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E371 Turbine Engine Systems
International Standard Atmosphere
Jet engines are sensitive to temperature and pressure of the air entering
the inlet of an engine. Neglecting both temperature and pressure changes
will affect the thrust produced by these engines.
Performance of the aircraft and its engines vary
every hour in the same location due to changes
in weather, temperature and barometric pressure
conditions. If one is to compare the performance
of different engines, or to a known standard, it is
necessary to convert all engine performance data
to the data that would theoretically be obtained
if the engine were being operated under what
are known as standard atmospheric conditions.
A standard atmosphere stipulates standard
temperature and barometric pressure for
selected increments of altitude from sea level
to the upper reaches of the earths protective
layer of air.

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International Standard Atmosphere
The Standard atmosphere table starts with a so called standard
day at sea level. By international agreement, an international
standard day at sea level for aeronautical use is a theoretical day
on which the ambient air temperature is 59 degrees Fahrenheit or
15 degrees Celsius and barometric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg. For
most comparative purposes, all observed gas turbine engine
performance data must be corrected to static conditions on a
standard day at sea level. Assuming air pressure
Example – How Temperature affects altitude.
remains constant, when the
air is warmer than the
standard, the altimeter reads
lower than the airplane's true
altitude. When the air is
colder than the standard, the
altimeter reads higher than
the airplane's true altitude.
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Engine Thrust
Thrust
Thrust is a reaction force that is measured in pounds. The thrust of a
propeller, rocket or gas turbine engine depends on the acceleration of
mass in accordance with Newton’s second law. A propeller accelerates a
mass of air, a rocket accelerates the gases resulting from the burning of
fuel, and a turbine engine accelerates both air and fuel gases. The
quantity (mass) of air and gases accelerated and the amount of
acceleration determine the thrust produced.
Gross Thrust / Static Thrust
Is the amount of thrust the
engine is producing when the
aircraft is not moving through
the air.
Net Thrust
Is the amount of thrust the
engine develops when the aircraft is in flight. To calculate net thrust, the
speed of the aircraft must be accounted for and used in the computation.

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Engine Thrust
Factors affecting thrust
For a given engine, the amount of thrust produced is affected by a
number of environmental, design and operational factors. For
example, temperature, altitude and airspeed directly affect the inlet
air density and consequently the thrust.
• Temperature Effect
As the density of the air increases, the more
thrust the engine can produce. As you
know, as the outside air temperature
increases, the air density decreases.
Thus accordingly the thrust will increase
or reduce accordingly.
• Altitude Effect
The effect of altitude on thrust output is actually a function of density.
Density is mass per unit of volume. When pressure increases in free air,
density goes up, the weight of air consequently goes up. Thus the thrust
will go up as well.
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Engine Thrust
As the aircraft climbs, air pressure and temperature decrease. As
pressure decreases, thrust decreases, but as temperature decreases,
thrust increases. However the pressure drops off faster than the
temperature. The resultant is an actual drop in thrust with an increase in
altitude. At approximately 36,000 feet, the temperature stops falling and
remains constant while the pressure continues to fall. As a result, the
thrust drops off more rapidly above 36,000 feet. This makes this altitude
the optimum cruising altitude.

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Engine Thrust
• Ram Effect
As the aircraft picks up speed, the air moves past the aircraft at an
increased speed. As the air enters the divergent inlet duct, it fills
up the added space. When this occurs, a drop in velocity and
increase in pressure occur. The density of the air in the
restricted inlet increases. Thus when the density increases, the
thrust increases.
As an engine moves forward, air is progressively rammed into the
inlet until the pressure returns to atmospheric pressure (vacuum
created earlier) at the point of Ram Recovery, and then
increases exponentially beyond. This increase in pressure
reduces the load on the compressor, increasing the mass airflow
through the engine, and the net thrust of the engine. The faster
the engine goes the greater the ram effect, and the more efficient
the engine.

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Engine Thrust
Thrust drops as velocity of the aircraft increases because the
engine is operating with a choked nozzle at high speed. The
velocity of the exhaust gases does not increase proportionally.
(decrease in air mass acceleration at the inlet)
Resultant of Velocity and Ram effect

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Engine Thrust
• Engine RPM
Early turbojets had a somewhat linear relationship between
compressor RPM and engine thrust. The faster the compressor
RPM, the more the thrust produced. Thus in these engines, the
power output could be set using the rpm gauge.
Modern turbofans with dual spool
compressors have a non-linear
relationship. At low engine
speeds, large increases in RPM
produce relatively small
increases in thrust and at high
engine speeds, a small increase
in RPM produce a large increase in thrust. Power in modern
turbofan engines is set using an engine pressure ratio(EPR)
indicating system since thrust and EPR have a more proportional
relationship that thrust and RPM.
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Engine Thrust
• Fan Efficiency
Turbofan engines have replaced turbojet engines on most transport
and business jet aircraft. The turbofan engine design is quieter
and much more fuel efficient. As an example, if a turbojet and
turbofan engine have the same rated thrust, the turbofan engine
will burn less fuel because of the greater propulsive efficiency of
the fan. Therefore the more efficient the fan is, the more thrust
the engine can produce.

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Engine Thrust
Thrust Distribution
The net thrust of an engine is made up of several components. When the
air moving through an engine increases in momentum, the thrust generated
is a forward (+) thrust, when the momentum is reduced, the thrust
generated is rearward (-). Each section of the engine has some effect on
the net thrust.
•Inlet - produces no thrust of either type.
•Compressor - Forward thrust is created
by the energy taken from the turbine.
•Combustion - Forward thrust is created
by the energy released from the fuel.
•Turbine - Rearward thrust is created as
much of energy generated by the combustion
section is extracted to turn the compressor.
• Exhaust Nozzle - Rearward thrust is created
as the gases expand through the convergent nozzle.
When all the rearward components are subtracted from the forward
components, the resultant thrust is the thrust left for propulsion.
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Bypass Ratio
During recent years, the high bypass turbofan engine has become one of
the principle sources of power for large transport aircraft. A high bypass
engine utilizes the fan section of the compressor to bypass a large volume
of air compared with the amount which passes through the engine.
The bypass ratio refers to the ratio of
Incoming air that passes through the
fan ducts compared to the incoming air
passing through the jet core. In a
low-bypass turbofan, only a small amount
of air passes through the fan ducts and
the fan is of very small diameter. The fan
in a high-bypass turbofan is much larger
to force a large volume of air through the
ducts.
The principle advantages of a high bypass The illustration shows the bypass ratio
engine are: of the various type of engines
• Fuel Efficiency,
• Reduced Noise and
• Greater Thrust 12
Engine Ratings
Flat Ratings
The rating of a jet engine is the thrust performance that is
guaranteed by the manufacturer for a new engine under specific
operating conditions such as, take-off, maximum continuous, climb
and cruise. Some engines are rated to a constant compressor
speed (RPM). Other engines are rated to a constant exhaust gas
temperature (EGT). This is referred to as the flat rating.

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Engine Ratings
A flat-rated engine’s thrust remains
practically constant during an
increase in altitude up to a certain
limit. A method of referring to the
engine-rated thrust that is
guaranteed to be available up to
a specific ambient temperature.
The term flat rating is so called
because of the flat nature of thrust
versus the ambient temperature
curve. The curve shows that from
the lowest operating temperature
possible to the specified temperature, the engine produces full thrust.
Above this temperature, full thrust will not be permitted. At lower altitudes,
the restricting factor is the torque that the airframe can withstand, and at
higher altitudes, the exhaust temperature is the limiting factor.

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Engine Ratings
Power Ratings
Power ratings common to most modern
commercial gas turbine engines include:
Maximum Takeoff Power (MTO)-This is the
maximum thrust that the engine can deliver
for 5 minutes in the take-off envelope of the
aircraft.
Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT)-
Outside the MTO flight envelope, the MCT
rating defines the maximum thrust that can
be demanded by the pilot from the engine.
Maximum Climb Thrust (MCL)-This is the
thrust rating the manufacturer recommends
be used during the climb phase of a typical
flight.
Ground Idle-Used for manoeuvring on the
ground. Typically defined by the need to keep
the engine running and supplying power and
services to the aircraft 15
Engine Ratings
Flight Idle-The idle rating is the minimum thrust that can be used
whilst the aircraft is in flight. It is largely defined by the
requirement to keep the engine running, possibly supplying
secondary services to the aircraft such as hydraulic and electrical
power.

Approach Idle-In the final phases of approach to landing it is

important to be able to provide rapid response to throttle
movements, this may require the engine to be running at a higher
speed than ideal to be able to provide rapid acceleration if
required.

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Engine Efficiencies
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
The efficiency of an engine can be described as the output divided
by the input. One of the main measures of turbine engine efficiency
is the mass of fuel burned by an engine in one hour divided by the
thrust the engine produces. This is called thrust specific fuel
consumption. Thus :

TSFC= Fuel Flow (lb/hr)

Net Thrust (lbt)

This leads to the conclusion that the more thrust obtained per pound
of fuel, the more efficient the engine is.

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Engine Efficiencies
Propulsive Efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the amount
of thrust developed by the jet
nozzle compared with the energy
supplied to it in a usable form.
In other words the propulsive
efficiency is the percentage of
the total energy made available
by the engine which is effective
in propelling the engine.
A comparison of the propulsive
efficiencies of the various jet engines
is shown in the figure.
Propulsive Efficiency = Work Completed
Work Completed + Work wasted in the exhaust

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Propeller-Efficiency
Turboprop Engine Operation
Turboprop engine operation is quite similar to the operation of a
turbojet engine except for the added feature of a propeller.
Propeller Efficiency
In the normal operation of a
propeller, some of the work
performed by the engine is
lost in the slipstream of the
propeller and some is lost in
the production of noise.
Propellers are never 100 per
cent efficient. In the study of
propellers, two forces must be
considered: thrust and torque.

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Propeller-Efficiency
Torque Horsepower is the torque
force acts parallel to the plane of
rotation of the propeller.
Thrust Horsepower is the actual
amount of horsepower that an engine
propeller unit transforms into thrust. It
is typically about 80 % of the torque.
The thrust force acts perpendicular to
the plane of rotation of the propeller.
The thrust horsepower is less than the
torque horsepower. The efficiency of
the propeller is the ratio of thrust Torque
horsepower to torque horsepower.
Propeller Efficiency = Thrust Horsepower
Torque Horsepower

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 Propeller-Efficiency
Shaft Horsepower
Shaft horsepower, also called brake horsepower, is a measure of the actual
mechanical energy per unit time delivered to a turning shaft. In large
reciprocating engines.
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower
The power produced by turboprops is called equivalent
shaft horsepower. The power supplied to the propeller
is measured as Shaft horsepower.
ESHP = SHP + Net Thrust
2.5
ESHP is the sum of the shaft horsepower of the engine
and the net thrust of the exhaust gases. When the engine
is stationary and running, one shaft horsepower is equal to
2.5 pounds of thrust. The formula looks like this:
ESHP = SHP + Net Thrust x Airspeed
375 x ƞ
In flight, ESHP considers the thrust of the propeller, which is
found by multiplying the net thrust by the airspeed. This is divided by the 375
miles-pounds per hour constant times the propeller efficiency (ƞ) which is 80%.
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Objectives
1. To understand the international standard
atmosphere(ISA).
2. To remember and understand the factors affecting
the thrust of a jet engine.
3. To know bypass ratio and the advantages associated
with it.
4. To know the differences between power rating and
flat ratings of a jet engine.
5. To understand the basic concepts of engine and
propeller efficiencies.

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END

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