of a rotary arm where waste water is sprayed from to the filter bed

composed of varying materials, but the most common ones used are rocks and plastic media. The

filter bed is porous allowing air flow for aerobic activities of the bacteria. Although called a

filter, this process does not actually filter out suspended contaminants in the influent wastewater.

Microorganisms will grow attached to the media, decomposing organic matter as they tickle

down through the filter bed. Partially treated water will then be collected at the bottom of the

filter bed and will go to another treatment process. South Dakota

(https://denr.sd.gov/des/sw/TricklingFilter.aspx)

 Tertiary Treatment

The final cleaning process of wastewater is achieved through the tertiary treatment or the

“polishing” process in which the effluent will have an improved quality, and the quality

requirement will depend on whether it will be discharged to bodies of water or recycled. In this

stage bacteria, pathogenic microorganisms and viruses are removed as well as inorganic

compounds, harmful substances including nitrogen and phosphorus Chlorination is one of the

many ways to disinfect water and is the most common disinfectant used in the Philippines. It is a

chemical method in treating wastewater and uses chlorine or a substance that contains chlorine to

oxidize and disinfect the water. This is mostly done for potable water supply treatment.

Although, it is not limited to the tertiary treatment stage because it can also be done at any point

in the treatment system to address the contaminant of concern – offering a complete span of

treatment from the point of entry to the time treated water is ready for discharge.
B. Biofiltration

Biofiltration a filter bed in which sewage is subjected to the action of

microorganisms that assist in decomposing it (Merriam-Webster, 2018). Biofiltration

relies predominantly on heterotrophic organisms that use organic off-gas constituents as

carbon and energy sources. Since heterotrophic bacteria are used, it should be provided

that there would be enough surface area in the biofilter, and a wide and extensive flow

path is also provided as these bacteria grow five times faster than the other bacteria.

Biofilters most commonly rely on the activity of mesophilic organisms. In trickling filters

that were used to treat wastewater, the water flows as a liquid film on the biofilm surface,

while sufficient distance was kept between the support media to accommodate biomass

growth and air, which provides oxygen for the biodegradation reaction, is designed

(Rakesh G. , 2009). The contaminants, present in the waste water, diffuse into the biofilm

as the water flows over the biofilms, and biodegrades. For optimum metabolism it is said

to keep it at a constant temperature. It is recommended that off-gas temperatures be

maintained between 20 and 40 °C (68 and 105 °F). Operation of the filter at higher

temperatures will shift the population towards thermophilic organisms. At temperature

less than 10 °C (50 °F) performance decreases rapidly, mainly as a result of reduced rates

of metabolism (Winer, 2012).

Biofiltration is widely used and claimed to be one of the most vital stage in an

organic removal processes removing organic pollutants from water, air, and wastewater.

Because of its consistent TOC (Total Organic Carbon) and economical factor in

producing high-quality effluent, biofiltration is being used effectively (Chaudhary, 2003).

 Controlling the Biofiltration Process

Compaction should be kept to a minimum, reducing the need for maintenance and

replacement of the filter material. Use a filtration rate of two inches per hour for sand and

soil. Maintaining an optimum moisture content in the filter material is the major

operational requirement for a biofilter. Maintain moisture content between 40%-60% by

weight is considered optimal. Clogging often is the cause of premature failure of storm

water (bio)filtration devices. Chemical Treatment by Media Contact time and media

depth tests. Media capacity tests and kinetics tests.

Increase reactive surface and durability, reduce back pressure and extend the filter

material's useful life. Develop moisture management and process control strategies to

maintain compost and cover materials in an acceptable range. Moisture content affects

microbial activity as well as the physical structure in the composting process. The media

performance studies have advanced significantly the ability to optimize the design and

effectiveness of advanced filtration-based storm water controls, such as those that have

been proposed for these watersheds.

 Biofiltration Techniques

Different biological processes such as attachment of microorganisms, biomass

growth, and detachment of biomass was observed together with the mathematical

modeling approach to determine the proper elements to enhance the performance of the

biofilter.
 Incorporating mathematical model with the biofilter parameters set to the different

operating conditions would clarify the effectiveness of the model to be used in practice.

In the Design Considerations, the parameters that can affect the performance of a biofilter

are filter media, hydraulic and organic loading, and filter backwash techniques.

The biofilter affects the level of BDOC (Biodegradable Dissolved Organic Carbon) in the

effluent. As a result, the longer the contact period, the lower the BDOC level will be. In

the hydraulic and organic loading rate, the main reason of organics being removed from

the effluent lies in the contact time and not in the organic loading rate. However, unlike

the previous parameters, backwashing does not make any difference in terms of vertical

biomass profiles before and after the process (Chaudhary, 2003).

Contaminated air passing through soil, peat, or compost, the naturally present

microorganisms also begin to biodegrade the air contaminants. Because of this, Soil

biofilters are developed, in which soil with low clay and high organic carbon content was

packed in a bed and contaminated air was passed through the soil bed to biodegrade the

air contaminants in which at the end they were able to stop the contamination.

Another problem encountered were settling of the compost, resulting in increased gas-

phase pressure drop, availability of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, pH

maintenance, and drying of the compost material due to moisture transferring to the

flowing gas phase. But by adding wood chips, which provided mechanical support to

minimize settling, humidifying the inlet air to maintain proper water content in the

compost material, adding lime pellets for pH control, and fortifying the compost with

fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. Making the settling of the
 compost was preventing and thus preventing the increase of moisture transfer (Rakesh,

2009).

Another technique uses two filtering media, sand and granular activated carbon.

The influence of pre-ozonation and empty-bed contact time (EBCT, from 30 to 120 min)

was determined. Using a real Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, the

experiments were performed at a pilot-scale. A previous study showed that biological

activity had developed on the filtering media and dissolved organic removal had reached

a steady state before sampling commenced. The results show that biological activated

carbon (BAC) has a good potential for the removal of DOC (35–60%), PPCPs (>90%)

and baseline-TEQ (28–68%) even without pre-ozonation. On the contrary, the sand

shows limited improvement of effluent quality. Varying the EBCT does not influence the

performance of the BAC filters; however, dissolved oxygen concentration could be a

limiting factor (Reungoat, Escher, Keller, & Macova, 2012).

 Designing a Biofilter

When designing a biofilter, one should note that Heterotrophic bacteria grow 5

times faster than Chemotrophic bacteria such as Nitrosomonas sp. which is used to

remove ammonia in aquaculture. One solution to this is to remove BOD and provide

extra surface are in biofilter. This slows the growth of Heterotrophic bacteria and allows

various bacteria to grow. Providing a long flow path in the biofilter will also help reduce
 the ratio of heterotrophic bacteria in the overall population of microbes. Different zones

in the path allow certain bacteria to grow.

A problem with aerobic filters, which are used to convert nitrates into N2, is that it

removes N2 too slowly. Rather than relying on the aerobic filter to do all the removal of

N2, Nitrates can be removed by discharging a small amount of water from the system.

This method is sufficient enough to remove most of the N2 and is less expensive to

operate. (Smith, 2013)

Table 2.1: Types of Biofilter

Type Positive Effect Negative Effect

Rotating Biological (+) Do not require additional (-) Costly
Contactors oxygen; not limited to oxygen (-) Low reliability
contained in incoming water.
(+) Can remove BOD or
ammonia depending on
nutrient level.
(+) Easy to monitor biofilm.

Activated Sludge System (+) Removes BOD (-) Does not provide effluent
(+) Commonly used water quality necessary for
aquaculture.

Fluidized Bed Sand Filters
(+) Pack more biologically (-) high energy requirement
active surface area (-) bed depth will vary as time
(+) Small footprint, good for goes on because of biofilm
small space
(+) Self-cleaning; tolerates
different nutrient loadings

Bed Filter (+) Removes suspended solids (-) cyclic performance

(+) Removes ammonia; (-) possibility of growing
Nitrification heterotrophic bacteria

Submerged Bed Filter (+) can operate without (-) difficult to remove
aeration and in any reservoir suspended solids
(+) space efficient
 (+) removes BOD
(+) allows nitrification

(-) leaves with more oxygen

Trickling Filter (+) reliable; easy to operate than entered
(+) wide nutrient levels (-) requires pumping water
(+) removes CO2, H2S, N2

Aquatic Plant Systems (+) removes nitrates and

phosphorous
(+) feed plants with nutrients
in aquaponics

C. Steel Slags

In America, an average of 10-15 million tons of steel slags are generated every year and

about 15-40% of it are dumped in the steel plants and slag disposal sites. That is why it is

important to utilize these slags in civil engineering in order to reduce the disposal and dumping

of these materials and use it as a natural resources.

Having knowledge about the properties of steel slags is very important because it plays

an essential role for the application to civil engineering innovations. Also knowledge in

steelmaking and refining to produce these materials as by product is also required to utilize steel

slags. This article is all about the slag generation and properties of steel slags. Moreover, the

mineralogical and morphological characteristics of steel slag samples generated from two steel

plants in Indiana were evaluated through XRD analyses and SEM studies.

Slags are named from different furnaces it has been created.

i. Blast- Furnace Slag

ii. Steel-Furnace Slag

 a. Basic Oxygen Furnace

b. Electric Arc Furnace

c. Ladle Slag

d.

 Basic-Oxygen-Furnace Process of Steelmaking and Slag Generation

This type of furnace is common in integrated steel mills which are associated with blast

furnace. It is consist of approximately 10-20% steel scrap and 80-90% molten iron. Steel scraps

plays an important role in cooling the furnace and maintain a steady temperature in order to

successful chemical reaction. In the figure below shows a schematic diagram in order to fully

understand the process of this steel making.

First, steel scrap is charged to the furnace and after that 200 tons of molten iron is poured

on top of it. Next an oxygen lance is lowered in the surface which blows oxygen on the charge

then oxidation reactions remove the impurities of the charge. The scrap is thereby melted, and

the carbon content of the molten iron is lowered. In order to remove the unwanted chemical
elements of the melt, the furnace is also charged with fluxing agents, such as lime (CaO) or

dolomite (MgCa(CO3)2), during the oxygen blowing cycles. Then slags are produced because of

the steelmaking process and it floats on top of molten steel. The slag generated from a

steelmaking cycle is later processed, and the final product after processing is referred to as basic-

oxygen-furnace slag (BOF slag).

 Electric-Arc-Furnace (EAF) Process of Steelmaking and Slag Generation

This type of furnace uses high power electric arcs to produce heat in order to melt steel

scraps and turn it into steel. This furnace is composed of graphite electrodes. The process starts

by charging the steel scrap to the furnace, then it is lowered into the furnace. An arc is struck

after that which causes electricity to travel through the electrodes and the metal itself. By this

process it generates heat which melts the metal. As it continues to melt, a liquid steel is produced

at the bottom of the furnace. Afterwhich the steel undergoes a refining period. Then the

impurities generated are oxidized during the oxygen injections which combines with lime to

form a slag. Then the slag and steel are tapped out to different ladles.

 Ladle Furnace Refining and Slag

In this furnace, the steel created by means of Basic Oxygen and Electric Arc Furnace can

be refined more to attain the chemical composition best suited for steel. This is what we cakk a

secondary steelmaking operation. In order to make high grade steels, they undergo this process.

Final desulfurization, degassing of oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, removal of impurities and

final decarburization. The schematic diagram below shoes how ladle refining process occurs.
  Chemical Composition of Slags

Both slags are almost the same in chemical and mineralogical composition. They are both

made up of calcium oxide and iron oxide making it its major constituents. Here is a table of the

chemical composition of the different slags. The main chemical constituents of the basic-oxygen-

furnace slag are CaO, FeO, and SiO2. EAF slag is pretty similar to that of BOF slag. The EAF

steelmaking process is essentially a steel scrap recycling process. Therefore, the chemical

composition of EAF slag depends son the properties of the recycled steel. Compared to BOF

slags, the main chemical constituents of EAF slags can differ. Typically, the FeO, CaO, SiO2,

Al2O3, and MgO contents of EAF slags are in the 10–40%, 22–60%, 6–34%, 3–14%, and 3–

13% ranges, respectively.Information regarding the ladle slags are limited but it is said that its

composition depends on the high grade metal being produced.

 Mineralogical Properties of Steel Slag

Crystal formation normally occurs for both slags in their chemical composition. Several

researchers studied the mineralogical composition of steel slags. X-ray diffraction analysis of

steel slag samples shows a complex structure with many overlapping peaks reflecting the
crystalline phases present in steel slag. These crystalline phases appear to be mainly due to the

chemical composition of steel slag and the slow cooling rate applied during processing. Due to

the presence of unstable phases in its mineralogy, steel slags can show volumetric instability,

caused mainly by the presence of free CaO. In the presence of water, free lime hydrates and

forms portlandite (Ca(OH)2). Portlandite has a lower density than CaO and, hence, hydration of

free CaO results in volume increase as said by Irem Zeynep Yildirim et al.

D. Removal of Phosphorus

Removal of phosphorus in wastewater most especially with an influent flowrate under the

value of 3600L/d causes a problem because we can’t apply small scale phosphorus removal

technologies to large scale facilities. This is where steel slags come into picture. Steel slags have

a high rate of phosphorus removal effieciency and it is also cost effective and efficient with low

operation and maintenance needed. The basis for this is a study which is steel slag filters were

fed with synthetic domestic wastewater, real domestic wastewater and a fish farm effluent which

results to a low concentration levels of phosphorus (0.1 mg P/L). Even with these studies,

Domestic wastewater treatment with an influent flowrate below 3600L/d cannot be commonly

applied to steel slag filters due to the need of neutralizing the alkaline effluent and the costly

replacement of filter media.

The problem in using steel slags as filter media is the dramatic drop in phosphorus

removal efficiency which leads to exhaustion. Exhaustion of slags may require to replacement of

slag filters from time to time. This will need more research about its longevity and design. In

previous studies conducted, they did not consider the particulate phosphorus in steel slags filter
because they mainly put their attention on the o-PO4 removal which may alter the results of the

treatment because not all the phosphorus are treated. Therefore the aim of this article is to make

an efficient phosphorus removal system using steel slag filters which can be used in

decentralized applications.

 Finding the exhaustion functions of the slag.

The key in the exhaustion functions is to determine the reaction of a slag sample in

different tests by batch. For each test, the saturation pH and dissolution kinetic constant were

determined by numerical inversion. Three exhaustion functions were measured on three 300-g

slag samples with particle size of 2–3 mm, 3–5 mm and 16–23 mm. Slag was sieved in the

laboratory. Batch tests were conducted with 700 mL of synthetic wastewater composed of tap

water and lab-grade salts (KH2PO4, K2HPO4, CaCl2·2H2O and NaHCO3).

The goal is to make a phosphorus removal system by applying steel slag filters and

utilizing it in decentralized conditions and to develop a design criteria, operation and

maintenance needs of the filter media. Slag exhaustion are determined by using 2–3 mm, 3–

5 mm, 5–10 mm and 16–23 mm slag measurements. Furthermore three steel slag columns with

particle sizes of 2–3 mm, 3–5 mm and 5–10 mm were fed with the effluent of an

aerated lagoon during 589 days. Next a barrel reactor test was used to be fed during a year with

the effluent of an attached growth aerated biological reactor. Afterwhich, the phosphorus

concentration at the effluent of the 2–3 mm and 3–5 mm columns and barrel reactor test was

between 0.04 and 0.3 mg P/L. The P-Hydroslag model was used and calibrated by using the data

obtained in the column test and the barrel reactor test which then it is used to simulate a long

term operation of a slag barrel reactor. The longevity of the filter media was greatly affected by

the influent alkalinity. The estimated life span is 7 years on 50g of Calcium Carbonate per liter
while 2 years fir an influent with 210 milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter. Lastly the

alkalinity is greatly influenced by the aquifer and presence of nitrification.

 Exhaustion Functions

4 slag particle sizes are measured in this phase, each has different starting saturation

which indicates that the mineralogical composition at the surface of slag is affected by particle

sizes. Calcium oxide of the slag’s leaching capacity is proportional to the specific surface thus, it

is possible to measure the exhaustion function.

E. Steel industry aggregates

The iron and steel slag aggregates ability to reduce the phosphorus and heavy metals

from wastewater has been seen in small-scale studies. However the use of these materials for

wastewater treatment is irregular low due to various reasons. For this paper they will conduct a

study about the potential of Australian slags to remove heavy metals from storm water.

In the environmental impact assessment of steel and slag aggregates was retrieved from

different sources in the internet. The data gathered was examined for potential environmental

contaminants caused by these slags. They tested six different slags under laboratory conditions
for storm water treatment. In Australia, Environmental Protection Agency showed a table about

slag related leachate issues which contains M17 chemicals.

Slag Source Slag type Code

SteelServ Melter Iron making MS1

SteelServ EAF Electric arc furnace EAF1

Whyalla blast furnace BF1 BF1

Whyalla BOS Basic oxygen steel BO1

Port Kembla blast furnace Blast furnace BF2

Port Kembla BOS Basic oxygen steel BO2

Table 1: Slag origins, type and code used in the filtration study.

Metals Symbol

Aluminium Al

Antimony Sb

Arsenic As

Boron B

Barium Ba

Beryllium Be

Cadmium Cd
Chromium (total) Cr

Copper Cu

Lead Pb

Manganese Mn

Mercury Hg

Molybdenum Mo

Nickel Ni

Selenium Se

Tin Sn

Zinc Zn

Table 2: The 'M17' metals.

The ability of slags to remove contaminants was examined by irrigation filter media with

synthetic storm water which contains phosphorus and nitrogen and the M17 metals and

measuring the concentration in the resulting leachate. The usefulness of iron and steel slags are

assessed in treatment systems.

In this study slag materials are chosen and supplied and it underwent X-ray fluorescence

analysis. They are also tested for their retention capacity by six applications of storm water. The

stored storm water, is not stable, with solid and dissolved fractions of contaminants changing

over time. Copper and Zinc are contaminants that are commonly present in the storm water.
 Therefore we can say that this study indicates that slags should be always tested for their

performance properties. All of the slag aggregates in this study can pass as storm water filter

media and can be an alternative to for sand in filtration. It can also be potentially used for landfill

leachate, agricultural, domestic and industrial wastewater. They can make an important

contribution to the treatment of water as standalone filters. The principal limitation is pH with

some slags, care being required to ensure that biota in the receiving water body will not be

adversely effected if there is insufficient dilution of the discharge effluent. It is recommended to

further make a study about slags in order to know its viability more.

F. Steel Slag Media

 Removal Mechanism for Phosporus

Phosphorus is important for biomass growth in our ecosystem, but too much of it causes

an extreme growth of algae which reduces the quality of our water. Research on cost effective

techniques to remove phosphorus in water treatment is needs attention. Stabilization pond and

constructed wetlands are one of the types of treatment used to improve the quality of water.

In testing for materials to be used in making these biological treatment, steel slags has the

potential to be a filter substrate for treating water. Steel slag types are commonly BOF and EAF

which is composed of iron and calcium minerals. Many studies have stated that it is suitable

material for reducing phosphorus in our degraded waters but, huge variation in experimental

variables like lag size, inlet P concentration, filter volume, hydraulic retention time, and loading

mode brings different results to different studies that is why we need more research to refine the
different parameters. In this study six filters are filled with EAF and BOF slags with varying

sizes. This study focuses on the comparison of Phosphorus removal performance and the critical

examination of removal mechanisms for Phosphorus.

This indicates that the slags has produces high pH and Calcium concentrations in the

effluents which leads to Calcium Oxide dissolution during water filtration. he higher CaO

content of BOF-slag (Table 4) should account for the higher outlet pH and Ca2+ concentrations

observed using BOF-slag. Also, small-size BOF-slag produced higher pH and Ca2+

concentrations than big-size BOF-slag, most likely because the smaller is the size, the greater is

the specific surface available for CaO dissolution, as already reported by Anjab (2009).

Total Phosphorus removal varies in chemical composition of the slag. To summarize TP

removal appears to improve if we increase the Calcium Oxide content of the slag and by

decreasing the slag size. According to the studies published in the literature, the saturated flow

seemed to be the best condition to reduce the dissolution of atmospheric CO2 in the water and,

therefore, to avoid excessive CaCO3 precipitation (Chazarenc et al., 2007). Claveau-Mallet et al.

(2012) investigated the effect of the water velocity on P removal performances of EAF-slag

filters.

However, as shown in Table 1, the high pH of the slag filter effluents may represent an

environmental problem in natural ecosystems. The use of larger slag size and/or shorter HRTv

may be a viable solution to (i) reduce the specific surface available for CaO dissolution, and (ii)

reduce the contact time water to slag surface, thus limiting the increase in pH of the effluent. In
addition, peat filters can be used to further reduce the pH of the slag filter units (Vohla et al.,

2011).

EAF and BOF slags generated in Europe are suitable to be a filter substrate which aims to

remove the Phosphorus from the effluent of small wastewater treatment plants like stabilization

ponds and artificial wetlands. Slag Type, slag size and slag composition alters the performance

which is stated by the data gathered for the six sample filters. The smaller the slag size the better

the performance for removing Phosphorus and by increasing the Calcium Oxide content in slag

because its dissolution is also increased.

Even though using small size slags are efficient than big size slags, the facility is at risk

in regards to the clogging of filter therefore it is recommended to use slags 5mm larger than the

smallest slag particle.

 Slag media for biological treatment

In steel-making, after water quenching and allegro cooling a granular substance remains,

which is the grain-slag. The grain-slag occupies a large area of cultivated land and contaminates

the environment when disposed by steel mills. A filter made with grain-slag as the raw material

is used as biofilm support of Biological Aerated Filter (BAF). This filter can lower the pH of

wastewater by stripping calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and keeps an optimal nitrification rate.
 Filter Particle Density Porosity Biomass of Leachability of

material diameter (kg m−3) (%) biofilm hydrochloric acid

(mm) (g g−1) (%)

Grain-slag 3–5 2202.6 35.17 0.032 50.47

Haydite 3–5 2262.4 29.59 0.029 2.83

Comparison on elemental property between grain-slag and haydite

Grain-slag is considered as a kind of alkalinity filling as shown by leachability of

hydrochloric acid. The slag contains 34.77% CaO which can possibly dissolve out CaCO3.

Biofilters were backwashed periodically to remove collected steel slag and the produced

biomass.

Using grain-slag in BAF was superior than that with haydite in removing ammonia

nitrogen. The increase in removal of ammonia nitrogen acquires the buffering pH value capacity

of the grain-slag. Grain-slag has a lower rate of removing organic matter, turbidity and colourity

than the BAF with haydrite.

Relation between ammonia nitrogen removal rate and influnt pH value

  Ammonium Removal

Biological aerated filters are reactors with fixed film media that sues a certain media with

a specific surface area for treatments of wastewater. In this process carbon removal, solid

filtration and nitrification occurs. This treatment is efficient when there is small lot area. It also

has a filter media that provides large surface area per unit volume and removes suspended solids.

The type of filter and its size are the factors that determines the operational and maintenance cost

of the filter. Finding the right media is crucial in the design process of this treatment because

there is a certain standard used for the effluent produced. In this study, grain-slag’s efficiency is

going to be tested as a filter media for the treatment.

Haydite and grain slags is going to be used as a biofilm in the biological aerated filter to

treat domestic wastewater. The objective of this study is to see the difference of the ammonium

nitrogen removal performance of the BAF reactors and the comparison of the influent pH values

and ammonia nitrogen load rates. The grain-slag BAF and haydite BAF had ammonia nitrogen

removals in the range of 90.63%–63.46% ,75.62%–42.23%, respectively, under the ammonia

nitrogen concentration varying from 16 mg/L to 64 mg/L.

G. Uses of Steel Slags

In road construction, slags are used as aggregates and it is spread and compacted in the

pavement to further reinforce the road. It is also used as road base course material. It is also used

as an asphalt mixture.

In ground improvement material, slags are used to enhance the soft soil. They make the

ground compact by the sand compaction pile. They use the slags as a substitute aggregates.
 In fertilizing soil, by using the slags it helps in yielding and increasing the crops. It

prevents the invasion of bacteria and insects due to the silicic acid settling on the surface of the

leaves. It also enhances photosynthesis because it sets the leaves in an upright position and

improves its posture to receive light.

In Japan, its seas commonly experience eutrophication and oligotrophication which

causes red/blue tieds and reduces seaweed beds in the coastal areas. By applying the BOF slag in

the affected areas we might solve this problem because of its chemical composition.

Steel slag hydrated matrix is a friendly concrete block substitute that doesn’t use natural

aggregate instead it uses a granulated blast arc furnace slag to act as a binder for the concrete. It

can also be used as a technology for reusing dredges soils

In conclusion, slags is a by-product of steel manufacturers that can be utilized efficiently

and effectively for various purposes and it can play a key role as an effective civil engineering

material substitute. It can also be used to prevent the eutrophication of the water sources.

Therefore, slags can also be applied to treat wastewater because steel slags has a component

which can improve the quality of water. Because of this, we must invest more time in conducting

a study regarding the different capabilities of steel slags as a filter media or as a key material for

wastewater treatment.

H. Wetland Technology

Constructed wetland technology is being used in the industry because it has few

discharge standards, it is relatively cheaper than other wastewater treatment method and the

instruments used are mainly on site. The potential of this technology is great but only few
country is adapting for this technology and its advancement is relatively slow. China, Kenya,

Mexico, Nepal, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Uganda, India, Morocco, Iran, Thailand, and Egypt as said

by Haberl and Kivaisi, started implementing the enhancement of constructed wetland for water

quality improvement.

In Turkey, for the improvement of water quality, they developed two vertical subsurface

flow wetlands in the campus of METU. This is used to treat wastewater. The design of this

wetlands is based on the resources and the needs of the country. This is the first installation and

implementation of constructed wetland study here in turkey which will help in gaining

information and additional knowledge for the functions of wetland systems by using the

resources available in Turkey.

In Turkey, in order to treat domestic wastewater, they use biological treatment by means

of constructed wetlands. In this research, the aim is to measure the resulting performance for

each filter media of slags and gravels in an artificial wetland. The domestic wastewater has a

hydraulic loading of 100m/d. Phragmites Australis is the cell being used in the wetland. After a

year, the data is gathered for efficiency of the filter media which is proven average in removal

efficieny and effectiveness. It garnered total suspended solids (TSS) (63% and 59%), chemical

oxygen demand (COD) (47% and 44%), NH4 +–N (88% and 53%), total nitrogen (TN) (44%

and 39%), PO4 3−-P (44% and 1%) and total phosphorus (TP) (45% and 4%). Based from the

experiment slag-based wetland has a better performance rate than the gravel based wetland in

terms of phosphorus removal and production of nitrate. It is proven that constructed wetlands is

an effective water quality enhancement for Turkey.