Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Performance
Preliminary PDHPE
Darryl Buchanan
Wayne Cotton
Karen Ingram
Jo McLean
Donna O’Connor
Peter Sinclair
Copyright © D. Buchanan, D. O’Connor, K. Ingram, J. McLean and Macmillan Education Australia 2010
Printed in Malaysia
Internet addresses
At the time of printing, the internet addresses appearing in this book were correct. Owing to the dynamic nature of the internet,
however, we cannot guarantee that all these addresses will remain correct.
1 Meanings of health
Definitions of health
Dimensions of health
Relative and dynamic nature of health
3
3
4
6
Perceptions of health 8
Perceptions of individual health 8
Perceptions of the health of others 9
Implications of different perceptions of health 9
Perceptions of health as social constructs 10
Impact of the media, peers and family 11
Health behaviours of young people 12
The positive health status of young people 12
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours 18
Chapter review 31
4 Skeletal system
Major bones involved in movement
Structure and function of joints
Joint actions
92
94
97
100
The muscular system 104
Major muscles involved in movement 104
Muscle fibres 108
Muscle relationships 108
Types of muscle contraction 109
Respiratory system 110
Structure and functions 110
Lung function 112
Exchange of gases 112
Circulatory system 114
Components of blood 114
Structure and function of the heart 115
Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries 116
Pulmonary and systemic circulation 116
Blood pressure 118
Chapter review 120
vi
6 Motion
The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum
in movement and performance contexts
Balance and stability
155
155
162
Centre of gravity 162
Line of gravity 164
Base of support 164
Fluid mechanics 166
Flotation 166
Centre of buoyancy 169
Fluid resistance
Force 173
How the body applies force 173
How the body absorbs force 175
Applying force to an object 177
Chapter review 181
Preliminary Options
7 What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients?
Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty
Crisis management
How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed
185
185
190
196
in first aid situations?
Management of injuries 196
Management of medical conditions 204
vii
viii
ix
About the CD
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xi
Better health
for individuals
Health is a changeable concept that can mean many different things to different people.
It is made up of a number of components that interact with each other to impact upon an
individual’s level of health. The meaning of health to an individual may change over time
depending on their circumstances and is shaped by a variety of factors, including
the perceptions of the person about their own heath and that of others, other people’s
perceptions of health and the influence of such things as the media, a person’s family and
their peers. Young people form their own meanings of health and these meanings have a
direct correlation to their health behaviours and whether they are health enhancing or
health compromising.
Meanings of health
Definitions of health
The question of health and how is it defined is the source of much debate.
The concept of health has been around for thousands of years and it is often
seen as something that people aspire to. Health has frequently been equated
purely with physical aspects of the body and whether or not a person is well
or unwell. However, more holistic views of health take into consideration
other components of a person’s life and make up. The term ‘health’ means
different things to different people and this fluidity makes it difficult to come
up with one definitive explanation.
Pericles (495–429 BC) an Athenian statesman and general believed
health to be ‘… that state of moral, mental and physical well-being, which
enables a man to face any crisis in life with the utmost facility and grace’.
While New Zealand poet and author Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923) stated
that, ‘by health I mean the power to live a full, adult, living, breathing life
in close contact with what I love … I want to be all that I am capable
of becoming’.
Dimensions of health
Close examination of the various definitions of health reveal that health is
not made up of just one component but rather is a complex balance between
many different dimensions. These dimensions relate to all parts of a person’s
being and continually interact with each other. These complex interactions
determine the health of the person; they can differ on a daily basis from
person to person and in different contexts.
The five commonly regarded dimensions of health are as follows:
1 Physical—the physical dimension of health refers to the functioning of
the body and the things that relate to this, such as physical activity, good
nutrition, fitness and absence of disease.
2 Social—the social dimension of health relates to one’s ability to interact
with other individuals. It involves building healthy relationships, fostering
a positive self-image, improving interpersonal social skills and accepting
diversity. It includes one’s interactions with family, friends and the
community.
3 Emotional—the emotional or mental dimension of health refers to a
person’s capacity to cope, adjust, and adapt to challenges and changes.
It also includes a knowledge and acceptance of one’s feelings and
emotions, the ability to manage stress in an appropriate manner, the
ability to be resilient in tough times and having a well-developed sense
of self.
4 Cognitive—the cognitive, or intellectual, dimension of health includes
being able to access, process and use knowledge to assist in decision
making, reasoning, weighing up the consequences of actions, life planning
and career development.
Figure 1.1
Health is made up of a
number of interacting
dimensions
Physical
Cognitive/intellectual
Physical
Spiritual
Dimensions of health
Social
Emotional/mental
Figure 1.2
A person’s health is Last week Today
constantly changing
depending upon their
A month ago A year ago
circumstances, age,
environment and
interactions with others EXTREMELY EXTREMELY
POOR GOOD
HEALTH HEALTH
health to extremely poor health, the placement of our rating would move
continually, as we shift from being well to unwell to well again, happy to
unhappy or productive in our work or study to struggling with workplace
demands. Our health will also change, reflecting its dynamic nature, as we
mature, develop, interact with others and take on new life experiences.
Health is also seen as relative, that is, it tends to be defined in relation Relative something that
to something else. We see our health in relation to our previous health, the exists in comparison to
something else; it has some
health of others, our current circumstances and our potential for health. relation to something else.
A 22-year-old professional athlete with a persistent injury may consider
themself unhealthy in relation to their health when they are at peak fitness Potential the possibility of
something occurring, a yet to
and performance. Alternatively, a 70-year-old man who is recovering rapidly be reached capacity.
from major surgery, which has increased his life expectancy, may consider
his health excellent in relation to what it was before the operation. A child in
Iraq may equate health to whether or not they can attend school without being
in constant fear for their life, whereas a child in Australia may see health as
being able to participate in sports and games at school.
Our health may also change in relation to the different contexts we may
find ourselves in. For example, a social runner may rate their health highly
when they are with family and friends but if they join a serious running group
with people who are training for an event, the social runner may rate their
health differently compared to the other people in this context.
We all have a maximum health potential, which changes throughout our
lifetime. Our health potential can be at a high level when all five dimensions
of health are interacting smoothly, however, we may suddenly be subject
to an illness or injury, such as diabetes or chronic back pain. We can still
lead a healthy lifestyle and function well in the circumstances but our
level of health and our health potential has changed in relation to others
and ourselves.
Health is also relative according to the stage of a person’s life. Younger
people may relate their feelings of health and wellbeing to fitness, energy,
wellness or physical strength whereas older people may equate health to
wholeness, an ability to cope and inner strength. Each will rate their level of
health accordingly and this does not mean that one is more or less healthy
than the other is.
Perceptions of health
When we talk about health and what it means to individuals, it is important
to consider how and why people form their varying views. Through our life
experiences and interacting with others, we gain and use knowledge to form
understandings and beliefs about different things. An individual’s picture of
what health means, how it looks, and what they recognise as good or poor
health can be referred to as their perceptions of health.
Figure 1.3
Wheelchair sports Perceptions of health as social constructs
help promote positive As discussed, health is much more than a matter of being sick or well. Our
perceptions of health for perceptions of health are recognised as being based on social constructs,
groups with special needs
that is, formed or put together because of social influences such as culture,
religion, media, education, income, family and friends. The degree to which
A construct is something perceptions of health are socially constructed can be illustrated by looking
that is formed or put together at young people and their health behaviours around cars. Cars and driving
as a result of various ideas or
influences.
are extremely important to young people and can mean independence,
status, credibility and a social avenue. Individuals may decide to engage
in many health-compromising behaviours while driving such as speeding,
Figure 1.4
drink driving, overcrowding, driving without a seat belt, text messaging and
Cars play a role in peer drag racing. While a young driver may realise the health risks associated
approval for young men with these behaviours, many other sociocultural and socioeconomic factors
influence their decision to sometimes take
these risks. These include the value placed on
peer acceptance, approval and connectedness;
the gender messages they receive from society
about expected driving behaviour for males
and females; the role models they see around
them; and the norms and rituals associated with
independence.
The extent to which sociocultural factors play
a role in constructing health perceptions can
vary. Most people are well aware of the dangers
associated with smoking, binge drinking, eating
foods high in fat and speeding while driving but
many still choose these behaviours. This may be
because the other factors influencing their health
behaviours are stronger than the knowledge of
what is ‘good’ for their health. For example, body
image is an important issue for young women.
Some girls smoke as a weight-control measure.
Although they know the health risks associated
The AIHW’s 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing,
gives the key message that most young Australians’ health and wellbeing is
faring quite well. While the report emphasises some areas for concern, the
overall health status of young Australians is positive and many young people
are engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. This is highlighted by the
following findings:
Over 90 per cent of young people rate their health as excellent, very good
or good.
The life expectancy of young Australians has improved.
Mortality rates have halved since the late 1980s. Mortality rates death rates.
Mortality rates for motor vehicle accidents and suicide have decreased.
The rate of melanoma has decreased. Melanoma a malignant
Asthma prevalence rates have declined and the number of asthma cancer of the skin. Melanoma
is the fourth most common
hospitalisations have halved since the 1990s. cancer.
The incidence of vaccine-preventable illness such as measles, rubella and
meningococcal disease is low.
There has been a decline in the notification rates for communicable
diseases such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and HIV. HIV Human Immunodeficiency
A large number of young people are free of tooth decay. Virus.
Figure 1.6 Trends in injury and poisoning deaths for young people aged 12–24 years, 1985–2004
90 Notes
Deaths per 100,000 young people
Male 1 Age-standardised
80
Female to the Australian
70 population as at 30 June
2001.
60
2 Includes deaths
50 registered during 2004
for which an ‘external
40
cause’ was coded as
30 the underlying cause
of death (ICD-9 codes
20
E800–E999 and ICD-10
10 codes V01–Y98).
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
140
Male Note: age-standardised
Deaths per 100,000 young people
80
60
40
20
0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Year
Figure 1.8 Asthma hospital separation rates for young people aged 12–24 years, 1996–97 to 2004–05
350
100
50
0
1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05
Year
Year 10 boys
80
Year 10 girls
60
40
20
0
1997 2004
Year
Figure 1.10
900 Road traffic injuries
0 to 18 per 100 000 population,
Year
Figure 1.11
30 Road traffic fatalities
0 to 18
Fatalities per 100 000 population
15
10
0
1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
Year
Figure 1.12
Road-related deaths
600 2002–2007
Total road deaths
Speed related deaths
500
Speed related crashes
involving young drivers
400
or riders
300
200
100
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
Figure 1.13
100
Recent use of cannabis: 1995
males 1995 to 2007 90 1998
2001
80 2004
2007
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+
Age
Figure 1.14
100
Recent use of cannabis: 1995
90 1998
females 1995 to 2007 2001
80 2004
2007
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+
Age
Table 1.3 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 1998—2007, summary of drug use:
proportion of the population aged 14 and over
These surveys tend to report on the amount of people who have used
drugs, which means looking at drug usage from a deficit model. If we are
to focus on the positive health status of young people and break down the
common perception that all adolescents use drugs, it is a valuable exercise
to view the statistics from a non-usage perspective.
Figure 1.15
100 Recent non-use of all drugs:
90 14 years and over
80
70
Percentage
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cocaine Heroin Ecstasy Hallucin- Meth/amp- Inhalants Cannabis Tobacco Alcohol
ogens hetamine
people who choose to binge drink may then put themselves in danger from
other risk behaviours, such as engaging in unprotected sexual activity, being a
passenger or driver in a vehicle while under the influence of drugs or alcohol
or becoming involved in a violent altercation.
Not all risk behaviours are harmful and there are both positive and
negative outcomes of risk taking. Adolescence is a time of opportunity,
creativity and learning. Taking risks can result in a person learning about
themself and others, developing skills such as conflict resolution and problem
solving and, perhaps, finding a flair or ability for something. However, it
all depends on what type of risk behaviours a person is involved in. There
is a difference between the controlled risks of playing extreme sports
or challenging yourself to do something you have not done before and
uncontrolled risks such as train surfing, drug use or drink driving.
A young person’s practice of protective and risk behaviours tends to occur
in key contexts, and these may influence the type of behaviour a person Context the circumstances
engages in and the degree of risk associated with it. For example, in the surrounding a particular
situation, the setting in which
school and home environment protective behaviours are often taught and
something occurs.
modelled and there is more opportunity to participate in safe and controlled
risk taking. However, a young person’s peer group may discourage certain
protective behaviours and encourage risk taking in various forms; this means
the degree of risk is increased, as the safety of the situation may be decreased.
For young people to stay safe and healthy, while at the same time enjoying
new experiences and taking on challenges and adventures, it is important to be
able to recognise risk behaviours associated with health issues relevant to them.
Once these behaviours are recognised, a young person can then reduce the
potential for harm around these health issues by developing a suite of protective
behaviours that allow them to plan for the safety of themselves and others; to
seek help if required and, in doing so, enhance their health and wellbeing.
A number of health issues are relevant to young people and it is
worthwhile to explore the protective and risk behaviours that are associated
with these. Some of these health issues are more significant to some groups
than others. Many protective factors are protective for general health and
wellbeing and can be employed in a variety of situations, while others are
specific to a particular health issue.
Mental health
As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the dimensions of health is our
emotional or mental health, which refers to the way we think, act and feel,
and to our ability to cope with challenges. While many young people rate
their health highly, recent studies indicate that just over 25 per cent of young
people, aged 18 to 24 have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Mental
disorders are the leading contributor to the burden of disease for young
people, with anxiety and depression being the most common problems.
Mental disorders can affect almost every aspect of a young person’s
life and, if untreated, can be a risk factor for self-harm and suicide. While
many young people experience mental disorders, very few seek help and,
therefore, they may suffer unnecessarily. Diagnosis, treatment and appropriate
management can greatly reduce a person’s suffering and allow them to
increase their level of health and wellbeing. Life is a rollercoaster for young
people and having a broad repertoire of skills and strategies to help deal with
all the things life throws in their direction can be extremely empowering.
• Acknowledging that ordinary people can suffer from mental • Blocking feelings and emotions
health issues and that everyone is different • Believing that mental problems are a sign of weakness
• Understanding the mental health issues can be treated • Believing that you can solve all your problems yourself
and managed
• Thinking you are the only person in this situation and that
• Being able to put things in perspective others will not understand
• Making connections with a supportive and caring adult in • Not seeking help from friends, family or qualified
your life e.g. teacher, coach, church leader professionals
• Learning and practising stress management skills • Catastrophising
• Regularly expressing feelings through keeping a journal or • Overgeneralising
blog, talking to someone or writing a letter
• Self-harming
• Knowing where you can go for help e.g. the internet, youth
centres, school counsellor • Taking drugs
• Developing social networks with a variety of people • Binge drinking
• Participating in community, volunteer or service activities • Isolating yourself and not being involved in social events
or activities
• Taking some time out
• Seeking out opportunities to engage in high risk and
• Avoiding the use of drugs and alcohol unsafe activities
• Exercising and eating well
• Developing and practising coping skills such as goal setting,
problem solving and assertive behaviour
• Knowing it is okay to say ‘no’ sometimes
• Having a positive family environment
Food habits
Waistlines are increasing in Australia society and the results of SPANS
support this with the finding that 25 per cent of young people are overweight
or obese. Other findings from the survey showed that a large proportion of
young people exhibit poor eating habits.
Less than a quarter of young people eat the recommended amount of
vegetables per day (4 serves).
55 per cent of boys and 4 per cent of girls drink more than one glass
of soft drink per day.
Less than a quarter of young people drink low fat milk.
80 per cent of young people eat at fast-food outlets at least once a week.
Many young people skip breakfast.
Around 30 per cent of young people eat their evening meal in front of
the television.
Being overweight or obese can have a significant impact on the lives Figure 1.17
of young people. It can seriously affect their self-esteem and may subject The Australian Guide
them to bullying and negative stereotypes. Poor eating habits, which lead to to Healthy Eating
being overweight or obese, can
increase the likelihood that a
young person will suffer from
asthma, diabetes, high blood
pressure, high cholesterol, fatty
liver disease and a range of other
social, emotional and physical
problems in both the short and
long term. The incidence of type
2 diabetes, which was normally
associated with older people,
is increasing among young
people. Poor eating habits are
also associated with being under
weight and disordered eating in
young people, and these factors
can also lead to health problems.
Many factors influence a
young person’s food habits
and these will be discussed in
chapter 2, however, the following
table identifies some common
risk behaviours associated with
food habits and some protective
behaviours that can be put in
place.
Table 1.5 Protective and risk behaviours associated with food habits
Physical activity
Many young people are involved in physical activity and although the general
trend is towards an increase in physical activity levels, there are still concerns
in this area. The Australian Physical Activity Recommendations for Children
and Young People state that all young people should be involved in at least
60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day. While a high
percentage of young people meet this recommendation, activity levels tend to
decline with age. Other issues relating to physical activity include that more
boys are physically active than girls, that younger students tend to be more
active than older students, all young people are more active in the summer
months of the year, and young people who live in rural areas tend to be more
active than those who live in urban areas.
The amount of time spent in sedentary activities is also of concern. The
Australian Government recommends that students should not spend more
than two hours a day using electronic entertainment such as television,
computers and hand-held games. However, the SPANS found a high
proportion of boys and girls spending much more time than this engaged
in these non-active pursuits. Less young people are using active means of
transport to get to school and to get around on the weekends than in the past.
It is more common for young people to be driven to school and other activities
or to take public transport than to walk or ride a bike. While there are many
reasons for this trend, it means that a potential avenue for physical activity is
not often used.
There are many short and long-term benefits associated with physical
activity, such as the development of social skills and social networks through
team sports, the increased likelihood of healthy blood-pressure levels, low
cholesterol and low insulin levels, building stronger bones, maintaining a
healthy weight range and increasing self-esteem. Putting in place protective
factors around physical activity can assist in gaining these and other benefits.
Body image
Body image is a person’s attitude towards their body—how they see themself,
how they think and feel about the way they look and how they believe others
perceive them. Many young people identify body image as a concern; and a
range of things, such as a person’s attitudes and beliefs as well as the media,
our peers and society, can influence their thoughts. A young person’s body
image can have a huge impact on their health and wellbeing. Poor body image
can affect self-esteem and a young person’s social adjustment.
Research into body image among young people shows a growing trend
towards a more distorted and negative perception of the body and, as a result,
a large degree of dissatisfaction with their body. This generally manifests
itself in a desire among young women and men to be slimmer, and a desire
for a more muscular body shape in young men. A distorted body image and
body dissatisfaction can lead to many damaging behaviours and may also lead
to disordered eating patterns such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.
Young people need a great deal of encouragement and support around issues
relating to body image due to the pervasive nature of the media in putting
forward unrealistic stereotypes.
• Looking for ways to develop positive self-esteem e.g. working hard at • Participating in ‘yoyo’ or fad dieting or fasting
school, finding activities you are good at, surrounding yourself with • Excessively exercising or lifting weights
positive friends
• Using steroids
• Using media literacy to help deconstruct stereotypical images of a
• Following disordered eating patterns
‘normal’ body
• Constantly comparing yourself and your body to
• Developing coping skills such as good communication, conflict resolution
media images, models and movie stars
and problem solving
• Not having a range of friends and activities to be
• Making connections with a positive, caring adult
involved in
• Being aware of and using relaxation and stress management techniques
• Believing that there are ‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods
• Being proud of yourself and your achievements
• Believing that having a different body will make
• Having a good support network you happier
• Knowing that it is okay to eat a balanced diet that includes all foods, • Feeling guilty about what you eat
some in moderation
• Not critically analysing media messages about
• Wearing the right clothes for your body shape what is a ‘normal’ body
• Being involved with different groups of friends who have similar interests • Having no one to talk to about problems,
and who encourage you concerns or issues
• Knowing where you can seek help or advice about problems and concerns • Feeling ‘out of control’ in relation to your body
to do with your body
• Using drugs or alcohol
• Celebrating diversity
Drug use
Adolescence is a time when young people may choose to experiment with
drug use and, even though large numbers of young people do not use or abuse
drugs, there are some areas of concern. The earlier young people are initiated
into the use of drugs such as tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs, the more likely
they are to continue to use these substances and develop problems that may
affect their future health.
The AIHW’s most recent findings around young people and tobacco use
show that while there has been a steady decrease in the amount of smokers
between 12–24 years of age, 17 per cent of young people are smokers and, of
this figure, there are slightly more female smokers than males. This may be
connected with issues around body image and the perception that smoking
supresses the appetite.
The use of illicit drugs is decreasing for young people, in all areas
except for ecstasy use. While the percentage of young people using ecstasy
is still less than 10 per cent of 16–19-year-olds, it is still important for young
people to be aware of the associated risks and for them to put in place
protective behaviours to ensure they make health-enhancing decisions
around illicit drugs.
• Hanging out with people who have common interests that • Binge drinking Binge drinking the act of
do not involve substance use • Drink driving or getting into a drinking heavily over a short
period or drinking continuously
• Joining a sporting team or recreation group car with someone who is under
over a number of days or
• Practising positive peer pressure e.g. challenging people the influence of alcohol or other weeks. People who binge drink
not to drink or take drugs, and getting involved in drugs tend to drink with the sole
alternative activities • Mixing drugs and alcohol purpose of getting drunk.
• Trying to cultivate other interests that are not related to • Accepting drugs from an
drug taking unknown source
• Practising positive stress management and relaxation • Using drugs alone
techniques • Having limited interests
• Having a range of skills to seek help • Being aggressive towards
• Being able to talk to other people others when under the influence
• Practising peer refusal skills of alcohol or other drugs
• Having a plan before you go out, to avoid risky situations • Drink spiking
that involve drugs or alcohol e.g. how to get home: money • Having minimal coping skills
for a cab, contract with parents to pick you up • Not knowing where to seek
• Practising harm-management strategies if you do intend help
to drink e.g. spacing drinks, avoiding shouts, drinking non- • Using alcohol or other drugs to
alcoholic or low-alcohol drinks mask a problem or concern
• Avoiding drinking games • Underage drinking
• Practising assertive responses to peer pressure • Getting involved in drinking
• Having a positive family environment games Drink walking walking
whilst drunk. Drink walkers are
• Knowing first aid and what to do in an emergency situation • Having no social support
likely to stagger onto the road,
involving drugs or alcohol networks not use pedestrian crossings
• Not taking drugs or drinking alcohol alone • Drink walking and may fall asleep or lie down
on the road. These factors
• Learning how to manage anger in a positive manner
increase their risk of being hit
• Having connections with a caring adult by cars, and seriously injured
or killed.
Some young people drink alcohol in amounts that put them at risk of
alcohol-related short-term harm. The immediate effects of alcohol combined
with the tendency of adolescents to engage in a range of risk-taking behaviours
greatly increases the risk of serious injury or death. Young people are the group
most at risk of alcohol-related harm such as motor vehicle accidents, physical
and sexual assaults, falls, drowning and suicide. Alcohol harm is not limited
to the young person but also affects their peers, families and bystanders. The
National Health Medical Research Council’s Australian Guidelines to Reduce
Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol 2009 recommends that the safest option
for children and young people less than 18 years of age is not to drink alcohol
at all. They suggest that children under 15 years are at the greatest risk of harm
from drinking and that not drinking alcohol at all in this age group is very
important. For young people aged 15–17 years, they suggest that delaying the
initiation of drinking as long as possible is safest. To view all the Guidelines
visit <www.nhmrc.gov.au/your_health/healthy/alcohol>.
Sexual health
Sexual health is an important issue for young people but frequently this
issue is not given the attention it requires due to its sensitive nature. Sexual
health can be a confusing issue for young people and often they do no not
know where to turn to for advice. Inadequate sexual health information can
result in poor overall health outcomes for young people. It is important that
young people feel comfortable with their sexuality and, when they do receive
information on sexual health, it needs to be relevant, engaging, culturally and
gender specific and from a trustworthy source.
According to the 2008 Secondary Students and Sexual Health Survey the
majority of young people (78 per cent), in Years 10 and 12 have participated
in some form of sexual activity ranging from deep kissing through to
sexual intercourse. The proportion of students who have experienced
sexual intercourse has increased markedly in the six years since the previous
survey in 2002, along with an increase in the number of sexual partners.
The percentage of young people having oral sex has also increased, with
a number of the students surveyed reporting having oral sex with three or
more people in the past year. Of those students who are sexually active, it is
concerning to note that just under a third of them had experienced unwanted
sex at some time, generally due to being drunk or being put under pressure
by their sexual partner. The number of young women experiencing
unwanted sex has increased by 10 percent since the 2002 survey. A number
of sexually active young people state that they were drunk or high during
their most recent sexual encounter. A small percentage of young people
report being same-sex attracted, which can put them at risk of marginalisation
and depression.
While young people are using condoms during sexual intercourse, they
are mainly doing so to prevent pregnancy rather than to protect themselves
from sexually transmitted infections (STI). Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
Chlamydia is a sexually
transmitted bacterial infection,
and other STIs has improved since 2002 but is still quite low, which certainly
which can affect the penis, can have an impact on health behaviours and health status. Chlamydia is
cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, the most commonly reported STI and notification rates of this disease
and throat; it can cause serious
have doubled since 2001.This could be partly due to increased awareness
health problems, such as pelvic
inflammatory disease and and testing, but the increase also relates to some young people engaging
infertility, if left untreated. in unprotected sex and having multiple sexual partners. Many young
1,000 Notes
Road safety
Wheels user this term Road safety, incorporating driver, passenger, pedestrian and wheels user
incorporates bicycle riders, safety, is an important health issue for young people. Injury is still the
skateboarders, roller-bladers
and roller-skaters.
leading cause of morbidity and mortality for young people and, while there
has been a decline in overall road deaths in Australia, young people (males
Morbidity rates illness and in particular) remain overrepresented in traffic accident statistics. This is
injury rates in a population.
concerning particularly as they are only a small proportion of the population
who hold a driver’s licence. Some of the factors influencing these statistics for
young people include:
greater levels of independence
inexperience with new situations, which may require new skills
overconfidence and a sense of impunity (‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude),
which results in higher levels of risk taking
the stage of brain development during adolescence means that hazard
perception and decision-making skills are not fully developed
the influence of peers
experimentation with alcohol and other drugs
busy lifestyles, which means that young people may be tired or distracted.
Road safety around cars is an integral component of investigating
protective and risk behaviours for young people. Getting a driver’s licence and
being able to either drive themself or travel with friends who can drive is an
important marker of adulthood. Driving brings opportunities, freedom and
status but, at the same time, can bring increased risk. Statistics from the NSW
Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) show that a 17-year-old driver is four times
more likely to be involved in a fatal crash than someone who is aged 26 years
or older. Statistics also show that young people are more likely to be involved
in motor vehicle accidents when driving at night and that the likelihood
of being involved in a fatal crash increases when there are two or more
passengers in a young person’s car. Speeding is the main cause of road crashes
in NSW but other high-risk behaviours that contribute significantly are driver
fatigue, drink driving and not wearing seat belts.
Recent initiatives by the NSW government to improve the safety of young
drivers include:
The graduated licensing scheme introduced in 2000, specifically to
improve training and licensing arrangements for new drivers.
Zero tolerance for P1 drivers for speeding offences.
P2 drivers caught speeding from 1 kilometre per hour to 30 kilometres per
hour over the limit will lose an additional demerit point from July 2009,
which means they will lose their licence for a second speeding offence.
Zero alcohol Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) levels for L- and P-plate
drivers.
A ban on P-plate licence holders driving high performance vehicles.
This scheme aims to prohibit young driver access to vehicles that are
overrepresented in young driver crashes.
The P1 Peer Passenger Condition, which means that P1 drivers under the
age of 25 must not drive a vehicle with more than one passenger under
21 years old between 11 pm and 5 am. A one-passenger condition also
applies to any provisional (P1 and P2) driver who has been disqualified for
Figure 1.20
a driving offence. After the disqualification period, the licence holder can
A protective behaviour for
only carry one passenger at all times while driving, for a 12-month period. young drivers is minimising
No mobile phone (even hands free) use by learner and P1 drivers and the distractions in and
provisional riders. around the car when driving
Other areas relating to road safety and young people are passenger safety,
pedestrian safety and safety while riding bikes or skateboards. There is a
range of protective behaviours that young people can put in place to reduce
their risk of injury when involved in these activities. These have been
included in the table below.
• Being assertive to safeguard your own and others’ safety, • Having a sense of invulnerability or impunity—
especially in cars an ‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude
• Not assuming ‘it won’t happen to me’ • Driving with a BAC above the legal limit
• Not drinking and driving • Driving under the influence of other drugs
• Organising a designated driver who will not be using any alcohol • Drink walking
or other drugs • Talking on a mobile phone while driving
• Arranging to be picked up after a party or function • Sending and reading text messages while driving
• Using public transport or a taxi if under the influence of alcohol • Driving with lots of passengers in the car
or other drugs
• Having loud music in the car when driving
• Arranging to stay overnight rather than drive if you plan to drink
at a function • Changing the CD or song on your mp3 player while
driving
• Using the graduated licence scheme to your advantage
e.g. encourage your instructor to give you lots of hours driving • Speeding
experience in lots of different environments • Driving while sleep deprived
• Planning long trips to include rest stops and using the stop, revive, • Driving long distances without a break
survive centres and designated rest areas on NSW roads • Not using a seat belt
• Not driving at times when you would normally be asleep • Overcrowding your car or putting people into the boot
• Sharing the driving whenever possible • Driving at night
• Wearing seat belts • Not crossing the road at traffic lights or pedestrian
• Wearing helmets and protective clothing when riding motorcycles crossings
• Obeying road rules including different speed signs and warning • Cycling without a helmet
signs • Taking risks in your vehicle when encouraged
• Wearing safety gear when using skateboards, roller blades etc. by friends
• Wearing a properly fitted, approved bicycle helmet • Daring your friends to take risks e.g. speeding, playing
• Being a positive influence on your peers (positive peer pressure) chicken with cars etc.
e.g. always using a seat belt or helmet, not driving under the • Drag racing
influence etc. • Not driving to suit the road conditions e.g. rain,
• Being a responsible passenger snow, ice
• Learning how to recognise risky situations • Driving a ‘bomb’ car that may not be roadworthy
• Minimising distractions in your vehicle • Driving a high performance car
• Turning your mobile phone off in the car • Driving aggressively and letting yourself become
• Stop, look, listen and think when crossing the road ‘road raged’
chapter review
Recap
Health can be defined in a number of ways and is made up of five different dimensions—
physical, social, cognitive, emotional and spiritual.
The dimensions of health should be balanced so that the individual gains an overall
sense of wellbeing.
An individual’s health is constantly changing and is affected by their circumstances, age,
environment and interactions and, as such, is referred to as being dynamic.
Health is also seen as relative, as it is often defined in relation to something else, such
as an individual’s previous health, the health of other people, their current situation or
environment and their potential for health.
An individual’s perceptions of health are shaped by a variety of factors including their
education, family, culture and personal experiences, along with their values and opinions.
A person’s perceptions of their health and that of others may lead them to form opinions
of others or act towards them in a certain way.
Our perceptions of health are seen to be socially constructed as they are formed because
of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and
friends.
Young people in Australia are a diverse group and, for the most part, are faring quite well
with their general health and wellbeing. However, there are some inequities in health
among different groups of young people.
The health patterns developed by young people in adolescence will often continue
into adulthood.
A young person’s health behaviours can include positive behaviours, those which
support and enhance their health, and risk behaviours, those which may be detrimental
to their health.
chapter review
Organisation Current URL Useful for …
Completely Gorgeous www.completelygorgeous.com.au Information about all issues related
to young people’s health including
some good links
Exam-style questions
1 Give an outline of the five dimensions of health, highlighting the (4 marks)
interaction between each of them in relation to health.
3 Select one of the following health issues—mental health, body image, (10 marks)
drug use, sexual health, food habits, physical activity or road safety.
Identify a range of risk and protective behaviours for this health issue
and investigate how risk decreases or increases when multiple
factors interact.
2 the health
of individuals
The health of an individual is subject to many influences, some of these have a positive
effect on a person’s health outcomes, while some may be detrimental. These influences
tend to act in various combinations and a person can exert differing amounts of control
over them dependent upon their social, economic and environmental circumstances.
The influences that affect an individual’s health construct their meanings around
health, the value they attach to health and their health behaviours, whether these
are health enhancing or health compromising. Because some influences on an
individual’s health may be out of their control, the health of an individual becomes
the joint responsibility of both the individual and the society in which they live.
Individual factors
Our health can be shaped by individual factors, which include our
knowledge, skills and attitudes, along with our genes. Our genes determine
the characteristics passed on from parents to their children. These inherited
Trait a distinguishing feature, traits can determine our potential in terms of physical development,
characteristic or quality. intellectual capacity, life expectancy and the likelihood of developing certain
diseases. Genes also establish a person’s gender, which can influence an
Figure 2.1
Decision Well-developed and
making
effective coping skills can
assist a person in making
Effective Problem health-enhancing decisions
communicating solving
INDIVIDUAL
COPING
Goal SKILLS Conflict
setting resolution
Anger Stress
management management
techniques
Sociocultural factors
Sociocultural factors refer to the influence of a person’s family and peers,
their religion and culture, and the media on the personal health practices they
adopt for their health. These determinants exert some influence on a person’s
life and are ever-present when people make health-related decisions. As with
all determinants of health, sociocultural factors can have a positive impact on
the choices we make but, conversely, they may make it difficult for a person to
Health-enhancing adopt health-enhancing behaviours.
behaviours behaviours Our health-related habits are closely associated with the examples set by
beneficial to a person’s
health, such as healthy our parents and family. As discussed in chapter 1, the beliefs and perceptions
eating, physical activity, of one’s family in relation to all aspects of health are inextricably linked
communicating with others to our health choices. If a person grows up in a household where a healthy
and not smoking.
diet and regular physical activity are valued, where skills such as effective
conflict resolution and good communication are regularly modelled and
where risk-taking behaviour is encouraged in the context of sport, recreation
and work challenges; the individual has support mechanisms already in
place to assist them in making positive health choices. On the other hand, a
family may have poor relationships and communication skills, not be aware
of or value the benefits of healthy eating and exercise, and may engage in
risk behaviours such as smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. A
person may find it difficult to adopt health-enhancing behaviours in such an
environment. For example, a young person may be made aware of the benefits
of a low-fat diet with plenty of fruit and vegetables through PDHPE lessons
at school and may be keen to incorporate these practices into their lifestyle.
However, their parents do all the shopping and cooking for the family and the
choices they make for meals tend to be processed meals that are high in fat,
salt and sugar rather than fresh foods. This then becomes a barrier to making
positive health choices for the young person and may determine their level
of health.
The family can also have strong influences in areas related to other
dimensions of health. For example, a family who do not spend a lot of time
together talking and building relationships and who encourage the family
members to keep their emotions to themselves rather than discuss them may Figure 2.2
make it difficult for a young person to talk about any problems they may be The quality of family life
experiencing. This can be distressing for a young person and, if they do not influences our health status
have the resources to seek help from other means, it may have a negative
impact on their health status.
Our peers are those who share something in common with us, such as age,
background, interests and experiences. People tend to gravitate to those who
share their values and attitudes, and their likes and dislikes. Often, the peer
group is also the benchmark by which a person measures what is appropriate
behaviour, along with determining their sense of self-worth. Everyone
has peers with whom they interact throughout their lifetime, but during
adolescence, a young person’s peer group is held in the highest esteem and
has a tremendous impact on the decisions and choices that person makes.
Humans are social beings and have many needs related to relationships,
such as a need to feel valued, to belong and be accepted, to have friends
and to develop a sense of identity. If our needs are not met, some of us may
become prone to depression, drug use, anxiety and feelings of hopelessness,
which can affect all aspects of health. The peer group meets many of these
needs and can be a very positive determinant of good health through
developing productive social relationships. If peer group membership results
in a sense of satisfaction and wellbeing, it can be seen as a buffer against
health problems. A young person may find that their peer group includes
others with whom they can discuss health issues, take on challenges, seek
help for problems if needed and generally be a good support network.
The need for belonging, however, can be very strong in adolescence and
can sometimes overcome other needs, such as safety, resulting in poor health
choices. For example, a young person may chose to partake in an activity that
compromises their health and wellbeing, such as smoking marijuana, in order
to satisfy their need to be an integral part of their peer group, as they believe
the group would not accept them if they did not participate.
Figure 2.3
The peer group meets many
needs and can be a positive
determinant of good health
Cultural expectations can be a deterrent to the uptake of healthy practices. Abstinence not partaking
Adolescents in Australia have consistently low levels of adherence to sun in a particular activity or
behaviour, for example,
protection recommendations despite being well aware of the consequences of drinking alcohol or having
ignoring this advice. This is, in part, due to the strongly held societal belief sexual intercourse.
that to be healthy one must be tanned and the cultural expectation that you
Explicit an idea or concept
need to be a ‘bronzed Aussie.’ Other sociocultural determinants that interact that is very clearly expressed.
with the choices young people make around sun-protection behaviours
include peer approval, the notion that to belong you must fit a certain image, Implicit an idea or concept
that is implied rather than
and a desire for a tan associated with images in the media. clearly stated.
Religion as a social determinant can provide positive health outcomes
such as social support, a sense of purpose, and a belief system to follow.
Figure 2.4
Religious beliefs may also influence a person’s health behaviours by An example of the
encouraging abstinence from alcohol, smoking, or sexual activity before ‘Speeding: no one thinks
marriage. Some religions, while advocating these behaviours, will also teach big of you’ campaign
about the importance of family and relationships and
this can have a positive impact on an individual’s
health status. Other religious beliefs may have negative
health outcomes, such as the illegal practice of female
circumcision or not allowing blood transfusions as a
treatment for serious illness or injury.
A final sociocultural factor that can determine
the health of an individual is the media. Due to its
pervasive nature, the media has the ability to be a
powerful influence on the health behaviours of people
and, in turn, on their health and wellbeing. Media
messages comment on all aspects of our lives and
often tell us what we need in order to be happy, what
products we should purchase in the pursuit of health
and how people from different genders, cultures and
age groups are meant to behave. The media can be very
explicit in its health messages. For example, specific
advertisements relating to positive health behaviours,
such as ‘How do you measure up?’, ‘Go for 2 and 5’,
’Speeding: no one thinks big of you’ and ‘Don’t turn a
night out into a nightmare’, inform people about issues
that may affect their health and provide suggestions
and strategies to address these issues.
At the same time, the media can send implicit
messages about health and what is valued in regard
to health. For example, the constant portrayal of
unrealistic images of male and female
bodies in magazines and newspapers,
online and on television can lead people
to believe that this is the norm, resulting
in the increased prevalence of dieting,
disordered eating, smoking and drug taking
for weight control, and obsessive exercise
Figure 2.5
The ‘How do you measure up?’ health campaign encourages
people to consider the impact of their health behaviours
Figure 2.6
Self-image is powerful but can be deceptive
Socioeconomic factors
Some persons or groups in society may face additional health risks because
Social gradient the term of the socioeconomic environment in which they live. Social gradient is
used when referring to the link the term used by the World Health Organization when referring to the link
between socioeconomic status
(SES) and health. between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. There is a direct correlation
between a person’s susceptibility to disease and their social environment in
particular their income, their education and their social status. High income
and social status is linked to good health, whereas low SES is closely tied to
poor health. A person’s SES affects their life expectancy and their wellbeing,
and there are a number of reasons for this.
Preventative health should focus solely profit hospitals, believes the quality dropping out of high school. This does
on the way we treat our bodies, right? of our hospitals and strength of the not mean biological factors play no role;
Quit smoking, get more exercise, cut health workforce is centrally important of course they do. But it also presents
down the drinking, cut out the junk food: to providing care for all Australians, an opportunity. It means we can lower
this has been the mantra of preventa- particularly those for whom health costs the incidence of chronic disease by
tive health proponents for decades. mean they may go without. encouraging kids to finish Year 12.
Addressing Australia’s collective lifestyle Yet as the largest non-government Similarly, researchers who conducted
certainly appears to be the sole priority provider of hospital services in Australia, a three-year clinical trial showed that
of the Preventative Health Taskforce, we understand that what decides a education levels were more influential
which is no doubt busy preparing its person’s health occurs outside of any than some drug therapies in determin-
national strategy. hospital or doctor’s clinic. The social ing whether a person will die of a heart
The fact is, when it comes to reducing determinants of health is a catch-all attack.
chronic disease and extending people’s phrase describing the set of events Again, the answer to keeping
lives, improving lifestyle is only a small that influence a person’s average life people alive longer is encouraging
part of the picture. The most powerful expectancy and the likelihood of them school completion and post-school
factors in determining whether you get experiencing chronic disease. qualifications.
chronic disease and how long you are Health researchers have found these The cost of ignoring these confound-
likely to live are decided in the womb, in determinants include the experience of a ing social determinants of health is im-
the home, in the classroom and at work. baby in the womb, early childhood, mense. We can see it already. For people
I once would have argued smoking, school participation, transition to work, living in the affluent north shore of
blood pressure and cholesterol were levels of income, geographic location Sydney today, men can expect to live on
the best indicators of the likelihood of and social connectedness. Overwhelm- average for 80.3 years and women for
heart disease. ing evidence is that a child’s first 84.5 years. Drive a few hours across the
But evidence is now firm that the few years are the most important in Great Dividing Range, and men in
job you work in, as a measure of socio- establishing the health outcomes for western NSW will die 4.3 years earlier at
economic status, is in fact a far better their entire life. 76, and women 2.6 years earlier at 81.9.
predictor of cardiovascular death than To put this in simpler terms, the law Of course for indigenous Australians
cholesterol levels, blood pressure and of averages means a person living in a the gap is wider. Most of us know
smoking status combined. middle to high-income household will indigenous Australians will die 17 years
Indeed evidence suggests a person’s be healthier than a person in a low to earlier on average than non-indigenous
wealth is the most important factor to no-income household. Australians.
their health. In fact, low-income earners have been The World Health Organization last
Don’t interpret this to mean we can found to face twice the risk of avoidable year outlined a blueprint for member
avoid healthy eating and exercise to death as high-income earners. countries to act to improve the health
focus on getting a better job. Looking Nearly all the social determinants of of the poor by raising social incomes,
after your health is obviously important. health occur outside the health system, improving school retention for children,
What it does mean, though, is that the yet health policy rarely pays them tackling violence and family breakdown,
factors you don’t discuss with your attention. Deputy Prime Minister Julia and supporting the isolated so they can
doctor—and that the Preventative Gillard’s education revolution is a start. participate in society.
Health Taskforce must examine—are The report of the National Health The Australian Government has yet
more important to your health and life and Hospitals Reform Commission to respond to the WHO blueprint. It can
expectancy than a prescription or also took a good step in acknowledging do so by broadening the scope of the
lifestyle change. the importance of tackling social Preventative Health Taskforce.
Many people believe the health of the determinants but didn’t go all that far in To really improve the health of the
nation, and particularly the health of no outlining how. nation, we need to give children a better
or low-income earners, is determined It may sound a little overwhelming start in life, we need to keep them at
by the quality of hospitals or universal but the how is actually pretty easy. school and we must ensure all have
access to general practitioners. For example, researchers have shown financial resources to live well.
My organisation, Catholic Health biological factors are less of a risk in Martin Laverty is the chief executive of
Australia, which oversees 75 not-for- developing several chronic diseases than Catholic Health Australia.
Environmental factors
People’s health is influenced by the conditions in which they live. In order to
function adequately and to feel safe and happy, we need to have a number of
basic needs met in relation to our physical environment. Safe water; clean
air; healthy workplaces; safe houses, communities and roads; and easy access
to health services all contribute to good health. The government has a large
role to play in providing positive environments for people’s health.
Some environments have limited infrastructure, for example, poor public Infrastructure the basic
transport, limited facilities, few public recreation spaces and poor street framework of a community; the
roads, railways, schools and
lighting. These may be coupled with high levels of community violence
other permanent structures.
resulting in people being afraid for their safety. Built-up areas in cities can be
crowded and have greater levels of pollution and a lower quality of air and
water. Environments such as these can hinder a person’s health in a number
of ways.
Geographic location can certainly have an impact on a person’s health and
their ability to make wise health choices. Those living in areas that are isolated
from major towns can find they have a lack of access to health services and to
people who can provide them with help and guidance about various health
issues. They may have to travel large distances to see a doctor and therefore,
may neglect regular health check-ups such as pap smears, breast checks and
bowel cancer screening. Having no close neighbours may limit social contact
and opportunities for recreation, which are beneficial to health. Food choices
are limited, particularly fresh foods, and some food items may not be available
at all. People who live in rural and remote environments may also be subject
to climatic conditions that can affect their health such as droughts, floods, fires
and dust storms. The negative impact that the drought in rural Australia has
had on people’s emotional health is quite severe, as people experience a loss of
self-worth and feelings of hopelessness when they are unable to earn a living
due to the weather conditions.
Access to health services may also be restricted for those living in urban
areas, due to overcrowding. An increase in the population in some areas due
to more affordable housing has seen increased waiting times to see doctors,
and to have medical procedures and gain referrals to health experts, which
can affect the health of an individual.
The access to health information via technology is an area that can assist
people to make informed health choices. Rural and remote areas of Australia
have been disadvantaged in their access to health services for some time. The
Australian government has made a commitment to deliver affordable online
access to communities in rural and regional Australia, and this may mean that
individuals in these environments will have the opportunity to further their
health knowledge through access to the internet.
The design and development of urban areas in recent years has addressed
some areas of concern regarding physical environments and their influence on
the health of individuals and, in turn, of communities. The provision of bicycle
and walking tracks and better public transport such as T-ways promote better
health and gives people more choices to enable them to make good health
decisions. Governments who include these considerations in their transport
policies are going a long way in combating sedentary lifestyles and maintaining
a healthy environment for people to live in. Cycling and walking tracks and the
use of public transport can decrease air pollution, reduce injury through motor
Social cohesion the things vehicle accidents, increase exercise levels and increase social cohesion; all of
that bond people within a which can have an impact on the health of individuals.
society; including tolerance,
social equality and fairness. Various levels of government and a range of health organisations are
also considering how different city environments can encourage people,
particularly young people, to make positive health decisions. Many local
councils provide a range of free youth friendly health services within the
local area, in an attempt to provide positive environments for young people
to meet, socialise and seek advice. The National Youth Mental Health
Foundation (Headspace) has recently set up 30 centres across Australia.
These serve as an entry point for young people to access a broad range of
services that are available in their local community and which address
health issues to do with mental health and substance use.
By doing this, an individual can tilt the balance in favour of those factors they
can exert some control over and reduce the risk of those determinants over
which they have little or no control.
Our health potential may be determined by things such as age and genetics,
however, it is possible for an individual to positively adjust their lifestyle
and/or environment to reduce the risk of ill health and to maximise their
health potential. That said, the degree of control that can be exerted over
various determinants differs depending upon the individual’s personal
circumstances and the degree to which they are in a position to change their
health outcomes. For example, an adult may be in a better position to alter
socioeconomic factors, such as where they live, the type of employment they
are in or their level of education, than may be possible for a child.
It is important for a person to be aware of the non-modifiable health
determinants that may apply to them so they are able to make informed
decisions about how they can alter their modifiable health determinants to
ensure the best possible health outcomes for their life.
Figure 2.9
Kids Helpline assists
young people in need
combined efforts of both the individual and the wider community. Viewing
health as a social construct recognises that society has a role to play in the
achievement of good health, and that everyone has a right to good health
despite their social or economic circumstances.
chapter review
Recap
An individual’s health is influenced by a range of factors that are commonly referred to
as the determinants of health.
The determinants of health are categorised into four areas: individual factors (e.g.
knowledge and skills, attitudes, genetics), sociocultural factors (e.g. family, peers,
media, religion and culture), socioeconomic factors (e.g. employment, income,
education) and environmental factors (e.g. geographical location, access to health
services and technology).
There is a social gradient in relation to health, which indicates that high income, formal
education and social status are linked to good health, whereas low SES and a lack of
education are closely tied to poor health.
Modifiable health determinants are those that a person can exert some control over,
such as peers and education; whereas non-modifiable health determinants are those that
are not able to be changed or controlled, for example, genetic factors (age and gender),
family history and race.
A person should be aware of the non-modifiable health determinants that may be an
influence on their health status and then assess how they may be able to change their
modifiable health determinants in order to maximise their health.
The level of influence that certain determinants have on a person’s health alters
according to their particular stage of life.
Health is socially constructed, that is, it is formed or put together because of social
influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, environment, family
and friends.
People develop their meanings of health dependant upon their social circumstances,
and this view of health shapes a person’s beliefs, behaviours and practices.
There is a strong interrelationship between the determinants of health in shaping
a person’s attitudes and behaviours around health.
An individual’s health should be the combined responsibility of both the individual and
the community. Everyone has a right to good health despite their social or economic
circumstances.
Kids Helpline www.kidshelp.com.au Information about seeking help and 24-hour counselling
for young people
Exam-style questions
1 Outline how the media can influence the health of individuals. (3 marks)
2 Propose ways an individual can modify two of the determinants of health (5 marks)
in order to have more control over the influence these determinants have
on their health.
3 Critically analyse how the determinants of health interrelate to affect the (12 marks)
health status of young people from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
Enhancing the health of individuals is a positive step to improving the health of a nation.
Governments, organisations, communities and individuals all play a role in promoting healthy
3
behaviours. Providing effective programs that empower individuals to take positive measures
in improving their health is a key factor in improving overall health levels. Key stakeholders
need to work in partnership to support individuals in adopting positive health behaviours.
Using a variety of strategies to target unhealthy behaviour patterns to bring about positive
change is essential to improve an individual’s health.
Figure 3.1
Open spaces and facilities
that enable people to be
active are important for
health promotion
Enable to provide an Health promotion is also about enabling and empowering individuals to
individual with the skills or adopt or strengthen their skills and capabilities to increase their control
opportunity to make decisions.
over improving their health. Ensuring the equitable distribution of health
Empower to give an services and resources for people within the community is essential in
individual the knowledge, skills enabling individuals to learn, refine and develop skills necessary for positive
and understanding to make a
difference. health gains. Providing safe environments, which enable individuals to
take responsibility for their actions, is essential for achieving good health.
Examples of health promotion might include:
Developing people’s confidence in learning how to access health services
for preventive measures, such as breast screening to reduce or detect breast
cancer in its earliest stages.
Printing health information on domestic violence in a variety of languages
to enable migrants to understand the anti-violence messages to reduce
mental health and injury rates.
Providing healthy food, such as fruit and vegetables, at reduced prices
so that people on a low income can make healthy choices to reduce
cholesterol, cardiovascular disease or diabetes.
Communities that are empowered have a greater influence over their
environment and can influence the quality of life and health of their
community; whereas empowering individuals to make positive decisions,
which give them greater control over, their own health is a key component of
health promotion.
Developing partnerships between individuals, communities and different
sectors to tackle health issues is essential for effective health promotion.
Mediate different parties Mediating ways in which these groups and government authorities, private
coming together to work health sectors, non-government and voluntary organisations and the media
towards a common health goal
or issue.
can work together to promote and protect health is vital for improvements in
health and crucial in assisting individuals and communities make changes to
improve their health. While change can bring conflict among various groups
Individual Focus on information, modelling, Relatively short time frame Low impact on behavioural outcomes
education and training to promote for initial implementation, but at both the individual and population
individual change in knowledge, requires ongoing resources if level in the absence of other levels of
attitudes, beliefs and behaviour program to be maintained intervention; often requires multiple
regarding health risks, such as exposures and attempts
smoking, eating and physical activity
Organisational Focus on organisational change Requires few ongoing High impact on individual action and
and consultancy to change resources once physical organisational change, but
organisational policies (rules, roles, organisational change has significant resistance to organisational
sanctions and incentives) and been implemented, but a change may occur and organisations
practices that produce changes in longer-term time frame for may not have the processes and
individual risk behaviour; greater establishing the program and structures to implement change; also,
access to social, educational and a systematic process for the setting may have only a limited impact
health resources that promote withdrawal of resources are on individuals
health required
Community Focus on social action and Often requires significant High impact on individual action
action social planning to create new additional resources over an and physical environment once new
settings (organisations, networks, extended time frame, but may settings are created, and settings may
partnerships) to produce change be systematically withdrawn have pervasive effects on individuals,
in organisations and redistribute once new settings have but significant resistance may be
resources that affect health been created and resource encountered over an extended period of
redistribution occurs time and the evidence for sustainability
is mixed
Institutional Focus on social advocacy to Often requires significant High impact on a wide range of
change change legislative, budgetary resources over an extended settings and thereby on the physical
and institutional settings that time frame, but may be environment and individual action once
affect community, organisational withdrawn once institutional institutional change has been achieved,
and individual levels of social change has been achieved but significant resistance to institutional
organisation change is usually encountered
Individuals
Individuals play a significant role in achieving
good health. Changing an individual’s health- Attitude
related behaviours such as those related to smoking,
unhealthy eating habits and speeding, will assist
in improving the leading causes of mortality and
morbidity for Australians. It is important to note,
however, that an individual’s social, economic and
cultural environments contribute to their health
practices. Individual factors interrelate to impact on a
person’s health. While individuals can develop their
knowledge on health issues, which aim to impact Knowledge Behaviour
on their behaviour, if an individual’s attitude is not
supportive of the new knowledge they have gained,
it is hard for their behaviour to change. For example,
Figure 3.2
young people learn about the dangers of smoking and The health–behaviour
developing lung cancer in the future, however, young triangle
girls may think it is cool to smoke and that it can assist them with weight
loss, therefore, their behaviour does not change, despite them knowing that
smoking is bad for their health.
An individual’s motivation levels also affect their health choices.
If a person is motivated to reduce their stress levels, then by choosing
to implement effective time-management strategies such as checklists,
completing tasks before due dates and organising relaxation sessions they
will contribute to reducing their stress levels. However, a lack of motivation
can negatively affect an individual’s health, for example, a person who is not
motivated to exercise. By sitting on the couch watching television and eating
chips they will put on weight, which can lead to obesity, cardiovascular
disease or diabetes.
While there are external factors that influence an individual’s health, there
are certain factors for which, ultimately, the individual is responsible if they
are to improve and promote their health and wellbeing.
Community groups/schools
Communities play a significant role in supporting individuals to adopt
health-promoting practices and ensure the environment in which people
live is conducive to healthy living. Various community groups work towards
improving the health of society. These include mobile playgroups, church
groups, sporting groups and schools. These community groups can serve many
purposes in supporting and enhancing an individual and their environment.
Non-government organisations
Non-government organisations (NGOs) play a key role in promoting health.
Specialised organisations that are independent from the government provide
a greater focus on specific heath issues. Examples of non-government
organisations include the following.
Government
The Australian Government plays a significant role in funding, researching
and promoting good health. It is imperative that governments focus on health
promotion as doing this reduces the burden of health care and services
needed over time and ensures the future of Australia’s health is in good shape.
Some of the various agencies provided by the government to serve the health
needs of Australia include the following organisations.
Figure 3.8
The NSW Department of Health developed the
‘What are You Doing to Yourself?’ campaign
The RTA provides assistance with funding to local councils to ensure roads
are structurally sound for use. They also play a significant role in educating
and equipping skills for individuals to use on the road. Strategies such
as booklets with road rules, brochures relating to drinking driving, car
maintenance and research into road issues such as speeding, fatigue and
overcrowding of cars to inform government policies and laws are some
examples the RTA uses to educate, empower and inform individuals and
communities on road safety. The RTA has developed numerous health
promotion strategies that have had positive impact on road users. These
campaigns include:
‘No one Thinks Big of You’—an anti-speeding message
‘Paranoia’—about mobile random breath test for drink driving
‘No Belt No Brain’—encouraging the use of seat belts
‘The Brain’—about the effect of alcohol and drugs.
The RTA works in partnership with organisations to promote road safety, Figure 3.9
for example with the Lions Clubs providing ‘Stop, Revive, Survive’ stations The RTA promotes
during long weekends and school holidays in conjunction with the RTA’s road-safety messages
health promotion campaign
‘Microsleeps’, which focuses on
driver fatigue. The RTA works
to educate individuals on the
dangers individuals can face on
the road and ways in which to
reduce these harms to improve
the health of drivers, passengers
and bystanders on and around
the road.
International organisations
Global health issues affect everyone, regardless what country a person
lives in. Health varies considerably from country to country. International
collaboration is important to improve Australia’s health, as Australia is able to
learn from and contribute to international and regional health issues. Working
with health ministers in other countries, and with international organisations
and health and medical institutes enables Australia to set health standards
and structures of support for health promotion. International organisations
can and do assist Australia in developing health policies and resources and in
providing information on how Australia’s health is progressing in comparison
with the health of other nations.
World Bank
The World Bank focuses on the inclusion and sustainability of globalisation
to developing countries. The assistance provided through financial and Developing countries
technical support enables developing countries to improve the health those with lower-level
economies whose citizens are
and infrastructure of their populations. In order to achieve this, the two mostly agricultural workers.
development institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA),
assist countries to make investments in education, health, agriculture and
environmental and natural resource management in order to improve the Natural resource
health of individuals. management the sustainable
management of Australia’s
While Australia is not a developing country, it does have strong links with natural resources, such as
the World Bank and seeks advice on global issues that can affect Australia’s our land, water, marine and
public health. For example, refugees coming to Australia from war-torn biological systems.
countries such as Iran or Iraq, who may have developed mental health issues,
will ultimately affect the health of Australia and the public health care
system. Alternatively, an infectious disease outbreak in a country can affect
a person who has been travelling to that country and once they return to
Australia, can transfer this infectious disease into the Australian community.
Keeping up to date on health issues within the world enables the Australian
Government to plan and implement measures to ensure these issues have
minimal impact on the health of Australians.
Immunisation
Immunisations are recommended for population groups who are at higher risk
from vaccine-preventable diseases. The government funds some vaccinations
free of charge, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination that
protects young women and girls against most cervical cancers. The Australian
Immunisation Program distributes and administers various immunisations
through states and territories. While immunisation is clearly a preventative
measure and considered a preventative medical approach, it is also
considered a public health measure as it can be administered through public
health programs.
Childhood immunisation
Immunisation is a key preventative approach throughout childhood. The
National Immunisation Program Schedule in 2006–2007 covered children’s
vaccinations for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), polio,
measles, mumps, rubella, meningococcal type C disease, varicella (chicken
pox), pneumococcal disease, hepatitis B and rotavirus. Additionally for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children living in high-risk areas,
hepatitis A is covered.
Local government council 46 102 400 437 52 862 17 449 64 488 6 508 0 0 587 846
Community health centre 81 743 3 159 57 742 61 397 19 875 475 23 760 51 598 299 841
Hospital 14 140 8 242 25 750 18 729 1 294 155 245 6 200 74 950
Aboriginal health service or worker 5 712 1 589 9 034 3 380 1 825 0 36 7 353 28 929
Total 1 088 164 942 323 823 038 342 464 268 609 72 876 54 756 67 228 3 659 745
(a) Includes Cocos/Keeling Island, Christmas Island, Norfolk Island and unknown; therefore rows do not add to the
‘Australia’ column.
Adult immunisation
Influenza and pneumococcal vaccines are provided free to all Australians
aged 65 years and over, and Indigenous Australians aged 50 years and over.
These population groups are at greater risk of these illnesses and diseases
due to their reduced immunity. These vaccinations assist in lessening the
severity of the disease or illness. Some workplaces such as schools or
day-care centres offer their staff free vaccinations for influenza, as they are
in an area of high contamination, particularly during winter, and employers
want to minimise the chances of their staff being infected.
Screening
Screening plays a significant role in preventing illness and diseases. Testing
for, or having a procedure to check for, a disease or illness before it occurs
is important in ensuring good health. Screening can also assist people in
the early detection of an illness or disease. There are a variety of screening
services in the community, such as full-body screening, heart screening and
cancer screening. These procedures enable individuals to take greater control
of their health if they are susceptible to certain illnesses and diseases.
National screening programs for breast, cervical and bowel cancers are
conducted to reduce the mortality and morbidity of these cancers. The
Australian Government provides these screening programs free for people
who are in the high-risk target age group for these diseases. For example,
the BreastScreen Australia program provides free mammogram screening to
women aged over 50 years and the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program
offers free screening for men and women with a family history of bowel
cancer. Other health agencies offer screening at a cost, such as screening of
moles for skin cancer.
BreastScreen Australia is jointly funded by federal, state and territory
governments. It aims to reduce mortality and morbidity from breast cancer
by actively recruiting women in the target age group 50–69 years who do
Table 3.3
Participation of
Years of screening Target population Participation rate (per cent)
females aged 50–69
1996–1997 844 626 51.4
years in BreastScreen
Australia 1996–1997 to 1998–1999 975 511 55.7
2004–2005
2000–2001 1 063 585 56.9
2002–2003 1 118 146 56.2
2004–2005 1 188 720 56.2
Note: rates are the number of females screened as a percentage of the eligible female population calculated as the
average of the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated resident population and age-standardised to the Australian
population at 30 June 2001.
Health-promoting schools
Health-promoting schools are a key public health approach used in Australia.
The approach focuses on the interaction between health and education sectors
to improve the health of children and young people. It has an organised set of
policies, practices, activities and structures, designed to protect and promote
the health and wellbeing of students, staff and the wider school community Figure 3.11
members, while providing consistent messages to school, home and within Health-promoting schools
the community. follow strategic principles
A health-promoting
school encompasses three
Provides safe,
important areas that interrelate Addresses the supportive Promotes health
intrinsically to enhance the health and environments and wellbeing
wellbeing of staff of students
health and learning outcomes
of its community. The three
areas are:
Collaborates Uphold social
curriculum, teaching and with the local
Principles of
justice and
learning practices community Health Promoting equity concepts
Schools
school organisation, ethos
and environment
partnerships and services. Integrates Involves
into the school’s student participation
ongoing activities and empowerment
Links health and
education issues
WorkCover
WorkCover NSW is a statutory authority
that works in partnership with the NSW
community to create safe workplaces,
effective return-to-work procedures
and security for injured workers. They
administer and enforce compliance with
occupational health and safety (OH&S),
injury management, return-to-work and
workers’ compensation legislation and
manage the workers’ compensation system.
They have access to all workplaces and are,
therefore, able to target specific issues to
enhance individuals’ health. WorkCover has
undertaken a number of health promotion
initiatives to improve safety and wellbeing in
the workplace. The ‘Homecoming’ campaign
uses a television commercial to highlight the
affect of a worker potentially not returning
from work because they might have had an
accident and showing the effect on their
family. The campaign also uses posters to
remind individuals that workplace safety
doesn’t just affect those at work.
Other strategies, such as information on
sun safety at work, managing safety risks,
workplace safety summits are effective
methods implemented by WorkCover to
enhance the safety and health of individuals Figure 3.13
in the workplace. More information Sun safety is one of the
many workplace health
relating to WorkCover can be found in
and safety issues that
Peak Performance 2 HSC PDHPE. WorkCover promotes
RUNNING 14 kilometres in The Sun-Herald City2Surf to ‘When I was 14, I walked alone up Main Street in Gosford
raise funds for Mission Australia will seem an easy task for and I saw this man lying in a pool of his own urine and
race debutant Sonia Lipski, compared with the difficulties I was appalled at the fact that he was homeless and that
endured by homeless people. people were just walking past like he wasn’t there,’ Ms Lipski
The Miss World Australia runner-up has spent time this said.
year volunteering with the charity’s Missionbeat service on ‘Since then I have always wanted to be more involved
its patrols through the inner city assisting those in need. with the problem of homelessness and to make my own
Ms Lipski, 20, who won Miss World’s 2008 Beauty With contribution.’
a Purpose category for her committed charity work, said she Ms Lipski said she intended to enter the Miss World
was thrilled to be participating in the City2Surf on Sunday, competition next year and continue to work towards
August 10, alongside several Mission Australia clients. combating homelessness.
‘Not only is the City2Surf an amazing, exciting event, but Participants in this year’s City2Surf, along with supporters
people have the chance to fund-raise for a great cause,’ Ms and members of the public, can contribute to the charity
Lipski said. challenge.
Mission Australia—one of four City2Surf partners in this Entrants can set up a personalised fund-raising
year’s charity challenge—works to eliminate homelessness web page, which can be emailed to friends, family and
through its crisis care and services such as financial colleagues, simply by entering the City2Surf at www.
counselling and training assistance. sunherald.com.au.
Each night there are 100 000 people without a home, half Even those not taking part this year can donate via the
of whom are younger than 25, the charity states. race website.
systemic. Planners and the other affect people’s health; the health other built professions and health
built environment more professions, professions can provide the evidence in professions, Healthy Spaces and Places
governments (including elected repre- support of active living. Communities aims to bridge gaps between the
sentatives) and communities need can push for change with their elected ‘languages’ of these different groups
to better under-stand how the built representatives. that may have impeded understandings
environment can benefit or adversely By bringing together planners and and actions in the past.
• Wheelchair basketball guest speakers to talk about Building healthy public policy
injury prevention relating to alcohol. • Laws on drink driving such as zero Blood Alcohol
• NRMA Road Trauma Forums for young people to Concentration (BAC) for Learners and P-plate drivers.
prevent drink driving. • Laws defining the minimum age for purchasing
• Increased funding for health promotion programs alcohol e.g.18 years and over.
relating to alcohol, particularly for young • Laws relating to responsible service of alcohol for
people. people working in venues that sell alcohol.
• Rebates for driver education courses through car • Local council laws on alcohol-free zones such as
insurance agencies. Bondi Beach.
• The Police Citizens Youth Clubs (PCYC) offering • Standard alcoholic drink guidelines.
activities at night to remove boredom for young people. • Labelling of alcohol content on all alcohol bottles.
• Seminars run by Rotary on harm minimisation for • Increasing taxes on RTDs (alcopops).
adolescents and parents. • Laws against violence and assault, which are often
• Free water handed out at youth festivals such as the fuelled by alcohol abuse.
V Festival and Good Vibrations. • Penalties for serving alcohol to minors.
Equity
In order for all individuals to achieve good health, access to health care
services and information must be fairly distributed. Ensuring communities
have the necessary infrastructure to provide quality health care for a free
or low cost and have the ability to seek out health services regardless
of age, gender or ethnicity is essential for individuals to achieve good
health. Individuals have the right to good health, and governments need
to ensure that all individuals have access to the same health care services
and treatments. For example, people living in rural communities should
have access to a dietician just as people living in the city do. As certain
communities have higher health inequities than others, additional resources
may be provided to reduce these health inequities. This could be through
an increase of health services such as counsellors or through building more
infrastructure such as nursing homes or hospitals. This would ensure greater
equity of resources to those communities in greatest need. In order to reduce
inequities, individuals should be able participate in the decision-making
process within their community in relation to health needs. Individuals
should be active participants in their own lives, planning for and making
decisions about their own health.
Diversity
Australia continues to grow into a diverse nation. From the physical diversity of
the land to the social diversity of its cultures, Australia needs to consider many
factors when addressing various health issues. Ensuring population groups
within society are not discriminated against in terms of age, gender, sexuality or
location is important in achieving good health for individuals. Providing health
information in various languages, placing health services in places easy to
access by public transport, celebrating various cultures and understanding the
different health issues for the various population groups is essential in ensuring
all individuals have the opportunity to achieve good health.
Supportive environments
Providing environments where people are supported is essential to achieving
good health. Homes, workplaces, schools and communities play a vital role in
ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the opportunity to
be valued and make positive contributions to society. When the environment
around a person supports positive health habits, it is easier for an individual
to make positive choices. Ensuring environments in which people live
are conducive and supportive for positive health is crucial for improving
the health status of individuals. Celebrating the diversity of a community,
empowering individuals and communities to take action on a health issue
close to their heart and enabling people to improve environments is essential
in achieving good health.
chapter review
Recap
Health promotion focuses on advocating, enabling and empowering individuals to make
improvements to their health.
Homes, schools, workplaces and the media are excellent settings where strategies to
improve health can be implemented.
The promotion of health is everyone’s responsibility. Individuals, communities,
governments and organisations need to work in partnership to enhance the health
of individuals.
Intersectoral approaches enable a more collaborative approach to ensuring the
environment in which an individual lives, works and participates promotes positive
health behaviours.
There are various approaches and strategies undertaken to improve the health
of individuals, which include lifestyle behavioural changes, preventative medical
approaches and public health approaches:
Using a variety of health promotion strategies throughout a health-promotion program
is the key to effective behaviour change.
The blueprint for health promotion is based on the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health
Promotion. It consists of five action areas:
– developing personal skills
– creating supportive environments
Exam-style questions
1 Explain how various settings can be used to improve the health of individuals. (3 marks)
2 Discuss how the different levels of government take responsibility for and (5 marks)
protect the health of the populace.
3 Using a health-promotion initiative relating to an area of life, for example, (12 marks)
food habits, physical activity, drug use, mental health or road safety, assess
the effectiveness this health-promotion initiative has in improving an
individual’s health.
The human body is made up of many complex systems that enable it to function. While it is
4
possible to study anatomy in isolation, the interrelation of anatomy and physiology
makes it hard to separate the two fields. The interrelationships of the skeletal, muscular,
cardiovascular and respiratory systems are paramount in enabling our bodies to respond and
move effectively. Planned training programs can enhance the capacity of some systems of the
body to influence and respond to movement in an enhanced way.
Figure 4.1
Planes of the body
Frontal plane
Median
(mid-sagittal)
plane
Transverse plane
a b c
Frontal section Transverse section Median
through torso through torso (mid-sagittal)
(superior view) section
Skeletal system
The skeletal system is the framework of the body and is made up of bones,
Cartilage tough, elastic, cartilage, joints and ligaments. The 206 bones in the body enable us to
fibrous tissue found in the function each day, giving us body shape. The skeletal system makes up
body, for example, between
joints, in the nose and in approximately 20 per cent of our body weight.
the ear. Bones perform five main functions in the body:
1 Support—bones provide the framework of the body; they support it and
give the body shape. For example, the vertebrae support the ribs to enable
us to stand.
2 Protection—bones protect vital organs within the body. For example, the
pelvis surrounds the reproductive organs.
3 Movement—in conjunction with muscles, bones act as levers to allow the
body to move. For example, the flexion of the knee joint allows us to kick
a ball.
4 Storage of minerals—bones store minerals needed for the functioning of
the body. For example, calcium is stored in bones.
5 Formation of blood cells—the formation of blood cells occurs in the
cavities of certain bones.
The unique size and shape of each particular bone enable them to serve
specific functions and needs in the body. Bones can be classified in the
following five ways.
1 Long bones—these are long in length and elongated in shape. They consist
of two ends and a shaft. They are made up of a hard shell casing (compact Compact bone an external
bone) and contain spongy bone on the inside. Examples include the layer of tissue that forms the
hard surface of a bone.
femur, humerus, radius and ulna.
2 Short bones—these are cube-like and are mostly made up of spongy bone. Spongy bone the internal
layer of tissue within a bone
A thin layer of compact bone provides the shape. Examples include the that usually looks like a
carpals, metacarpals, tarsals and metatarsals. sponge.
3 Flat bones—these are flat, thin bones that usually protect organs. Examples Sternum the breastbone
include the skull and sternum. found in the upper-middle
section of the chest.
4 Irregular bones—these are bones that do not fall into one of the above
categories; they are usually complicated in shape. Examples include the
vertebrae and pelvis.
5 Sesamoid bones—these are bones found in the body where tendons pass
over a joint, for example, in the foot, knee and hand. They aim to protect
the tendon and increase movement.
Long bones are the major bones involved in movement. They are
structured as follows.
Bone shaft—the long narrow part of the bone that is made of mostly
marrow and compact bone
Epiphysis—the head of the bone containing spongy tissue
Periosteum—the thin, fibrous membrane covering the entire surface of
the bone
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2 Classification of bones Structure of a long bone
Spongy
bone
Medullary
Flat bones, cavity
e.g. parietal
bone of skull Compact
bone
Diaphysis
Cranium (skull)
The cranium is the most complex bony structure in the body. It is formed by
two sets of bones— the cranial bones and the facial bones—numbering 22 in
total. The cranium bones protect the brain and organs for hearing. The facial
bones form the structure of the face and cavities for the body’s senses. The
skull is classified as a flat bone.
Spinal column
Metacarpal
bones
Phalanges
Femur (thighbone)
Patella (kneecap)
Tibia (shinbone)
Tarsus
(anklebones) Metatarsal
bones Calcaneus
Phalanges
a b
Anterior view Posterior view
Each vertebra is cushioned by an intervertebral disc, which acts like a Figure 4.4
cushion between the bones. The human skeleton—
the axial skeleton is
Rib cage coloured pink
The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs make up the rib cage. All ribs attach to the
posterior part of the vertebrae. Ribs provide protection around the heart and
lungs. Ribs are classified as flat bones and are structured as follows.
The first seven ribs are joined directly to the sternum by cartilage.
The remaining five ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum; they
actually join onto each other.
Ribs 11 and 12 are known as ‘floating’ ribs, as they are only attached
posteriorly.
Shoulder girdle
The shoulder girdle consists of two bones: the clavicle (also known as the
collarbone) and scapula (also known as the shoulder blade). The clavicle is
classified as a long bone. The scapula is classified as a flat bone. These bones
and surrounding muscles form the shoulder girdle. The appendicular skeleton
is attached to the axial skeleton when the clavicle attaches itself to the
sternum and the scapula attaches to the vertebrae. The shoulder girdle:
provides attachment points for the upper limbs
provides the upper limbs with flexibility and mobility not possible at any
other place in the body.
Upper limbs
Thirty bones comprise the upper limbs, also known as the arm, forearm and
hand. The humerus, a long bone, makes up the arm segment of the upper
limb. The ulna and radius make up the forearm segment of the upper arm.
The ulna and humerus are responsible for the elbow joint.
The radius and carpals are responsible for the hand joint; therefore, when
the radius moves, the hand moves as well.
Carpals are classified as short bones. Eight carpals connected by ligaments
make up the wrist and five metacarpals (long bones) form the palm of the
hand. The carpals, metacarpals and phalanges (fingers) make up the entire
hand segment of the upper limb.
Lower limbs
Three segments make up the lower limb: the thigh, leg and foot. Because they
carry the weight of the body when standing, the lower limb bones are thicker
and stronger than bones of the upper limb. The femur, a long bone, makes up
the thigh, and is the largest and strongest bone in the body.
The tibia and fibula make up the leg segment of the lower limb. The tibia
joins with the femur to form the knee joint, while the fibula stabilises the
ankle joint.
The tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges make up the foot segment of the
lower limb. The foot supports and propels our body forward when we move.
Seven tarsals make up the foot. The metatarsals are made up of five small long
bones. In each foot, the toes are made up of 14 phalanges.
Figure 4.5 a
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2 Suggest why the type of bones involved in the exercises are structurally suited to the
movement.
a b c
Fibrous Suture Cartilaginous Cartilage Synovial
Figure 4.7
Features of a synovial joint
Synovial membrane
Ligaments
4 BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
—one bone has a smooth
head that fits into the cup-like
structure of another.
Example: the humerus fits into
the shoulder socket
2 GLIDING/PLANE JOINT
—usually flat and allows
small gliding movements.
Example: joints between
the vertebrae
5 HINGE JOINT—one
bone has a convex surface
that fits into a concave of
another. Movement usually
occurs in only one plane.
Example: bending and
straightening at the elbow
3 SADDLE JOINT—
shaped like a saddle,
concave in one direction
and convex in the other. 6 CONDYLOID/ELLIPSOIDAL JOINT
Example: the carpals at —an oval convex surface where
the base of the thumb one bone slides over or fits into a
similar-shaped bone.
Example: carpals in the hand
Joint actions
Joints produce actions in various ways. These actions can be grouped to
Figure 4.9
a Cervical flexion
describe opposite or contrasting movements.
b Elbow flexion Flexion—movement at the joint reduces the angle between the bones
a b
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Figure 4.10
a Cervical extension
b Elbow extension Extension—movement at the joint increases the angle between the bones
a b
Figure 4.12
Hip circumduction
Figure 4.14
Shoulder adduction
Figure 4.15
Dorsi flexion
Figure 4.16
Plantar flexion
Figure 4.18
Pronation
Figure 4.20
Inversion
Figure 4.23
Depression
Humerus
Clavicle
Tibia
Tarsals
Phalanges
Vertebrae
Cranium
Ulna
Femur
Scapula
4 Examine figure 4.24 below. Identify the major joint actions involved at each of the three
stages of the movements.
Figure 4.24 a
978 1 4202 2881 6
© Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010
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exercises acceleration
Deltoids Sternocleidomastoid
Raises the arms away Tilts and twists the neck to
from the body to change head direction
front, side and rear
Gluteus
medius
Rotates the
thigh when
walking Quadriceps
A group of four
Gluteus maximus muscles that flex
Straightens the hip and extend the
by pulling the thigh knee and hip
back when walking
or running Gastrocnemius
Flexes heel and
Soleus pulls up the heel
Biceps femoris (hamstrings)
Aids forward
Extends thigh at hips; flexes
propulsion when
and rotates leg Tibialis anterior
walking or running
Supports the arch
Achilles tendon
of the foot when
(no movement function)
running
Bicep curl
Bench press
Lunge walk
Sit-up
Prone alternating
reverse fly
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exercises
Muscle fibres
Two types of muscle fibres are responsible for the speed of muscle
contractions: slow twitch (type 1) and fast twitch (type 2). While each fibre
is unique in its ability to contract, every one contains a combination of both
types of fibres. Success in some sports is assisted by the dominant fibre type
that an individual may possess.
Myoglobin a protein that has Slow twitch (type 1) fibres contain large amounts of myoglobin,
oxygen attached; it provides mitochondria and blood capillaries. These fibres are more efficient than fast
reserve levels of oxygen to
muscles during high levels of
twitch at using oxygen to generate the body’s fuel adenosine triphosphate
physical activity. (ATP) for muscle contractions of a continuous period. They work slower and
therefore take longer to fatigue. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people
Mitochondria a cell that is
responsible for breaking down involved in long-distance endurance events such as marathons, triathlons and
nutrients to create energy for ocean swims.
cells. Fast twitch (type 2) fibres do not use oxygen to create fuel and therefore
Adenosine triphosphate are best used for short bursts of speed and strength. They produce the same
(ATP) the chemical compound amount of force as slow twitch fibres, but over a shorter period of time,
found in the body that and fatigue quickly. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people involved
produces energy.
in events requiring short bursts of speed and power such as weightlifting,
Sliding filament theory the sprinting and shot put. Sliding filament theory is the process where the
process where the thin muscle muscles contract the filaments – both type 1 and 2 fibres overlap each other
filaments slide over the thick
muscle filaments to contract. to cause muscles to contract therefore causing movement.
Muscle relationships
Action movement produced Muscles work in groups to produce an action. They allow joints to move
by a muscle. bones to enable our body to run, walk, write and dance. Depending on their
actions, muscles can be classified into one of the following three categories.
Agonist (prime mover)—This is the muscle that produces the most force
Figure 4.29
(contracts or shortens) during an action. For example, in the downward
Muscle relationships in motion of a biceps curl (extending the elbow) the triceps is the (agonist)
elbow extension and flexion prime mover.
Antagonist—This is the muscle
that works opposite the agonist
(extends or lengthens). In the
upward motion of a biceps curl
Ball-and-socket
joint (flexing the elbow), the triceps
Origins becomes the antagonist. It relaxes
Origins
to give the agonist (biceps) control
over the action. The antagonist
Scapula
determines the speed and range of
Biceps brachii the agonist to prevent excessive
brachialis movement and injury.
Triceps brachii
Synergists or fixators—these are
surrounding muscles that assist
the agonist to produce the action.
Synergists act as stabilisers for
Insertion the joint. In flexing the elbow,
Hinge joint (elbow)
Radius the biceps and brachialis act as
Insertion
Ulna synergists to each other.
Isometric contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts and no movement is produced.
The length of the muscle stays the same.
Examples of isometric contractions include the triceps and pectoral
muscles when holding a starting position for a push-up.
In completing a rock climb, isometric contractions will be used during
periods where the climber is holding on to the rock wall while deciding
where to move next.
Isotonic contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts, producing enough force to
move an object. The muscle shortens and maintains its tension throughout the
whole movement. There are two types of isotonic contractions.
Concentric contraction—when the muscle shortens as it contracts. For
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the pushing-up phase of a
Figure 4.30
push-up.
Isometric, eccentric and
Eccentric contraction—when the muscle lengthens as it contracts. For concentric contractions
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the lowering phase of a occur in the three phases
push-up. of a push-up
2 Analyse selected movements from a sport to determine the different types of muscle
contractions that are evident.
3 Explain the significance of isometric contractions for movement performance.
4 A plyometric exercise, such as the vertical leap, involves performing an eccentric contraction
of a muscle group immediately followed by a powerful concentric contraction of the same
muscle group. Explain why this process enhances the capacity to generate power.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is responsible for the transfer of oxygen from the air
to the blood, and for the disposal of the waste product carbon dioxide. A
vital element for life, the respiratory system works in conjunction with the
cardiovascular system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide around the
body. While the body can do without food for a few days, the body cannot
survive after a few minutes without oxygen.
The availability of oxygen, its delivery to working muscles and the removal
of waste products are essential for enabling repeated movements.
Structure Function
Nose Provides a warm, moist place for air to enter the body
Nasal cavity Situated in the nose, and contains hairs that filter and clean foreign objects when entering the body. Incoming air is
warmed as it passes through the nasal cavity
Pharynx Also called the throat; connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx. It is a pathway for both food and air
Larynx Responsible for ensuring food and air go into the proper channels. When food is in the pharynx, the epiglottis closes
the inlet to the larynx. Also known as the voice box, the larynx contains the vocal cords that vibrate to produce
sounds as air rushes upwards from the lungs
Trachea Commonly called the windpipe; is very flexible and mobile. Cilia lining the trachea expel dust and other foreign
particles towards the pharynx. The trachea divides into two bronchi; one each, into the left and right lung respectively.
Bronchi Once inside the lung, bronchi divide further into smaller bronchioles; this is often referred to as the respiratory tree.
At the ends of the bronchioles, tiny air sacs called alveoli exist.
Alveoli The chambers where gas exchange occurs. These grape-like structures account for most volume in the lungs and
provide a large surface for gas exchange
Lungs Enclose the structures of the body responsible for gas exchange, i.e. bronchioles and alveoli. The lungs are mainly
air spaces where internal gas exchange occurs
The epiglottis sits above the larynx and, when a person is eating, it prevents Epiglottis an elastic cartilage
food from entering the trachea. As the air travels down the trachea, it splits that opens to allow air into the
trachea and closes when food
into two airways called primary bronchi; one to the right lung and one to goes to the oesophagus.
the left lung. The bronchus divides into smaller branches called bronchioles.
Bronchioles contain small sacks called alveoli. It is here, at the alveoli,
that oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanges into and out of the blood Figure 4.31
through capillaries. An average adult’s lung contains approximately The respiratory system
600 million alveoli.
During this process, deoxygenated
blood has travelled through the
right side of the heart to the lung for
disposal of carbon dioxide. In the
lungs, the blood picks up oxygen, and
the oxygenated blood is returned to Nasal cavity
the heart through the left side. It is
Pharynx
then sent out to the rest of the body Epiglottis
to enable the functioning of muscles,
Larynx
tissues and organs. Esophagus
Carbon dioxide follows the same
path as air when it is breathed out
of the body. A sheet of muscles that Left lung
lies across the chest, the diaphragm,
Left primary bronchus
contracts to draw oxygen into the
lungs and relaxes to pump carbon
Secondary bronchus
dioxide out of the lungs.
Tertiary bronchus
Lung function
The act of breathing is known as pulmonary ventilation. It is a mechanical
process that relies on pressure changes occurring in the thoracic cavity. When
the volume and pressure in the lungs changes, the flow of gases must equalise
this pressure.
There are two phases involved in pulmonary ventilation.
Inspiration (inhaling) is the process of breathing air into the lungs. The
diaphragm is the most important muscle in the process of inspiration.
This thin dome-shaped muscle attaches to the lower ribs and is controlled
Intercostal means between by the body’s nerves. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
the ribs. contract, the ribs lift, causing the lungs to expand. This increase in lung
size lowers the air pressure in the alveoli. As a result, air from a high-
pressure region such as outside the body, quickly flows through the
respiratory tract and into the lungs.
Expiration (exhaling) is the process of breathing air out of the lungs. When
the diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage resumes its normal position and the
lungs retract. This compression of the lungs forces carbon dioxide to flow
out of the lungs. During normal expiration, no muscular effort is required
Figure 4.32 as the walls are elastic and return to their normal position after expanding
Inspiration and expiration during inspiration.
During exercise, the process of inspiration calls upon
Inspiration neighbouring muscles to assist in the expansion of the lungs.
These muscles collectively assist the diaphragm in increasing the
volume in which air can be breathed in. The expiration process
becomes more active during exercise. The abdominal muscles
assist with expiration as they push the diaphragm up and the ribs
are pulled down, resulting in an increase of exhaled gases.
Exchange of gases
The amount and type of gases at any one place, both in the
atmosphere and body, varies. Gas in the atmosphere consists
mostly of oxygen and nitrogen, whereas gases in the lungs consist
of carbon dioxide and water vapour.
As a result of the variance in gas types, oxygen exchange occurs
in the lungs because of the high levels of carbon dioxide and low
levels of oxygen.
Expiration
When we take a breath of air, it follows the respiratory
pathways into the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the air and the blood occurs in the lungs. This
process is known as external respiration.
There is also a variance of gases between the capillaries and
tissue cells. Tissue cells use oxygen frequently, and for each
volume of oxygen they use, they produce the same amount of
carbon dioxide. As a result of the lack of oxygen in the tissue and
abundance of oxygen in the capillaries, oxygen moves quickly
from the capillaries into the tissue and carbon dioxide moves
quickly from the tissue into the capillaries and veins. This process
is known as internal respiration. Carbon dioxide in the blood
vessels returns to the lungs for external respiration.
Bronchiole
Pumonary arteriole
Pumonary venule
Alveolar sac
When exercising, a person’s breathing pattern changes. These changes can Figure 4.33
occur in terms of the depth of each breath and rate at which they take each Structures inside the lung
breath. While breathing becomes deeper and more frequently during exercise,
the respiratory rate, however, does not significantly change.
Because of increased stress on the muscles to perform, more oxygen is needed
to fuel working muscles. The body attempts to meet these increased demands by
breathing more often (faster) and more deeply than when at rest. Usually when
a person first starts exercising, the body needs to adapt to the increased demand
for oxygen to the working muscles. Once the body has adapted to the oxygen
demand, the body can maintain a regular breathing pattern throughout the Hyperventilation an
exercise to ensure oxygen demands to body tissues are met. abnormal increase in depth
If a person is unable to meet the increased demand for oxygen in the body, and rate of breathing.
they may hyperventilate. Alternatively, a person’s breathing depth and rate Hypoventilation abnormally
may be inhibited and become slow and shallow, and they may hypoventilate. slow and shallow breathing.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system, which includes the cardiovascular system, is made up
of three main parts: the heart, blood vessels and blood. Its role is to transport
materials such as nutrients, blood, hormones and waste products to muscles
Figure 4.34 and organs around the body via the blood stream, and convert lactic acid into
The circulatory system pyruvic acid.
Components of blood
Blood plays a vital role in the body’s
ability to breathe, break down nutrients
for energy, eliminate waste, and maintain
the body’s temperature and water balance.
Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body.
Blood is red in colour, due to the presence
of haemoglobin, but the shade varies
depending on the amount of oxygen
present in blood. The more oxygen that
is present, the brighter the shade of red,
the less oxygen that is present, the darker
the shade of red. Blood carries out three
main functions.
1 Distribution
of gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide around the body
transportation of waste products
from cells to excretory sites
transportation of hormones around
the body.
2 Regulation
maintaining core body temperature
maintaining normal acidity or
alkaline (pH) in body tissue
maintaining adequate fluid levels in
the blood.
3 Protection
preventing blood loss through clot
formation
preventing infection through
antibodies and white blood cells.
Haemoglobin red blood Blood is made up of four components that all play a key role in the
cells, responsible for carrying functioning of the body.
oxygen around the body.
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are responsible for transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide around the body. They pick up oxygen from the lungs and
transport it around the body to muscles, tissues and organs, where it is
exchanged for carbon dioxide. They then transport the carbon dioxide back
to the lungs and the exchange occurs again. They contain iron and protein.
White blood cells (leukocytes) are responsible for fighting infections. They
attack and destroy germs and infections as they enter the body. When the
body has an infection, the number of white blood cells increases in order
to fight it.
Platelets are the blood-clotting agencies that help stop bleeding. When we
cut ourselves or break a blood vessel, platelets stick to the damaged blood
vessel to block the blood flow.
Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood that transports materials such
as blood cells, nutrients, hormones and gases around the body. It is
predominately water and contains mainly oxygen.
The soft tissue inside bones (called marrow) makes red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets.
Participating in aerobic-based activities over time can increase blood
volume and therefore, increase the amount of red blood cells in the body.
This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and enables more
efficient participation in aerobic-based activities by being able to exercise
at a higher intensity and for longer. A lack of oxygen in body tissues is Hypoxia lack of oxygen in
called hypoxia. body tissues.
pulmonary artery (the only artery in the body that carries deoxygenated
blood) to the lungs. Once in the lungs, the blood exchanges the carbon
dioxide for oxygen and the cycle starts again. The coronary artery supplies
blood to the heart muscle.
In addition to these features, the heart also contains the myocardium,
which is the cardiac muscle that is striated, and an involuntary muscle of
the body, the pericardium, which is the double wall sac of the heart, and the
septum—the thick wall that divides the two ventricles.
Regularly participating in aerobic-based activities will cause the left
ventricle to respond by becoming slightly larger and capable of contracting
more strongly. This has the effect of being able to deliver blood more
efficiently to working muscles because the left ventricle is able to become
fuller and disperse blood to the body more powerfully. The effect of this is
increased aerobic efficiency.
b
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
The heart can be described as the ‘transport system pump’ that delivers
oxygen around the body. Despite its small size (about the size of a clenched
fist), it is incredibly strong and enduring. The heart weighs between
250–350 grams and is protected by the rib cage, located slightly left of the
midline. On average, the heart pumps blood out at 70–80 beats per minute.
An elite athlete’s beats per minute are lower.
c The cardiovascular system comprises two major circuits.
1 Pulmonary circuit—circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and back
Figure 4.36 to the heart. This occurs on the right side of the heart.
a Arteries b Veins 2 Systemic circuit—circulates blood from the heart to every body part and
c Capillaries then back to the heart. This occurs on the left side of the heart.
Pulmonary circuit
CO2 O2
Pulmonary
capillaries
CO2 O2
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries veins
Superior Branches of
vena cava aortic arch
Right Left
atrium atrium
Tricuspid
valve
Left
Right ventricle
ventricle
Descending
Systemic aorta
circuit
Inferior
vena cava
Systemic
capillaries
O2
CO2
Oxygen-poor Oxygen-rich
CO2-rich CO2-poor
blood blood
Figure 4.37
Pulmonary and systemic
circuits
Heart rate
The thick muscular walls of the two lower chambers of the heart (ventricles),
contract to squeeze blood into the arteries. The upper chambers of the heart
(atrium) are the holding spots for blood. A heartbeat has two main phases:
diastole—as the heart relaxes and refills with blood; and systole—the
contraction that forces blood around the body. During exercise, stress or
excitement, the heart rate increases because a higher volume of blood is
needed throughout the body. The heart rate is controlled by the medulla in
the brain. It sends electrical impulses along nerves to set an average resting
heart rate. The hypothalamus or hormones such as adrenaline can speed up a
person’s average heart rate and override the normal heart rhythm.
A person’s resting heart rate (RHR) is usually determined first thing in
the morning. At rest, the adult heart usually beats between 60–80 beats per
minute. The higher the level of a person’s fitness, the lower their resting heart
rate will be. This is because the heart of a fit person is able to effectively
pump out more blood using fewer contractions.
Taking a person’s pulse will give an indication of how hard their heart is
working. The carotid artery (in the neck) and the radial artery (in the wrist)
are two common sites used to take a person’s pulse.
Figure 4.38
Blood pressure graph Systolic pressure
180
(upper reading) Diastolic pressure
160 (lower reading)
Blood pressure (mmHg)
140
120
100
80
60
40
AWAKE ASLEEP
20
0
Noon Midnight Noon
Blood pressure
When your heart beats, it pumps blood around the body to give it the energy,
oxygen and nutritional requirements it needs. As the blood moves through the
body, it pushes against the sides of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is the
strength of this push against the sides of the arteries.
chapter review
Recap
Systems of the body work together to allow the body to move. The systems primarily
responsible for movement are the skeletal, muscular, circulatory and respiratory
systems.
The skeletal system has 206 bones. Bones can be classified as long, short, flat or
irregular. Directional terms are used to assist in locating bones.
The skeletal system is grouped into two categories: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
Joints occur where two or more bones meet. Joints are classified three ways: fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial. Synovial joints are the most common joints in the body and
are classified as gliding/plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid/ellipsoidal, saddle and ball-and-
socket joints.
Joints produce various actions, which can be described as opposite or contrasting
movements.
The muscular system has approximately 640 muscles that can be categorised into three
types: smooth, cardiac and skeletal. When a muscle attaches to a stationary bone in a
joint action, this is called the origin. The muscle that attaches to the bone moving in
the joint action is called the insertion.
Muscles work in groups to produce movement. These are referred to as agonist and
antagonist muscles that are supported by stabilisers or fixators. There are three types of
muscle contractions: isometric, concentric and eccentric.
The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
around the body. Lungs allow breathing to occur in two ways: inspiration and expiration.
The exchange of oxygen into tissues is achieved through the capillaries, as is the
exchange of carbon dioxide from tissues into the blood stream.
chapter review
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients and waste products around the body.
It contains three major parts: blood, blood vessels and the heart.
The heart is a cardiac muscle that is divided into four chambers. The left side of the
heart pumps oxygenated blood into the body, whereas the right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Exam-style questions
1 Explain the way bones are classified and describe the different kinds (3 marks)
of bones.
3 Examine how exercise affects the circulatory and respiratory systems. (12 marks)
Health-related components
of physical fitness
Health-related components of physical fitness are related to a person’s ability
to perform vigorous daily activities, while preventing chronic disease. People
with a high level of fitness will be less fatigued when performing general
tasks such as cleaning, gardening, grocery shopping and walking up stairs.
Research has illustrated that people who participate in activities to improve
their cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, muscle endurance and flexibility
and who have optimal body composition are at a lower risk of developing
heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, insomnia, depression and
osteoporosis. Regular physical activity can contribute to a healthy lifestyle by
increasing your energy levels and social, physical and psychological wellbeing.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Cardiorespiratory Cardiorespiratory endurance, also called aerobic fitness, refers to the
endurance is the ability to circulatory and respiratory system’s ability to supply oxygen to the body
perform strenuous exercise
for a sustained time without and to remove carbon dioxide and waste products during sustained exercise.
fatigue. Some say this is the best indicator of a person’s overall health.
There are many benefits of having a high level of cardiorespiratory
endurance. Heart disease is Australia’s biggest killer, and having good
cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of suffering from heart
disease. It also reduces the incidence of diabetes, blood pressure problems,
stroke, depression and anxiety, and assists in the improved health of muscles
and bones resulting in a fitter person.
VO2 max the maximum basketball, should have their VO2 max results expressed in relative units
amount of oxygen in millilitres (relative to body mass) mL/kg/min-1.
one can use in one minute, per
kilogram of body weight. Three tests: the Astrand submaximal, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery and
Coopers 12 minute run are now presented in detail.
Table 5.2 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from Table 5.3 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from
heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (men) heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (women)
Heart 600 (100 W) 900 (150 W) 1200 (200 W) Heart 600 (100 W) 900 (150 W) 1200 (200 W)
rate kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 rate kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1
120 3.5 4.8 120 3.4 4.1 4.8
121 3.4 4.7 121 3.3 4.0 4.8
122 3.4 4.6 122 3.2 3.9 4.7
123 3.4 4.6 123 3.1 3.9 4.6
124 3.3 4.5 6.0 124 3.1 3.8 4.5
125 3.2 4.4 5.9 125 3.0 3.7 4.4
126 3.2 4.4 5.8 126 3.0 3.6 4.3
127 3.1 4.3 5.7 127 2.9 3.5 4.2
128 3.1 4.2 5.6 128 2.8 3.5 4.2
129 3.0 4.2 5.6 129 2.8 3.4 4.1
130 3.0 4.1 5.5 130 2.7 3.4 4.0
131 2.9 4.0 5.4 131 2.7 3.4 4.0
132 2.9 4.0 5.3 132 2.7 3.3 3.9
133 2.8 3.9 5.3 133 2.6 3.2 3.8
134 2.8 3.9 5.2 134 2.6 3.2 3.8
135 2.8 3.8 5.1 135 2.6 3.1 3.7
136 2.7 3.8 5.0 136 2.5 3.1 3.6
137 2.7 3.7 5.0 137 2.5 3.0 3.6
138 2.7 3.7 4.9 138 2.4 3.0 3.5
139 2.6 3.6 4.8 139 2.4 2.9 3.5
140 2.6 3.6 4.8 140 2.4 2.8 3.4
141 2.6 3.5 4.7 141 2.3 2.8 3.4
142 2.5 3.5 4.6 142 2.3 2.8 3.3
143 2.5 3.4 4.6 143 2.2 2.7 3.3
144 2.5 3.4 4.5 144 2.2 2.7 3.2
145 2.4 3.4 4.5 145 2.2 2.7 3.2
146 2.4 3.3 4.4 146 2.2 2.6 3.2
147 2.4 3.3 4.4 147 2.1 2.6 3.1
148 2.3 3.2 4.3 148 2.1 2.6 3.1
149 2.3 3.2 4.3 149 2.1 2.6 3.0
150 2.3 3.2 4.2 150 2.0 2.5 3.0
151 2.3 3.1 4.2 151 2.0 2.5 3.0
152 2.3 3.1 4.1 152 2.0 2.5 2.9
153 2.2 3.0 4.1 153 2.0 2.4 2.9
154 2.2 3.0 4.0 154 2.0 2.4 2.8
155 2.2 3.0 4.0 155 1.9 2.4 2.8
156 2.2 2.9 4.0 156 1.9 2.3 2.8
157 2.1 2.9 3.9 157 1.9 2.3 2.7
158 2.1 2.9 3.9 158 1.8 2.3 2.7
159 2.1 2.8 3.8 159 1.8 2.2 2.7
160 2.1 2.8 3.8 160 1.8 2.2 2.6
161 2.0 2.8 3.7 161 1.8 2.2 2.6
126 2.0 2.8 3.7 126 1.8 2.2 2.6
163 2.0 2.8 3.7 163 1.7 2.2 2.6
164 2.0 2.7 3.6 164 1.7 2.1 2.5
165 2.0 2.7 3.6 165 1.7 2.1 2.5
166 1.9 2.7 3.6 166 1.7 2.1 2.5
167 1.9 2.6 3.5 167 1.6 2.1 2.4
168 1.9 2.6 3.5 168 1.6 2.0 2.4
169 1.9 2.6 3.5 169 1.6 2.0 2.4
170 1.8 2.6 3.4 170 1.6 2.0 2.4
5m 20 m
2 Students run 20 metres forward, pivot at a line (or marker) in time with
the beep from the CD and run 20 metres back to the start before the next
audio beep.
3 During their 10 seconds of active recovery they continue jogging to (and
around) the next marker and back to the start line.
4 On the next beep, they repeat another up-and-back shuttle.
5 The speed of the audio beeps corresponding to the shuttle run gradually
increases throughout the test while the 10-second recovery interval
remains consistent throughout the test.
6 The test continues until the student either has missed two beeps at the
‘finish’ marker or is unable to get to the ‘start’ marker in time for the
next beep.
As this stage, there is no normative data for school students using this test.
However, to give you some indication of performance, table 5.5 reports test
Table 5.5
Examples of elite values that have been recorded for athletes from different sporting groups.
athlete target
results in the Yo-Yo Coopers 12 minute run
Intermittent
Recovery test As the test name suggests, this test requires the
participant to cover as much distance as they can in
Athletic group Level/shuttle 12 minutes. The instructions for the test are
Junior elite basketball players (male) 17–22.5 as follows:
1 Select an oval or area and measure the lap length
Junior elite basketball players (female) 15–18.7 by placing markers at 20-metre intervals to make
Australian women’s basketball squad 17–21 calculating the distance covered easy.
2 Use the buddy system for undertaking the test
NRL players 20–24 and recording completed laps. Using the result
sheet, record each time a student has completed one lap by crossing off the
relevant lap number.
3 When the whistle signals the completion of the test (after 12 minutes),
students walk to the closest marker so the distance achieved in the final
lap can be calculated and recorded.
4 Calculate the distance covered in 12 minutes. Refer to table 5.6 to
determine the estimated max VO2 from the distance covered during the
test and refer to table 5.7 to determine your rating.
Table 5.6
Distance mL/kg/min Distance mL/kg/min Estimated VO2 max
from distance run in
1600 m 28.2 2900 m 51.8
12 minutes
1700 m 30.0 3000 m 53.5
1800 m 31.9 3100 m 55.3
1900 m 33.8 3200 m 57.0
2000 m 35.7 3300 m 58.7
2100 m 37.5 3400 m 60.5
2200 m 39.2 3500 m 62.3
2300 m 41.0 3600 m 64.0
2400 m 42.7 3700 m 65.8
2500 m 44.6 3800 m 67.5
2600 m 46.4 3900 m 69.2
2700 m 48.2 4000 m 71.0
2800 m 50.0
Muscular strength
Strength the maximal force Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against a resistance. This is
that can be generated in one often measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. For example, the
repetition of a movement.
load you can lift while performing one repetition on a leg press machine is a
good indication of the strength of your leg muscles.
As we age, muscular strength and lean muscle
mass reduces, although this can be reversed with
increased activity and strength training. Muscular
strength is a major factor in determining the
quality of life an older person will experience, as it
reduces the stress on your joints. Strength training
can improve our metabolism, our posture and
provides better bone strength to help guard against
osteoporosis. Performance in sports such as weight
lifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high degree
of strength for successful performance.
Stage 1 arms extended, sit-up until wrists pass knees Table 5.8
Stage 2 arms extended, sit-up until elbows pass knees Ratings for the
7-stage abdominal
Stage 3 arms across the body with hands on opposite elbows, strength test
sit-up until forearms touch thighs
Stage 4 arms crossed over chest with hands touching opposite Stage Variation Rating
shoulders; student sits up until forearms touch thighs
1 Fingertips Poor
(elbows must be touching trunk)
Stage 5 hands behind head touching opposite shoulders, 2 Elbows Fair
sit-up is complete when chest touches thighs 3 Abdomen Fair
Stage 6 as per Stage 5 but holding a 2.5-kilogram weight
4 Chest Average
Stage 7 as per Stage 5 but holding a 5-kilogram weight.
5 Shoulders Good
Once the highest stage has been determined, refer to table 5.6
to see your rating. Elite athletes should be aiming at stage 6 or 7. 6&7 Weights Excellent
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 3 Stage 4
Muscular endurance
Muscular endurance the Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some
ability to generate force over a time. Athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football
period of time.
players, basketball players and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle
endurance. Long-distance runners need a significant amount of muscular
endurance but relatively little muscle strength.
Having high levels of muscular endurance makes it easier to perform
everyday tasks, improves posture and can reduce the instance of back
pain. Muscle endurance training programs involve many repetitions at
a light load.
Push-up test
The push-up test assesses muscle endurance of the chest, shoulder and triceps
muscles. Start in a push-up position with weight on the hands and toes, as
shown in figure 5.8. The subject’s hands should be just wider than shoulder-
width apart and their back and legs will be kept straight at all times. Lower
the body to the floor until the elbows are at 90 degrees. Push back up to the
start position. This is one repetition. Repeat as many repetitions as possible.
Figure 5.8
Correct push-up
Table 5.11 Ratings for the push-up test
Flexibility
Flexibility the ability to move Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement at
a muscle through a complete a joint. The body can be flexible in one joint but tight in another joint, or it
range of motion.
can be flexible in one movement of a joint but not in all movements of that
joint. For example, if you can do a front split, you may not be able to do a side
split as this uses the joint in a different way. Ideally, you want to be flexible
enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks include specific
sporting activities there will be a need for greater flexibility at different joints.
A greater range of movement also enhances your capacity to develop force.
Figure 5.9 demonstrates the two types of flexibility—static and dynamic.
Figure 5.9 The best way to maintain and increase flexibility is to stretch your
Static flexibility muscles. Unless your routine incorporates stretches at all the major joints,
demonstrated with you may become flexible at some joints and be inflexible at others. Age and
the splits and dynamic
flexibility exhibited by
gender are influencing factors—young females are generally the most flexible.
hurdlers Stretching and the resultant flexibility can improve performance, coordination
and posture, reduce back pain and assist in the prevention of injury.
Testing flexibility
There are two types of flexibility tests—direct tests that involve measuring
the range of movement (ROM) at specific joints using a goniometer with the
score being expressed in degrees, for example, the active knee extension test;
Table 5.12 Ratings for the sit and reach test, measurements in centimetres
3 Repeat the procedure with the left shoulder. Scoring can be simply a ‘yes’
or ‘no’, if the fingers touched. For those whose fingers do not meet, you
can measure the distance between fingertips so students can see if they
improve with training. Partners then swap over.
If fingers can touch, this indicates good shoulder flexibility, while a
distance of more than 5 centimetres between fingertips indicates poor
shoulder flexibility.
Body composition
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle (and
organs) and fat in one’s body. Two people of the same
height and weight can look quite different if they have
different amounts of body fat and muscle mass. The
person with the greater muscle mass and lower body fat
will have a higher resting metabolic rate. Body fat is the
main component of body composition that is monitored,
and it can have a detrimental effect on our wellbeing
and performance. Having a high body fat percentage—
particularly around the abdomen—can increase the
likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes.
Conversely, when body fat levels become too low, the
immune system can be compromised. From a performance
aspect, a high level of body fat is generally detrimental as
it is considered ‘dead’ weight and will lower an athlete’s
power-to-weight ratio. Very low body fat percentages are
generally found in body builders, triathletes and cyclists.
High body fat percentages are not usually found in athletes
except for the likes of sumo wrestlers.
BMI = 20.8
Waist-to-hip ratio
Calculating a person’s waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) indicates how much
body fat they are carrying around their abdomen compared to their hips.
Increased body fat around the abdomen increases the risk of heart disease,
stroke and type 2 diabetes. Instructions are as follows.
1 Take a waist measurement at the level of the narrowest point between the
lowest rib and the hips (iliac crest).
2 If there is no obvious narrowing then the measurement is taken at the
mid-way between the two points. Table 5.14
3 Take the measurement at the end of a normal expiration, with the arms Ratings for WHR in
relaxed at the sides. adults
4 Then take the hip measurement at the
Ratings Males Females
level of the greatest protrusion of the
buttocks. The person stands with Low risk <0.85 <0.72
feet together and gluteal muscles relaxed.
Increased risk of cardiovascular disease >0.9 >0.8
WHR is calculated using the formula
waist girth (centimetres) divided by hip
girth (centimetres).
3 The thumb and forefinger are used to lift the skin and body fat away from
the muscle.
4 Measurements should be taken by the same tester on each occasion, at the
following areas:
• triceps—this is a vertical fold at the posterior midline of the upper arm
• subscapular—this is a diagonal fold 2 centimetres below the shoulder
blade
• biceps—with the arm in anatomical position, where the arms hang by
your side and your palms face forwards, a vertical fold is taken at the
midpoint of the front of the upper arm (between the bony tip of the
shoulder and the elbow joint)
• suprailiac—this measurement is taken as a diagonal fold at the front of
the hip bone
• abdominal—this is a vertical fold taken 5 centimetres to the right of the
centre of the belly button
• front thigh—this vertical measurement is taken halfway between the
knee cap and the top of the thigh (the inguinal crease)
• medial calf—the vertical fold is taken on the medial side (the inside)
of the calf at the maximum circumference.
Body fat
Body fat can be estimated from skinfold measurements or from analysing
bioelectric impedance. The bioelectrical impedance analysis relies on
the resistance of an electrical flow through the body to estimate body fat
percentage, fat free mass and total body water percentages.
The ideal body fat percentage varies between males and females and by
age. As a guide to maintain good health, women should not be leaner then
12 per cent body fat and men 5 per cent body fat. The healthy average is more
like 22 per cent to 25 per cent for women and 16 per cent to 20 per cent for
men. For men over 25 per cent and women over 32 per cent body fat, there is
a higher occurrence of illness and disease.
3 Subtract this number from your original weight, for example, 95 minus
21.85 equals 73.15.
4 Divide this resulting number by either 0.77 for women or 0.84 for men.
In our case, dividing 73.15 by 0.84 equals 87.1 kilograms.
Expressed as a formula, calculations for the above example are:
95 – (95 x 0.23)/0.845 = 73.15/0.84 = 87.1
Optimum weight = 87.1 kg
Skill-related components
of physical fitness
Having a range of skill components is critical to being able to execute a skill
successfully. If an athlete exhibits the qualities needed for their chosen sport,
they have a significantly better chance of success than if they did not possess
these qualities.
Power
Power the ability to generate Power can be described as the ability to apply force as quickly as possible
force as quickly as possible. resulting in a dynamic burst of movement. It is the measure of how much
work is achieved per unit of time. To be described as a powerful athlete, you
Figure 5.13
Power—a combination of must exhibit the qualities of both strength and speed. Power is important in
strength and speed activities involving sprinting, throwing and jumping.
Testing power
Power can be assessed using tests such as jumps for height,
jumps for distance and throws for distance. Anaerobic power
can also be assessed by performing a maximal 10-second bike
test that measures peak power and total work. The following
are two examples of power tests that can be conducted in class.
Vertical jump
The vertical jump test measures leg power and is used by a
number of different sports. Equipment may include a jump
mat, tape measure and a marked wall or a vertec (a piece of
equipment used to measure jump height). Instructions are
as follows.
1 Assuming that you will use a marked wall, the students will
stand side on to the wall and using their dominant arm they
will reach up as high as possible to have their reach height
recorded. (Their feet must be kept flat on the ground.)
Table 5.16
Ratings for backward overhead throw
Speed
Figure 5.16 Speed is the pace at which an athlete performs a task using any part of their
Speed is the central body. This can be a sprinter moving their legs or a cricket bowler using
component of sprinting their arms.
Testing speed
Ideally, speed tests are conducted using electronic
timing lights to increase accuracy and reliability.
However, if this equipment is unavailable, you
can use a stopwatch. For straight-line speed in
team sports, measurements over 10–40 metres are
commonly used with splits taken at each 10-metre
interval. To remove the additional component of
reaction time, it is best to have the student start
when they are ready rather than responding to a
signal. Flying 30-metre times can be calculated by
subtracting the time to complete the first 10 metres
from the 40-metre time. Students should have at
least a 5-minute recovery between trials and take the
quickest times from the two trials.
Table 5.17 Ratings for 10 metres and 40 metres sprint, measurements in seconds
Agility
Agility is the ability to Agility can be described as the ability to change pace and direction quickly
change direction rapidly with and efficiently. This involves balance, coordination and speed. A soccer
minimal loss of speed or
balance. player who is dribbling the ball downfield must sidestep to manoeuvre around
opposing players. Their success at such a task can be attributed to their agility.
Other examples of sports that require agility include skiing, wrestling, squash
and most team sports.
Testing agility
When selecting an agility test to include in any fitness assessment, it is
important to consider specificity. Tests vary from 10 metres with one change
of direction to tests involving numerous changes of direction over a distance
of 60 metres (or more). Aspects of interest within the test may include change
of direction involving swerving; turning at 90 degrees; turning at 180 degrees;
turning left or right; running with a ball, racquet or stick; and getting up and
down off the ground. The more of these aspects that are Figure 5.17
included in the one test the more difficult it is to isolate Soccer displays why agility
is critical to success
specific strengths and areas for improvement. For this
reason, the 5-0-5 agility test is often the test of choice.
Table 5.18
Ratings for 5-0-5 agility, measurements in seconds
10 m 5m
Rating Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17
Excellent <2.33 <2.66
Good 2.34–2.50 2.67–2.87
Average 2.51–2.67 2.88–3.08
Fair 2.68–3.84 3.09–3.29
(1) (3) (2)
Poor >3.85 >3.30
Figure 5.18
5-0-5 agility test
Understand and apply
1 Discuss the difference between speed and agility.
2 Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for agility. Outline why agility is important for
success in those sports.
3 Select a sport and develop a sport-specific agility test for it.
4 Suggest activities that could be included in training to improve your speed and agility.
5 Identify three aspects of daily life where speed and agility would be beneficial.
Coordination
Coordination is the athlete’s ability to use their physical fitness to combine
all aspects of a skill to execute the skill successfully. A tennis player must
coordinate different skills to complete a powerful and successful first serve,
as does a basketball player going in for a lay up with defenders in the key.
Figure 5.19
A USA basketball player shows Australia they have the coordination
to make the basket count, even with tough defence
Testing coordination
Coordination tests are generally not included in fitness
test batteries for athletes. However, a coordination test,
such as the one described below, is sometimes included
when assessing overall fitness and skill development.
Balance
Balance is the state of equilibrium that results in an equal
distribution of weight, which keeps an athlete’s desired
posture and composure. Balance is needed by gymnasts
to perform a beam or floor routine, and by divers a
10-metre platform dive.
Testing balance
The stork balance stand test requires the students to balance for as
long as possible on the ball of one foot while the other foot is placed
against the inside of their knee (see figure 5. 21). The hands must
remain on hips at all times. The stopwatch starts when the heel lifts
off the ground and it is stopped when any of the following events
occur: the support foot moves (e.g. hops); the foot loses contact
with the knee of the support leg; the heel touches the ground; or the
hands are lifted off the hips. Record the best of three trials.
Table 5.20
Ratings for stork balance stand test, measurement in seconds
Rating Time
Excellent >50 or more
Good 40–50
Average 25–39
Fair 10–24
Poor <10 or less
Figure 5.21
The stork balance
Reaction time stand test
Reaction time is the delay between a stimulus and a muscle movement—the
response to the stimulus. This could be the time between a starter’s gun and
the athlete leaving the blocks. A faster reaction time will deliver a faster time.
Reaction time can also refer to an athlete’s ability to adapt their play. If their
team is in attack and suddenly the ball is stolen by the opposition, the quicker
they reacts to the change of events and moves defensively, the better the
chance of eliminating points scored by the opposing team.
Response times can vary greatly if a decision has to be made after the
stimulus. Reaction time can be improved by reducing anxiety and increasing
focus on the stimulus.
Table 5.21 1 Three marker cones are set up 6.4 metres apart in a straight line. The
Ratings for Nelson student stands at the middle marker facing the tester.
choice reaction time,
measurements in 2 The tester holds a stopwatch in the air and suddenly points left or right as
seconds they simultaneously start the stopwatch.
3 The student responds by running to that marker as
Ratings Males Females quickly as possible. The watch is stopped as the
Excellent 1.3 or less 1.6 or less student passes the marker.
4 The student has 10 trials in random order, with
Good 1.35–1.6 1.65–1.9 5 trials in each direction. The rest interval between
Average 1.65–2.4 1.95–2.55 trials is 20–30 seconds, while the interval between
‘ready’ and the ‘signal’ should be 0.5–2 seconds.
Fair 2.45–2.7 2.6–2.85
Average all trials and compare them to the ratings
Poor 2.75 or more 2.9 or more in table 5.21.
FITT principle
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist
you in planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating
the various components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression
and overload, so you are more likely to achieve your goals.
Frequency
Frequency refers to how often something is done. For aerobic training, aim for
three to six sessions per week, whereas resistance training may be prescribed
for two to three times per week.
Intensity
Intensity generally refers to how hard you are working. This can be measured
by a percentage of your maximum heart rate, for example, 75 per cent maxHR.
It can also be measured by a percentage of your maximum effort. In the gym,
this might be 60 per cent 1RM for a bench press (60 per cent of the load you
could lift for one repetition) or on the track, it may be 85 per cent of your
400-metres run pace. For example, if your personal best for 400 metres is
60 seconds, then you may run intervals at 69 seconds in training. MaxHR can
be estimated by subtracting the person’s age from 220. Table 5.22 outlines
the different training zones that can be used. T1–5 predominantly works the
aerobic energy system, while the T6 zone works the anaerobic energy system.
Time
Time or volume relates to how long or how much and can be measured by
time (45-minute run), distance (20-kilometre bike ride) or number of sets or
Continuous training
exercising non-stop for a repetitions (26 sets in the gym).
minimum of 20 minutes up to
several hours. Type
Interval training completion Type refers to the mode of exercise and may be classified as continuous
of a number of prescribed
training or interval training. If you are aiming for aerobic improvements,
bouts of exercise, each
followed by a recovery period. then the exercise choice should involve large muscle groups such as running,
swimming, rowing, walking and cycling.
Frequency 4 aerobic sessions per week 2 speed sessions per week with 3 all-body sessions per week with
48 hr recovery between sessions 48 hr recovery between sessions
Intensity 75–85% maxHR 100% effort with maximal recovery Set 1 = 75% 1RM; set 2 = 80% 1RM;
set 3 = 85% 1RM
2 Select a sport of your choice and design (a) an aerobic training session and (b) an anaerobic
training session using the FITT principle.
3 Exercising at intensities up to 75 per cent maxHR predominantly uses fat as an energy
source. Exercising between 75–90 per cent maxHR is often used for aerobic training and
uses a combination of fats and carbohydrates for energy. It is suggested that 90 per cent
maxHR corresponds to a person’s anaerobic threshold (lactate accumulation is greater than
lactate clearance). This is the minimum intensity for anaerobic training. Calculate your:
a maximum heart rate
b 75 per cent maxHR
c 90 per cent maxHR.
4 Examine a training session for health-related fitness compared to a fitness training session
for sports performance.
5 Compare the heart rate graphs for a 20-year-old athlete during two different training
sessions (see figures 5.22 and 5.23).
a Calculate their maximum heart rate, 75 per cent maxHR and 90 per cent maxHR.
b Estimate the amount of training time they would have spent below 75 per cent maxHR,
between 75–90 per cent maxHR and above 90 per cent maxHR for each training session.
c What does monitoring the athlete’s heart rate during the two sessions tell the coach
about the intensity of these two training sessions?
220 220
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
HR (bpm)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
211 bpm 204 bpm 205 bpm 151 bpm 190 bpm
0 0
0:00:00 0:05:00 0:10:00 0:15:00 0:20:00 0:25:00 0:30:00 0:35:00 0:40:00
Time: 0:00:00 Time
HR:212 bpm
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
HR (bpm)
HR (bpm)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
Figure 5.23
Heart rate graph for
training session 2
Immediate physiological
responses to training
Heart rate
Resting heart rate (HR) varies among individuals depending on their fitness
level—an elite endurance athlete may have a resting heart rate as low as
28 bpm, while an unfit sedentary person’s can be as high as 100 bpm. On
average, an adult’s resting heart rate will be 70–75 bpm. Just before we begin
to train, our heart rate will rise in anticipation so our true ‘resting’ heart rate
should be taken first thing in the morning. During maximal exercise, there
is a linear increase in heart rate corresponding to the increase in exercise
Maximum heart rate can
be estimated at 220 minus the demands, until you reach your maximum heart rate. This pattern occurs for
person’s age. both trained and untrained participants. However, at any given submaximal
workload, the untrained person will have the higher heart rate. The trained
Steady state when your
heart rate plateaus as exercise participant will have a sharp increase in heart rate at the beginning of
demands are met. exercise, which will then plateau when they reach steady state during
submaximal exercise. During prolonged exercise at a constant workload, the
Cardiovascular drift
when cardiac output is kept heart rate will shift from the steady state upwards due to cardiovascular drift.
constant in the latter parts When undertaking resistance training, there is an increase in heart rate the
of prolonged exercise and is more repetitions that are performed. The cardiorespiratory fitness level of a
achieved by a slight increase
person will determine how quickly the heart rate returns to resting levels after
in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though exercise—the fitter you are, the quicker you recover. Initially there is a large
workload stays the same. drop for both trained and untrained individuals.
Ventilation rate
Ventilation rate refers to the movement of air into (inspiration) and out of
(expiration) the lungs and is more commonly known as breathing. At rest, the
average person will perform 12 breaths of approximately 500 millilitres each
minute resulting in a ventilation rate of 6 litres/minute. Similar to heart rate,
there is an anticipatory rise in ventilation rate as we begin exercising. Once
exercise actually commences, there is a second rise in ventilation rate as the
rate and depth of breathing increases. This increased ventilation corresponds
with increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. It has
been suggested that, during maximal exercise, the main influence on minute
ventilation is the need to remove carbon dioxide rather than the need for
oxygen. For this reason, ventilation rate does not limit a person’s aerobic
capacity. Maximal minute ventilation rates can reach 130 and 170 litres/
minute for untrained and trained participants. Figure 5.24 illustrates the
ventilatory response to light, moderate and heavy exercise. As can be seen in
the graph, once exercise ceases there is an initial rapid decline followed by a
gradual return to resting ventilation rates.
Figure 5.24
Start
Ventilatory response to
Stop
120 light, moderate and heavy
Pulmonary ventilation (L/min)
exercise
100 Heavy
80
Moderate
60
Light
40
20
Exercise
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (min)
Stroke volume
Stroke volume (SV) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the heart
(left ventricle) per beat. Resting stroke volume values are approximately
50–60 millilitres for untrained participants and 80–110 millilitres for trained
participants. These values then increase during exercise to approximately
100–120 millilitres for untrained, and up to 200 millilitres for trained
participants. It is thought that maximal stroke volume occurs at a work
intensity corresponding to 40–60 per cent maximal and then plateaus as
exercise intensity increases. The large difference in maximal stroke volume
amounts between trained and untrained individuals is a major contributing
factor to aerobic endurance. Increased stroke volume is due to the left
ventricle holding more blood and a stronger contraction, then emptying
more blood per beat. There is virtually no change from resting levels when
performing resistance training. Women will tend to have a slightly lower
stroke volume than men.
Cardiac output
Cardiac output (Q) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left
ventricle each minute. It can be calculated as:
Q (L/min) = SV (mL) x HR (bpm)
Cardiac output under resting conditions is similar for trained and
untrained individuals, and is approximately 5–6 litres. There is a sharp
increase in cardiac output as exercise commences, and this continues to
increase as workload increases in order to meet the exercising muscles’
demands for more oxygen. Interestingly, cardiac output is similar for trained
and untrained individuals at submaximal workloads. This is because
the trained person will have a higher stroke volume and lower heart rate
compared to the untrained individual, who will have the higher heart rate
and lower stroke volume. For example:
An untrained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate
of 140 and a stroke volume of 100 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
140 x 100 = 14 L/min.
A trained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate of
100 and a stroke volume of 140 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
100 x 140 = 14 L/min.
The main difference between trained and untrained individuals is
their maximal cardiac output. Trained athletes have recorded maximal
Figure 5.25
Distribution of cardiac
cardiac outputs of 40 litres compared to untrained individuals who average
output at rest and during 20 litres. Women will tend to have a slightly lower cardiac output than
maximal exercise men have.
Splanchnic
Other (300 mL) 1%
(600 mL) 10%
Renal
Skin Splanchnic (250 mL) 1%
(1400 mL) 24% Other
(500 mL) 9% (~100 mL) 1%
Cerebral
(900 mL) 3%
Skin
(600 mL) 2%
Coronary muscle
(1000 mL) 4%
Coronary muscle
(250 mL) 4%
Cerebral
Skeletal muscle
(750 mL) 13% (22,000 mL) 88%
Figure 5.25 illustrates the distribution of cardiac output at rest and during
maximal exercise. We see in this example that cardiac output rose from
5.8 litres at rest to 25 litres during maximal exercise. The main change has
been the redistribution of blood from the various body organs to the skeletal
muscles, which now receive 88 per cent of cardiac output (compared to 21
per cent at rest) in an attempt to meet the muscles’ demand for oxygen. As a
thermoregulatory measure (in other words, to keep the body cool), there is an
increase in blood flow to the skin during maximal exercise.
Lactate levels
Lactate is produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates and is cleared from
the body by the muscles. Under resting conditions, its clearance rate is in
balance, resulting in constant levels of 1–2 mmol/L. During exercise, lactate
levels will increase as the body produces lactic acid to create energy for the
muscles. The amount will vary depending on the intensity of the exercise.
High-intensity exercise will create higher lactate levels.
As depicted in figure 5.26, during low intensity exercise the lactate
levels remain fairly stable. However, as intensity increases and the body has
a greater demand for energy, the production of lactate exceeds the rate at
which it can be removed. Consequently, we get an exponential rise in blood
lactate accumulation. It is thought that this is due to a reliance on anaerobic
glycolysis, less oxygen being available in the tissues, the recruitment of fast
twitch-fibres and the reduced removal of lactate.
Three elements of the lactate curve provide important information for the
coach. These are the intensity or speed of exercise that corresponds to lactate
threshold, the maximum amount of lactate that can be produced and the
slope of the curve. Lactate threshold is the speed or intensity of exercise that
results in a sustained increase in lactate concentration above resting levels.
Therefore, below this workload is where someone can exercise at a steady
state. For untrained people this generally corresponds to 50–60 per cent
VO2max, whereas in trained endurance athletes this can be at 75–85 per cent
VO2max. The maximum amount of lactate that can be produced is a reflection
of a person’s anaerobic conditioning, with 400-metre runners recording
maximum lactate levels of >20 mmol/L. The slope of the curve for trained Figure 5.26 Lactate
athletes is shifted to the right. response to exercise
Once maximal exercise ceases, lactate levels will
begin to return to resting levels. Passive recovery
results in 50 per cent of the lactate removed within
14
15–20 minutes, and resting levels restored after 30–60 Trained
12
Blood lactate (mmol . L–1)
Table 5.24
Summary of AT REST MAXIMAL EXERCISE
physiological Male, age 30 untrained trained untrained trained
responses at rest
and during maximal Heart rate (bpm) 72 40 190 190
exercise
Stroke volume (mL/beat) 50–70 80–110 100–120 Up to 200
Cardiac output (L/min) 5–6 5–6 20 40
Ventilation rate (L/min) 6 6 130 170
Lactate levels (mmol/L) 1–2 1–2 10 20
chapter review
Recap
Cardiorespiratory endurance refers to the circulatory and respiratory systems’ ability
to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide and waste products during
sustained exercise. Having a good cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of
suffering from heart disease, blood pressure problems and other health problems. A high
level of cardiorespiratory endurance is also beneficial in sports such as cross-country
running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various team sports.
Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against resistance. This is often
measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. Strength training can improve our
metabolism and our posture and it provides better bone strength to assist in guarding
against osteoporosis. Sports such as weightlifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high
degree of strength for successful performance.
chapter review
Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some time. Athletes
such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football players, basketball players
and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle endurance. Having high levels of
muscular endurance makes it easier to perform everyday tasks, improves posture and can
reduce the instance of back pain.
Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement of a joint. Ideally,
you want to be flexible enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks
include specific sporting activities, there will be a need for greater flexibility at different
joints. A greater range of movement enhances the capacity to develop force.
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle, organs and fat in one’s body. Body fat
is the main component of body composition that is monitored and it can have a detrimental
effect on our wellbeing and performance. Having a high body fat percentage—particularly
around the abdomen—can increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2
diabetes. When body fat levels become too low, the immune system can be compromised.
A range of skill-related fitness components (power, speed, agility, coordination, balance
and reaction time) is critical to be able to execute a skill successfully. If an athlete exhibits
the qualities needed for their chosen sport, they have a significantly better chance of
success than if they did not possess these qualities.
Testing fitness components is a key to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is
appropriate and if they are administered correctly, benefits include identifying strengths
and weaknesses; identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength; and monitoring
progression.
Aerobic training specifically aims at enabling you to use your aerobic energy system more
effectively. This will result in you being able to exercise for longer without fatiguing, as
well as being able to recover more quickly during rest periods. Anaerobic fitness, on the
other hand, refers to your ability to perform short high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic
energy system.
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist you in
planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating the various
components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression and overload, so you
are more likely to achieve your goals.
Exam-style questions
1 The following graph shows the lactate response during a 1500-metre race.
16
Series 1
14
mmoI/L lactose levels
12
10
6
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Distance 100 metres
a Identify the stage of the race that corresponds with the runner’s anaerobic threshold.
b Explain why there was an increase in lactate levels towards the end of the race.
c Discuss the type of recovery strategy you would recommend to assist the removal
of lactic acid.
d Describe the heart-rate response during the race. (5 marks)
2 The following components have been identified as being important for tennis
performance. Outline one test for each component that you would recommend be
chapter review
3 Using the FITT principle, design a one-week training program for a person
in their late twenties, who has not done any exercise since school. (10 marks)
Biomechanics combines the study of biology and mechanics to explain how the body functions
as a machine. An understanding of biomechanics allows us to answer many questions about
6
how people move. For example, what technique will enable a hockey player to shoot a ball at
maximum velocity and how do we learn to produce that technique? Or how might catching a
cricket ball cause injury to the hands and how do we prevent this? This chapter will introduce
you to a few of the more important concepts in biomechanics and how they can be applied to
human movement.
Motion
Being able to describe exactly what movements occur is essential before we
can begin to understand what movements athletes should be performing.
We can describe movement by specifying where an object is located, how fast
it is moving in a particular direction, and how quickly the speed is changing.
For example, we might analyse a tennis stroke by describing the part of the
court from which the tennis ball was hit, which direction it travelled, how
fast it moved, how the speed of movement changed during flight, and where
the ball landed in the opponent’s court. Once we know exactly how the stroke
was performed, then we can start to think about how this might be improved.
The ball might be struck faster to beat an opponent or more slowly to land
closer to the net; it might be hit with spin to change the ball’s flight through
the air; or it might be sent in a particular direction away from the opponent.
illustrates the position of a netball player, playing centre, as she moves about
the court during a game. At any given point in time, her displacement can be
described by measuring how far she is from the centre circle in metres. The
Distance the path travelled distance this player ran can be measured by following the path created by her
by an object as it moves from displacement during the game. As you can see, centres run a great distance
one displacement to another.
around the court, often travelling more than 8 kilometres during a match.
Figure 6.1
Displacement of a
netball player
Figure 6.2
Usain Bolt celebrates his
win in the 2008 Olympic
100-metre sprint final
Figure 6.3
a Displacement Displacement, velocity and
acceleration of Usain Bolt
120 during the 2008 Olympic
Displacement (m)
100 100-metres sprint final
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
b Velocity
14
12
Velocity (m/s)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
c Acceleration
15
10
Acceleration (m/s/s)
0
2 4 6 8 10
–5
–10
Time (s)
displacement during this race, together with his velocity and acceleration Axes plural of axis. An axis
that we will discuss in later sections. Only a single dimension is necessary to is a mathematical line used
to describe displacement as
understand this movement as he does not move from side to side, and vertical distance from some arbitrary
movements do not affect his time to cover the distance. From figure 6.3a, we zero position. If two or
can see that at time zero (when the gun went off), Bolt had a displacement of three axes are used, these
are located perpendicular
zero metres because he was still at the start line. Two seconds after the start, to one another so that
he had a displacement of 11 metres in front of the start line; at four seconds displacement can be measured
his displacement was 33 metres; and so on, until he reached the finish line independently along each axis.
(100 metres) at 9.69 seconds.
The netball displacement illustrated in figure 6.1 is an example of a
two-dimensional measurement. The figure enables us to visualise how much
the player moves forward and back, as well as left and right on the court.
At any particular point in time, we can describe her position by stating how
many metres she is located in front or behind the centre circle, and how far
to the left or right. Figure 6.4 is also a two-dimensional diagram that shows
the side view of a gymnast performing a handstand. Using the vertical and
horizontal axes on the diagram, we can locate any part of the body
by describing how far that body part is located from the vertical and
horizontal axes. For example, the ankle is located 1.5 metres above
0.3 m the horizontal axis and 0.3 metres in front of the vertical axes. The
hands, however, are 0 metres from the horizontal axis, but 0.25
metres in front of the vertical axes. Using diagrams like this enables
us to quantify exactly what position the body is adopting at any
instant in time. Specialist computer software allows sport scientists to
analyse video images to determine exactly where each body segment
is located in each frame of the video, and to track the movements of
those body segments over time.
1.5 m
Some movements need three dimensions to be described
accurately. For example, if you wished to describe the movement of a
Vertical axis
hiker crossing the Blue Mountains, then you would need to consider
changes in height, as well as movements north/south and east/west,
if you were to understand the path they took. Similarly, to fully
understand the movement of the tennis ball described earlier, we
would need to consider how high the ball travelled, as well as what
position it was forwards/backwards and left/right.
That is, if we measure the time taken to cover a known distance, we can
calculate the speed of movement. For example, Eamon Sullivan set a freestyle
world record at the Beijing Olympics with a time of 47.05 seconds for
100 metres. His average speed for this race was therefore:
speed = distance
time
= 100 m
47.05 s
= 2.13 m/s
When an object is moving at high speed, it does not take as much time
to cover a specified distance as would a slower moving object. A tennis ball
struck at high speed will not give your opponent much time to prepare to hit
the ball back. Similarly, a rugby league player running at high speed leaves
less time for opponents to intercept before he reaches the try line. Rearranging
the speed equation demonstrates this point by showing us that:
time = distance
speed
The term velocity is often considered to have the same meaning as speed, Velocity (or speed) may be
but in mechanical terms, it is calculated using the formula: formally defined as the ‘rate
of change in displacement’.
velocity = change in displacement That is, velocity tells us how
time quickly an object changes
its displacement from one
While the calculation for velocity is almost the same as for speed, the location to another.
difference is the same as that between displacement and distance. Speed is
calculated from the distance covered, no matter what path that distance takes.
Velocity, however, uses the displacement of an object and, therefore, considers
only the absolute difference between the starting and finishing positions,
not the actual distance covered. We will usually use the terms ‘speed’ and
‘velocity’ interchangeably. We are usually more interested in speed, but the
mathematics of what we measure might give velocity instead. From now on,
we will simply use the term ‘velocity’, knowing that occasionally we really
mean speed instead.
The winner of a running race should always be the person with the
smallest time to complete the race. That is, the person with the highest
Average velocity measured
velocity over the race distance will win. We need to be careful about this by considering the change in
statement, however, because our formula for calculating velocity gives only displacement divided by the
the average velocity throughout the entire period analysed. Usain Bolt’s time taken.
record time for 100 metres was 9.69 seconds, giving an average velocity of
10.32 m/s. From figure 6.3b, however, we can see that his velocity peaked at
more than 12 m/s. There obviously had to be some time at the beginning of
the race when his velocity built up from zero, reducing his average to 10.32.
The winner of a race is not necessarily the person with the highest maximum
velocity, but is the person with the highest average velocity over the entire
race. This average velocity contains a reaction time at the beginning of
each race when the speed is zero, before the athlete starts to move. Reducing
this reaction time can have a large effect on race time without requiring any
increase in running speed.
If we want to understand how velocity is changing during a race, then we
need to consider the instantaneous velocity of an athlete. Figure 6.3b is a graph Instantaneous velocity
the velocity of an object at
of instantaneous velocity, showing us how the velocity continuously changed
a specific instance in time.
during the race. From this graph, we can see that Bolt’s speed was initially Instantaneous velocity can
zero at the beginning of the race, and then gradually rose up to a peak of about change within the period used
12.5 m/s. Interestingly, this graph also shows his speed was decreasing rapidly to calculate average speed.
towards the end of the race as he started to celebrate his win. At the time, this
led commentators to speculate that a time of 9.5 seconds was within reach had
he been pushed for the entire race. These comments were supported by his
subsequent world record of 9.58 seconds at the 2009 World Championships.
Acceleration
Acceleration the rate of When velocity is changing, we define acceleration as being the rate at which
change in velocity. This is a velocity (or speed) is increasing or decreasing. Acceleration may be calculated
similar concept to velocity
itself. While velocity tells us
from either speed or velocity and, again, the difference between displacement
how quickly an object changes and distance must be considered, but we will continue to refer just to velocity.
its position, acceleration tells The formula for calculating acceleration is:
us how quickly it changes
velocity. acceleration = change in velocity
time
Like velocity and speed, our calculation of acceleration is an average value
over the time being analysed, and it is possible for instantaneous acceleration
to vary within this period. Figure 6.3b shows us the instantaneous velocity of
Usain Bolt during his run at the Beijing Olympics. Bolt’s velocity increased
from 0 to 12.5 m/s over the first four seconds of the race. From this, we can
Average acceleration like calculate his average acceleration during these four seconds as:
velocity, acceleration can only
be directly calculated as an acceleration = change in velocity
average between two points in time
time. The formula for average
acceleration is therefore the = 12.5 m/s – 0
change in velocity divided by 4s
time.
= 3.125 m/s2
A large acceleration tells us that velocity is changing quickly. When a
golf ball is struck, its velocity can change from zero to about 50 m/s in a time
of just 0.4 seconds. This is an average acceleration of 125 m/s2; considerably
higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we calculated for Usain Bolt. When acceleration
is zero, this means that velocity is not changing. It is possible to be travelling
very quickly and still have zero acceleration. Zero acceleration just means that
velocity is not changing; it does not tell you what that velocity is.
Figure 6.3c shows a peak acceleration much higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we
calculated earlier for average acceleration. This is because, as with velocity,
there was a period before Bolt started to move when his acceleration was
zero. His peak acceleration occurred just after he commenced moving, while
his feet were still in contact with the starting blocks giving a large force to
accelerate him forward. After leaving the blocks, he continued to accelerate
until reaching top speed, but the faster he went the more difficult it was to
keep accelerating. His acceleration therefore declined after the initial peak.
The average acceleration, 3.125 m/s2, is the average of all acceleration values
in the period from zero to four seconds.
At around 4.4 seconds, Bolt’s velocity reached a maximum point when it
was no longer increasing. At this time, we see the instantaneous acceleration
was zero; that is, velocity was not changing at this point. After this time,
the acceleration was often negative. When a person is moving forward
with positive velocity, negative acceleration implies that their velocity
is decreasing, so they were slowing down. The small burst of positive
acceleration between 7.1 and 8.3 seconds meant that Bolt’s velocity increased
again for a time, but there was quite a rapid slowing after this, indicated by
the large magnitude of negative acceleration.
Momentum
Once an object starts to move, it has a tendency to keep on moving. This
property of objects is known as momentum. Momentum may be calculated Momentum sometimes
using the formula: defined as the ‘quantity
of motion’. Momentum is
momentum = mass x velocity calculated from the mass of
an object multiplied by its
For example, a discus with a mass of 2 kilograms and a velocity of 20 m/s will velocity.
have a momentum of 40 kg m/s. The faster an object moves, or the more mass
possessed by that object, the greater the momentum. Mass measured in kilograms,
mass refers to the amount
Objects possessing a large amount of momentum can be very difficult to of matter in your body. It
stop moving. Some rugby players who have a large mass, and who can run can affect the motion of an
very fast, become very difficult to stop as they charge towards the try line. object. We must always be
very careful to define mass
Smaller players have less mass, and hence they must run more quickly to differently from weight.
generate the same momentum. If a player does not have as much momentum,
they become easier to stop in a tackle. Smaller players must rely more
Centre of gravity
Gravity exerts a force on our body that pulls us down towards the Earth. This
will be discussed in much more detail later on in the Force section. Gravity
acts on all parts of our body, in proportion to the weight of each body part.
Therefore, gravity exerts a larger force on our head than it does on our fingers,
because of the larger weight of the head.
Centre of gravity the point Our centre of gravity is a spot within the body where gravity is balanced
at which the weight of a body above, below and on either side. For objects with symmetrical distribution
is balanced above, below and
on either side. of weight, such as a ball or wooden ruler, the centre of gravity is right in the
middle of the object. Most objects, however, have one end that is heavier
than the other, so the centre of gravity will be located closer towards the
heavy end. For all objects, regardless of weight distribution, the centre of
gravity is the balance point of that object. For example, you can balance a
30-centimetre ruler on your finger at the 15-centimetre mark, the middle of
the ruler. If you place an eraser on one end of the ruler, however, this moves
the centre of gravity towards that end, and you need to slide the ruler along
your finger to find the balance point. Humans have more weight in their head
and chest than they do in their feet. Therefore, the centre of gravity is slightly
higher than half the height, usually about 55–60 per cent of standing height.
This will vary somewhat between individuals, depending on factors such as
leg length, upper body development, and the distribution of muscle and fat Figure 6.5
within the body. Because we are fairly symmetrical left to right, the centre of The centre of gravity for
gravity is in the midline of our body when viewed from the front. different objects
Base of support
While we are standing on two feet, our base of support is determined by an
Figure 6.7
area enclosed by the outline of the feet. Figure 6.7 shows that, as you move
Line of gravity and base your feet further apart, the size of the base of support increases from left to
of support right. The use of crutches further increases our base of support, as this base
is determined by the area enclosed by whatever is
in contact with the ground, shown in figure 6.8.
Depending on where the crutches are positioned,
the base of support can be increased in size either
forwards and backwards (figure 6.8b), side-to-side
(figure 6.8a), or both (figure 6.8c).
For a person to maintain a stable position, the
line of gravity must pass through the base of support.
If the line of gravity falls outside the base of support,
it is impossible to be balanced and we must either
adopt a new posture or else fall over. If we are in a
position where the line of gravity is very close to
the edge of the base of support, then we feel at risk
of falling over because there is very little room to
move without the line of gravity passing outside
the base of support. A position close to the edge is
problematic because we are never exactly stationary.
We are always moving slightly forward and back,
left to right, and this normal level of movement risks
passing the line of gravity outside the base if we
stray too close to the edge.
Figure 6.8
Line of gravity and base
of support
a b c
Figure 6.9
A stable posture requires
the line of gravity to be
located within the base
of support
a b c
balance retained balance precarious balance lost
Several approaches may be used to increase the stability of the body. First
of all, a larger base of support will increase stability. This is because more
movement is allowed before the line of gravity gets close to the edge of the
base of support. Lowering your body will also increase stability. With a lower
centre of gravity, the body can tilt more from side to side without the line
of gravity passing outside the base of support. Finally, increased mass will
increase stability. A larger mass tends to remain steadier and requires more
force to be accelerated. This point is explained later in the section Applying
force to an object.
relatively dense and tend to sink. Muscle tissue has a very similar density to
water. Consequently, heavily muscled people do not necessarily sink more
easily than the rest of us; the percentage of fat in the body has a much larger
effect on whether you float or sink.
Centre of buoyancy
Centre of gravity is the balance point of the body, where weight is equally
distributed on either side. We use this point to illustrate the force of gravity
Centre of buoyancy the (i.e. weight) on diagrams of the body. A concept related to this is the centre
point in the body where the of buoyancy. This is the point where all the volume of the body underwater
amount of volume under the
water is equally distributed
is distributed evenly on each side. Because the buoyant force is caused by the
on either side. The centre of volume of water displaced, the centre of buoyancy becomes the point where
buoyancy tends to be higher in the buoyant force is located as shown in figure 6.12.
your body than the centre of
The centre of gravity is usually located slightly lower in the body (i.e.
gravity, because of the effects
of dense legs at one end and closer to the feet) than is the centre of buoyancy, as you can see in figure
low-density lungs towards the 6.12c. This is because the lungs are in the top half of the body, displacing a
other end. relatively large volume compared to weight (i.e. low density), while the legs
are relatively dense because of their strong bone structure. This means that
there is more volume per unit weight in the upper part of the body, and less
volume for a given weight in the lower part.
When a body is suspended in water, it will rotate until the centre of
buoyancy and the centre of gravity are aligned, one above the other. You can
imagine this effect by looking at figure 6.12c and imagining a cutout figure of
the body. Pull downwards on the centre of gravity, and upwards on the centre
of buoyancy, and the body will rotate. Once the two points are aligned as in
figure 6.13, the two forces will hold the body in that position.
Because the centre of buoyancy is higher in the body than the centre of
gravity, the legs usually sink when people try to float on their back. There
are several strategies that swimming teachers use to help people float more
horizontally. One approach is to have the swimmer bend their knees, as
shown in figure 6.13a. This moves the centre of gravity up towards the
Fluid resistance a force that The amount of fluid resistance is proportional to the density of fluid, so there
opposes movement through is obviously much more resistance moving through water (density = 1 kg/L)
a fluid.
compared to air (0.0012 kg/L).
Surface drag caused by Fluid resistance increases in proportion to the speed of movement squared
friction between the surface
(F v2). This means that if speed doubles from 1 metre to 2 metres per
of an object and the fluid
surrounding it. A larger surface second, the amount of resistance will be quadrupled. If speed increases four
area or a rougher surface will times, the drag force will be increased by a factor of sixteen. This means that
increase the amount of surface resistance is much more important for fast movements than it is for slow
drag present.
ones. For example, track cyclists go to great lengths to reduce resistance
Form drag determined by the on their bikes and helmets, but marathon runners pay little attention to the
size and shape of an object. aerodynamic nature of their clothing.
Objects with lower form drag
have a narrower profile and a Fluid resistance is caused by three different effects: surface drag, form
tapered shape at the back. drag and wave drag. The first type, surface drag, is caused by friction between
an object and the air or water around it. The amount of surface drag is caused
Wave drag produced
when an object moves near by the density of fluid, the speed of movement, the smoothness of the object
the boundary between two and the amount of surface area in contact with the fluid. A rougher surface
different types of fluid (e.g. increases the friction between the body and fluid, raising the amount of drag
water and air).
force to be overcome, while a smoother surface decreases the friction. Rowing
Friction a force present boats, for example, are highly polished, creating a smooth surface that water
between two objects that can flow past easily. Synthetic materials were adopted for swimsuits quite
are sliding past, or tending
to slide past each other. early on to reduce the surface drag associated with older woollen swimwear.
Friction acts in a direction Form drag is the second type of resistance acting on objects moving
opposite to the movement of through a fluid. This resistance is determined by the shape (or form) of an
the objects, tending to oppose
the movement.
object, the size of the object and how the fluid moves around this shape.
When an object moves through fluid, there is usually some air pocket at the
Cavitation resistance caused back that is sucked along behind the object (figure 6.14b). This pocket forms
by an air pocket behind the
object being sucked along in because the object pushes air (or water) out of the way as it moves through,
its wake. This same effect but the fluid cannot change direction quickly enough to get in behind the
also occurs in water, where object and fill up the cavity. For this reason, the effect is often referred to
fluid is dragged along behind
an object.
as cavitation. Providing a tapered shape at the back of the object leads the
fluid flows around either side of the object to join at the back, thus reducing
Figure 6.14
The effect of shape on a
cavitation and form drag
the size of the cavity and reducing the form drag (figure 6.14a). This tapered Figure 6.15
shape is typical of all objects required to travel at high speed with low fluid Objects designed for low
resistance as shown in figure 6.15. form drag possess a similar
tapered shape at the back
The amount of form drag can change depending on how the fluid flows
to reduce cavitation
past the object. Sometimes a slightly rougher surface on an object can reduce
form drag by helping the fluid to stay close to the object as it flows around,
and thus diminishes the amount of cavitation. Figure 6.16 illustrates the Laminar flow fluid moving
effects of dimples pressed into the surface of a golf ball. When air flows past with laminar flow travels in
a smooth ball, it tends to keep moving in a straight line (laminar flow) and straight lines, like flat sheets.
Laminar flow of a fluid will
thus creates a large air pocket at the back. The effect of dimples is to trip result in that fluid tending to
the air as it moves past so that it starts to move in different directions in a remain travelling in a straight
chaotic fashion (turbulent flow). Because the air is already changing direction line as it passes an object,
potentially increasing the size
through its turbulent flow, it does not tend to remain travelling in a straight
of the air pocket behind the
line and can change direction to fill up the cavity at the rear of the ball. This object.
reduces the amount of form drag.
Turbulent flow fluid having a
The effect of smoothness on fluid resistance can be confusing to us because turbulent flow moves chaotically
roughening an object will always increase the amount of surface drag, but in many directions. Because
can sometimes reduce the amount of form drag, if it substantially reduces the fluid is already changing
directions frequently, it tends to
the amount of cavitation. Dimples reduce the amount of air resistance on a
fill in behind an object moving
golf ball only because the resulting reduction in form drag is greater than the past and therefore, reduces the
increase in surface drag. size of the air pocket.
Turbulent
Separation boundary layer Separation
Laminar
boundary layer
Figure 6.16 Dimples reduce a golf ball’s form drag by reducing the amount of cavitation behind the ball
Frontal area the area of the Form drag is also determined by the frontal area of an object in the
object viewed head on in direction of movement. Frontal area can be imagined as the area of a
the direction of movement.
photograph taken from directly in front of the object. Narrower objects will
have a smaller cavity behind them and therefore, will have reduced form drag.
This requirement is what makes rowing boats so narrow and therefore, easy to
tip over. If a boat was widened for increased stability, this would increase the
amount of form drag and, therefore, the effort required for rowing. Similarly,
flexing the legs during the recovery phase of breaststroke swimming greatly
increases the frontal area, causing increased form drag and causing the body
to slow down at this time (figure 6.17a). Breaststrokers are trained to maintain
a streamlined position for as long as possible to minimise the drag on the
body (figure 6.17b).
Figure 6.17
The third type of fluid resistance is called wave drag. This occurs at the
Increased frontal area
during the recovery phase interface between different fluid types, usually water and air. Swimming
of breaststroke swimming along on the surface of the water causes waves to arise as the body interacts
increases form drag with the water. These waves greatly increase the amount of drag present.
The amount of wave drag present at
any time is a complex relationship
a
between the shape, length and speed
of an object. In the 1950s, breaststroke
swimmers discovered they could
minimise the wave drag by swimming
under the water instead of on top of it.
This increased their speed through the
water, but greatly reduced the appeal
of races for spectators. After the 1956
Olympic games, breaststroke rules
b
were changed so that only one stroke
at the beginning of each lap can be
performed underwater.
Basketball shoes produce high friction on a wooden floor, but not so much
on grass. In contrast, football boots produce relatively high friction on grass,
but can be very slippery when walking on concrete. Hiking boots may not be
perfect on any surface, but are designed to provide reasonable friction across a
range of different ground surfaces.
Producing large friction forces, therefore, requires you to have two surfaces
in contact that produce high friction properties, and for you to hold the two
surfaces together with a large amount of force. For example, if you want
to hold onto a tennis racquet without it slipping from your hand, then you
need to squeeze hard with your fingers to apply a force holding the hand
in contact with the racquet. You also need to make sure the handle of the
racquet is not slippery against your hand. This can be done by taping the
grip with appropriate material that doesn’t slip, making sure your hand isn’t
wet from sweat which makes the grip more slippery, or by applying some
other material, such as rosin powder between the grip and your hand. There
are products available that can be sprayed onto the grip surface to maximise
friction and, therefore, control.
When a moving object, such as a ball, hits your body, it applies a force to
your body. The amount of force applied depends on the momentum of the
moving object and on the amount of time over which the force is applied. The
Impulse calculated as product of force and time is called impulse. When a moving object hits your
force multiplied by time. body and comes to a halt, the impulse (Newton seconds, or N s) required to
For example, a force of 100
Newtons applied for a time of
halt the object is equal to the momentum (kg m/s) of that object. For example,
2 seconds produces an impulse a ball of mass 0.5 kilograms travelling at 20 m/s will have a momentum of 10
of 200 N s. kg m/s, so an impulse of 10 N s must be applied to halt the ball. This impulse
of 10 N s could be produced by a force of 10 Newtons applied for 1 second, or
equally by a force of 100 Newtons applied for only 0.1 seconds. In both cases,
the impulse is the same, and so the ball will be brought to a halt completely,
but the amount of force involved is very different. A force of 100 Newtons is
obviously more difficult to control and more likely to cause an injury.
Successful control of collisions with the body, therefore, requires the
body to increase the duration of time over which the force is applied. When
catching a cricket ball, for example, players keep their fingers, wrists and
arms relatively loose before impact so that the hands move backwards at
impact, increasing the duration of impact. This can greatly reduce the force
of impact compared to a stiff-armed catch, reducing the force against the
hand and reducing the likelihood of the ball bouncing straight back out of
the hands. Baseball catchers achieve the same effect using a large padded
glove. When the ball contacts the glove the padding compresses, bringing
the ball to a halt more gradually and, therefore, reducing the average amount
of force required to generate the required impulse. This same principle can
be applied whenever padding is used to reduce impact injuries. High-jump
landing mats, running shoes and bicycle helmets are all designed to compress
on impact, increasing the deceleration time and thus reducing the amount
of force required. The foam in bicycle helmets allows this compression, and
is therefore the most important component of a helmet. The hard plastic
shell over a helmet provides some protection for the foam and gives a more
attractive appearance, but does not directly affect the safety performance
because it does not compress.
= 1000 – 588 N
60 kg
= 412 N
60 kg
= 6.9 m/s2
Figure 6.20
The force applied to a ball a b c
during a catch is equal and
opposite to that applied to
the hand
Only forces coming from outside a body are able to cause acceleration
of that body. For example, you can squeeze your fist as tight as you like,
but it will not propel you anywhere. Only when your hand pushes against
some external object, and that object pushes back against your hand through
Newton’s third law, can we produce acceleration. The diagrams we draw to
analyse movement therefore only ever show forces coming from outside the
body. Our muscles initiate much of the force that causes us to move, but only
when the muscles push our limbs against some external object can they be
effective in causing acceleration.
Once an external force is applied to an object, then acceleration occurs in
the direction of that applied force. If a sprinter needs to accelerate forward
at the beginning of a race, then he must push backwards against the ground,
so that the ground will push him forward. Sprinters lean forward so they can
better direct the forces backward against the ground. Similarly, if a shot putter
needs to direct his put higher into the air to increase the flight distance, then
he needs to get his shoulder below the shot so that extending his arm will
direct it upward as well as forwards. The use of diagrams can be invaluable in
imagining what direction forces need to be applied for effective performance
in any sport. By illustrating all the forces acting on an object, you can then
visualise the acceleration that would result from those forces.
Newton’s laws tell us about acceleration. His second law tells us how
much acceleration will occur as a result of a force being applied. The total
velocity change in response to an applied force, however, is determined by
how long the acceleration continues, as well as by how much acceleration
there is. The longer a force is applied, the longer the body will spend
accelerating and, therefore, the more the total velocity will change. We have
already considered the effect of force and time multiplied together, and called
this impulse. Impulse is not only important for stopping moving objects, but Figure 6.21
also for increasing speed, if that is desired. The greater the combination of Path of movement during
force and time, the more momentum, and hence velocity, will increase. shot put release
When children first learn to
perform a shot put, they stand
in one position and forcefully
extend the knees and elbows to
put the shot forward and upward.
This technique produces large
acceleration of the put, but there
is a limit to the amount of time
the force can be applied because
the arm very quickly reaches
full extension and the put leaves
the hand. The next stage of the
technique involves performers
starting at the very back of the
circle and gliding forward to the
front before release (figure 6.21).
This technique allows force to be
applied to the put for a longer time,
increasing the impulse applied
to the shot, and consequently
resulting in a higher release velocity. Many modern shot putters now use
a rotational technique, like a discus wind up, where the body spins prior
to release, allowing even more time for force to be applied and, therefore,
producing an even greater impulse.
During a shot put, the athlete commences at the very back of the circle and
glides towards the front as he accelerates the shot. The dotted line illustrates
the path taken by the shot before release. By increasing the time over which
force is applied, a greater impulse can be applied to the shot, resulting in a
higher release velocity.
chapter review
Recap
Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be used to describe the position of an object,
how fast its position is changing and how quickly the speed is changing.
Momentum is the product of mass times velocity. An object with more momentum will
be more difficult to stop moving.
Adopting a stable posture requires the centre of gravity to be located above the base of
support. Increasing stability involves strategies to ensure that the line of gravity does not
move outside this base.
Bodies immersed in water experience an upwards force called buoyancy that is
proportional to the weight of water displaced by the body’s volume underwater.
Adopting a horizontal floating position requires the centre of gravity and centre of
buoyancy to be aligned at the same location in the body.
Objects moving through air or water experience a fluid resistance force that increases
with the square of velocity. Faster moving objects therefore have much more fluid
resistance than do slower objects.
Different causes of fluid resistance are surface drag, caused by the amount of surface
area and the smoothness of the object; form drag, caused by the shape of the object
and its frontal area; and wave drag, caused by movements of the object at the interface
between two different fluids (for example, water and air).
Weight and mass are quite different concepts. Weight is the force of gravity measured
in Newtons. Mass is a measure of a body’s inertia, determined by the amount of matter
packed into the body and expressed in kilograms.
The body can apply force to other objects through weight, by contracting the muscles,
or by using momentum.
When moving objects collide with the body (or vice versa), enough force needs to
be applied over the time of contact in order to remove the momentum of the object.
Applying force over a longer time allows momentum to be removed without requiring
as much force to be applied.
Newton’s laws of motion describe how an object will respond when a force is applied by
telling us whether velocity changes, what the size of the acceleration will be, and how
forces will be returned from one object to another.
Coaches’ Information Service www.coachesinfo.com Articles about sport science and improving
performance. Although not exclusively a
biomechanics site, there are many articles
describing the biomechanics of sports
BioLab www.biolab.org.uk The downloads page from the BioLab web site
provides many practical activities that can be used
for teaching biomechanics. Although designed
primarily for university students, there are many
activities that will be suitable for high school
students
Teachers’ Information Service www.usfca.edu/ess/tis Again, a site designed more for university
students, there are once again practical
activities that can be used to teach principles
of biomechanics
Exam-style questions
1 View the velocity–time graph in figure 6.3 and answer the following questions:
a What was the maximum velocity reached during the race? (1 mark)
c What was the average acceleration from time zero up until maximum (2 marks)
velocity?
d Describe how velocity was changing over the last second of the race. (2 marks)
2 Describe the strategies that people use to hold a stable, balanced position.
For example, how they hold a balance position during a gymnastics routine. (4 marks)
3 Explain why people do not always float in a horizontal position, and what
strategies can be used to make the body more horizontal. (4 marks)
5 What is Newton’s second law of motion? Use this law to explain why it
would be difficult to play table tennis with a normal tennis ball while still
using a table tennis bat. (4 marks)
The term ‘first aid’ refers to the giving of aid or assistance to someone in need, when you
are the first person on the scene of an accident or urgent medical situation. While the
majority of people go about their daily routine without disruption, health emergencies can
7
occur without warning. Having fundamental first aid knowledge and skills can go a long way
towards assisting in an emergency and could mean the difference between life and death
for the people involved. This chapter will provide an overview of vital first aid information
and will consider some ethical questions that should be taken into account concerning the
administration of first aid.
Bystander someone who is casualty and ensure that no further harm occurs to the victim, any bystanders
present at a particular event or themself. A situational analysis should take no more than a few minutes
or situation but is not directly
involved—an onlooker. and can be conducted through observation and questioning. Things to
consider when conducting a situational analysis include:
Emergency services the
police, ambulance and fire What has occurred and is a risk of further danger?
brigade. What can be done to make the situation safer?
Is anyone’s life in immediate danger?
Are the casualties contained in one place or spread out over a larger area?
How many people appear injured and/or ill and what is the severity of
their injuries or illnesses?
Are there other people who may be able to assist?
How can emergency services be contacted, who will contact them and
how far away are they?
What first aid equipment (if any) is available?
During the situational analysis, the first aider should arrange for medical
and/or emergency assistance. Emergency services personnel are specially
trained for these situations and therefore, it is essential that they attend the
scene as quickly as possible. The first aider should phone 000 or, if 000 does
not work from a mobile phone, try 112 or direct someone else to do this.
It is important that the caller provide clear and detailed information about
Figure 7.1 the situation.
Stay focused, stay relevant,
stay on the line
Priority assessment procedures
In an emergency, it is essential that patients be treated in order of priority,
depending on the severity and/or life-threatening nature of their injuries or
conditions. An emergency action plan that includes the situational analysis
can assist the first aider to remain calm and in control and assess which
casualties’ needs are greatest. Priority should always be given to unconscious
patients. Bleeding patients should also be given priority treatment as to loss
of blood can lead to shock and, in turn, to loss of consciousness. The most
simple emergency action plan to follow is the DRABCD Action Plan.
DRABCD
The DRABCD acronym stands for: D Danger
R Response
A Airway
B Breathing
C Circulation
D Defibrillation
The DRABCD Action Plan assists the first aider to be confident in their
Assessment an evaluation assessment of the situation. By following the steps highlighted by each letter
of the situation. of the plan, the first aider can make informed decisions about resuscitation,
serious injury treatment and treatment of other injuries and/or conditions.
Danger
In many emergencies, there is a degree of danger. This danger can be to
the patient, the bystanders and/or to the person administering the first aid.
Before any first aid treatment is given, it is vitally important that the first
aider check for any danger associated with the emergency and ensure that the
environment is safe before proceeding. Danger can take the form of traffic,
body fluids, poisons, gas leaks, live electrical wires, fire, overhanging debris,
unstable surfaces, aggressive bystanders, animals and/or flammable materials. Body fluids include blood,
The first aider should be on the look out for ways to remove any current saliva, mucus, vomit, urine,
tears, sweat, semen, vaginal
danger and to prevent new dangers from occurring. As far as possible, the fluid.
casualty should not be removed from their position unless there is immediate
danger. A first aider should not make decisions that put themself or others
at risk and, if they believe that the situation cannot be altered to reduce any
potential danger, it is best to wait for emergency personnel to arrive.
Danger may also come from the casualty. They may be aggressive,
uncooperative, scared or under the influence of drugs. The first aider should
not attempt to administer first aid until they are confident it is safe to approach
the patient. Talking calmly to the injured or ill person to provide reassurance
and establish a rapport can help make them easier to approach and assist.
Response
When it is established that there is no danger, assessment of the patient can
begin. The first step is to determine whether the person is conscious. This can Conscious refers to a person
be done by checking for a response to questions such as: Can you hear me? being alert and awake.
Figure 7.2
To put someone in the
recovery position, kneel
beside the person and
position their arms and legs
as shown
Figure 7.3
Roll the person gently
away from you; always
supporting their head
and neck
Figure 7.4
Carefully tilt the person’s
head back using your hands
on their forehead and chin
Airway
Unconsciousness may mean that a person’s supply of oxygen
has been impaired in some way. To allow an unconscious
person to breathe and improve their chance of survival, it is
vital that a clear airway is maintained. Blockages to the airway
can be caused by foreign materials such as vomit, mouth
guards, false teeth, food or seaweed, or by physical reponses
such as swelling or the tongue falling back over the airway.
The first aider should check for foreign materials in the
airway and, if they are present, remove them by turning the
patient into the recovery position (supporting the head and
neck) and clearing the foreign material with their fingers. If
no foreign material can be seen, the airway can be opened by
gently tilting the casualty’s head back, while supporting the
forehead and jaw. This simple action can bring the tongue
Airway the airways are the away from the back of the throat and may be all that is
means by which the body gets required to ensure the airway is clear.
air into the lungs. They consist
of the mouth, nose, throat and
Breathing
the bronchial tubes that lead to
the lungs. When the airway is clear, it is necessary to check for breathing. To do this the
first aider should look, listen and feel for no more than 10 seconds.
Listen and feel for sounds of air from the patient’s mouth and/or nose.
Look and feel for movement of the chest.
If the casualty is breathing, they should be placed in the recovery position
and monitored for any changes until medical assistance arrives.
Rescue breaths breathing If the casualty is not breathing, the first aider should give two rescue
for a non-breathing person by breaths to get air into the lungs. After these two breaths, the first aider
blowing air into their mouth
or nose. must check for signs of life. If there are signs of life but the person is still
unconscious, they should be placed in the recovery position and continually
Signs of life consciousness, monitored until medical assistance arrives. If there are no signs of life, the
breathing and movement.
first aider should move to the next step in the action plan.
Defibrillation
Medical studies have shown that the chances of survival for
a casualty whose heart has stopped are greatly increased if
defibrillation occurs within 8 to 12 minutes of cardiac arrest.
A disturbance of the electrical activity in the heart’s ventricular
muscle can cause fibrillation. This means the heart quivers
rather than beats which stops blood from being pumped
WARNING
around the body. This can cause cardiac arrest. A defibrillator
delivers an electric shock to the heart muscle, which may Do not use a defibrillator:
restore the normal heart rhythm. Ambulances and hospitals • on a person under 12 years old
have defibrillators; however, easy-to-use defibrillators with • in a moving vehicle.
voice prompts, called an automated external defibrillator Before defibrillation—move:
(AED), have been developed for use in the home or workplace
• casualty if touching metal fixture
and on the sports field. This means a first aider may have
or lying in water
quick access to defibrillation, especially if emergency services
• oxygen away from casualty
have a delayed response time.
• mobile phones/two-way radios
2 metres away.
STOP
The DRABCD Action Plan outlines the essential steps to be followed to assess
a critically ill or injured casualty. Once you have established that a person is
conscious and not suffering from a life-threatening condition, it is important
to prevent further harm from occurring and to treat any less severe injuries
or problems. The STOP plan is another series of steps that can be followed to
assess, treat and manage non-life-threatening injuries or illnesses.
S Stop the patient from moving and ensure they are comfortable.
This may include stopping any activity and having them sit or
lie down.
T Talk to the patient in order to reassure them and to help them
to feel less distressed. Talking also allows the first aider to gain
valuable information about what has happened. The situation can
be assessed by asking questions about what happened, how it
happened, whether it has happened before, where it hurts, what
was heard and how they feel. The first aider can also ask the
patient if they have any allergies, if they are taking any medication,
if they have any past or present illnesses and when they last ate.
Talking to bystanders can also provide useful information.
Demeanour the way a O Observe the patient as making careful observations of the person
person behaves or looks.
can supplement any information already obtained. Observe their
MedicAlert bracelet a general demeanour and appearance. Are they distressed, pale,
bracelet worn by people with holding a certain part of their body or giving off other signs of
a medical condition, allergy pain? Do they have a MedicAlert bracelet, a Ventolin inhaler or
or taking certain medications
an EpiPen on them? Look at their body to observe any swelling,
to inform others of these
conditions/illnesses. deformation or tenderness.
P Prevent further injury by treating any injuries or conditions
EpiPen an auto-injector
that may have been discovered by talking to and observing the
of adrenalin, which is used
to treat anaphylactic shock. casualty, monitoring them for more serious injuries that may not
A person diagnosed with be immediately apparent, and reassuring them.
anaphylaxis will carry an
EpiPen.
Crisis management
A crisis is a major event that has the potential for harm to those involved.
A crisis usually occurs unexpectedly and is often characterised by important
decisions having to be made in a short time period. Crisis management is
the attempt to eliminate or reduce danger and preserve life in a crisis. A
number of first aid skills and techniques are important to have in order to
deal proficiently with a crisis.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is required in a crisis if it has been
determined that there are no signs of life in the casualty. CPR involves the
following steps:
1 Kneel beside the patient and give 30 compressions to the chest. This is
done by locating the person’s sternum and placing one of your hands on
the lower section with the heel of your other hand on top. The first aider
Bleeding
Blood has a number of essential roles in the body such as transporting oxygen,
hormones and nutrients; maintaining body temperature; removing toxins and
waste products and transporting antibodies to protect against disease. Blood
is, therefore, crucial for correct body functioning. Bleeding results in a loss of
blood from the blood vessels (capillaries, veins or arteries) and, if untreated,
can lead to lead to shock, collapse and possibly death. In a crisis management
situation, all bleeding should be viewed as life threatening and treated
accordingly.
The DRABCD Action Plan should be applied to assess the casualty. If there
are no signs of life, CPR takes priority over any bleeding injuries. The first
aider should always wear gloves when treating a bleeding patient. The most
effective first aid for external bleeding is pressure and elevation (to restrict
and slow blood flow and encourage clotting). The recommended treatment is
outlined in the following steps:
1 Apply direct, firm and sustained pressure to the wound with a pad. If
this becomes blood soaked, another pad should be applied over the first.
If there is an object embedded in the wound, indirect pressure should be
applied to the area around the object. DO NOT remove the object.
Elevate raising the limb/s to 2 Lie the casualty down to restrict movement and elevate the bleeding part.
reduce blood flow to the area. 3 Maintain pressure on the pad.
4 Reassure the patient and monitor for shock until medical assistance arrives.
If the patient becomes unconscious, follow the DRABCD Action Plan.
If bleeding does not stop, the first aider can also apply pressure with their
hand to a pressure point, for example, in the groin or inside the elbow. A
tourniquet should never be applied.
Bleeding may also occur internally. This type of bleeding is often difficult
to recognise but can be very dangerous for the casualty. Internal bleeding
requires urgent hospitalisation. Some signs of internal bleeding may be shock,
tenderness, swelling, abdominal pain, and coughing up or vomiting blood.
Shock
Shock is the body’s response to trauma, which may be caused by severe
bleeding, burns, infection, vomiting or diarrhoea, multiple fractures, heart
attack or allergic reactions. Essentially, it is a failure of the circulatory system
to do its job, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the body’s tissues. Shock can be
life threatening and the first aider should be watch constantly for any signs
that the patient is going into shock.
The DRABCD Action Plan should be used to assess the casualty and any
severe bleeding needs to be controlled. A handy acronym to use to manage
shock is the four Rs:
R Ring 000.
R Rest the patient, preferably with their head down and their feet up
(except when there are fractures or spinal injuries).
R Reassure the patient.
R Rug them up, to maintain their body heat. For example, cover them
with a blanket and ensure they are comfortable.
The first aider should continue to observe the patient and maintain a clear
airway. The onset of shock can be a delayed reaction, so the casualty needs to
be monitored carefully even after their injuries or condition have been treated.
Conscious patient with suspected spinal injury Unconscious patient with suspected spinal injury
Medical referral
While first aid in an emergency is vital, a first aider’s skills can only assist
up to a point, and part of crisis management involves referring the patient to
trained professionals for further medical assistance. The first step in medical
referral is when the first aider calls 000. The first aider should remain with
the casualty until medical help arrives and monitor the patient for signs of life
and possible shock. Medical personnel may ask the first aider for information
about what has occurred and the first aid treatment that has taken place.
They may also require the first aider to remain at the scene and further assist
in managing the crisis.
Medical referral is also wise with less serious injuries or medical
conditions. While a person may seem to have recovered after basic first aid
treatment, they could have other problems and/or injuries that are not easy
to see and diagnose. Any open wound is at risk of infection and referral to a
medical practitioner can lessen the likelihood of this occurring. A person who
has been unconscious for any amount of time, no matter how short, should
always be referred to a health-care professional.
Management of injuries
Cuts and lacerations
Cuts and lacerations are classified as open wounds and generally involve
bleeding. A cut is caused by something sharp, such as a knife or piece of glass
coming into contact with the skin. A laceration is a tear injury of the skin
and is caused by something jagged like barbed wire or machinery. Cuts and
lacerations can cause injury to the skin and underlying tissues.
Table 7.4 Signs, symptoms and primary management of cuts and lacerations
• Bleeding • DRABCD
• Pain • Control bleeding
• Swelling • Clean the wound
• Exposure of tissue and muscles • Cover with a sterile non-adhesive dressing
• Loss of sensation around the area due to • Reassure the patient and monitor for shock
possible nerve damage
• Shock
Fractures
A break to any part of a bone is known as a fracture. Fractures can be caused
by either direct or indirect force. For example, a snowboarder falls over and
extends their arm to break the fall and, as a result, breaks their collarbone
(indirect) or a batter in softball misses the ball, which then hits their arm,
breaking the radius (direct). Figure 7.9
Fractures can be classified in the following ways: Types of fractures
complete—the bone is broken
completely into two or more
parts
incomplete—the bone bends
and splinters on one side but
does not break right through
(also known as a greenstick
fracture and very common
in children)
comminuted—the bone is
broken into many pieces
closed—the broken bone does Complete Comminuted Incomplete / Greenstick
not pierce the skin
open—the broken bone
protrudes though the skin
complicated—when the
broken bone damages a major
nerve, organ or blood vessel,
for example, a broken rib
punctures a lung.
Figure 7.10
Slings can be helpful for
immobilising an arm or
collarbone break
Dislocations
A dislocation can occur when extreme force is placed on the ligaments
around a joint, causing the ends of the two connected bones of the joint to
separate. Dislocations are extremely painful and can result in damage to the
surrounding ligaments, tissues, nerves and blood vessels.
with blood vessels, but tend not to be dangerous. Internal head injuries,
however, may lead to death or permanent brain damage and, therefore, require
urgent medical attention. Concussion is a temporary loss or altered state of
consciousness, which can occur following a blow to the head. Concussion
should also be treated seriously, as there may be the possibility of internal
damage. Although someone who has experienced concussion may seem to
recover quickly, they should be monitored carefully for some time after
the concussion.
Table 7.7 Signs, symptoms and primary management of head injuries and concussion
• Unconsciousness • DRABCD
• Varying levels of consciousness • Support head and neck
• Drowsiness, confusion or vagueness • If they are unconscious, place the patient in the recovery position
• Slurred speech • If they are conscious, place them in a comfortable position with
• Agitation or irritability the head and shoulders slightly raised
• Wounds to the head, face and neck • Control bleeding (do not apply pressure if a skull fracture is
suspected), and treat any other injuries
• Vomiting and/or nausea
• If there is blood or fluid coming from the ears, a sterile pad should
• Bleeding or fluid discharge from ears, nose or mouth
be placed over the ear and, if possible, lie the patient on their
• Difference in size or shape of pupils injured side so the fluid can drain out
• Blurred vision • Reassure the patient
• Loss of memory • Monitor for signs of life and shock
• Abnormal responses to commands or touch • Ensure medical assistance is on its way
• Unable to coordinate movement of limbs
• Seizures
Eye injuries
The eye is a very delicate part of the body and, because of its nature, it is
very easily damaged. Eye injuries can range from minor irritations such as
dirt, eyelashes or small foreign objects in the eye to more major issues such
as penetrating eye injuries and burns. Eye injuries can cause damage to the
cornea of the eye, which may affect sight, and corneal injuries are very prone
to infection. The risk of infection when treating eye injuries can be reduced by
wearing gloves and using sterile dressings.
Nasal injuries
Nasal injuries are quite common, as the nose has very little structural support
and occupies a very prominent place on the face. The most typical nasal
injury is a blockage, which is usually caused by young children putting
foreign objects into their nose and which can then become lodged there
causing discomfort, pain and breathing difficulty. Removal of these objects
requires expert medical attention. Other common nasal injuries are bleeding
and broken noses. As the nose is close to other important structures, initially
any nose injury should be treated as a head injury and a search made for any
other facial damage.
• Bleeding • DRABCD
• Pain in and around the nose • Tell the patient to breathe through their mouth and to try not to sniff or blow their nose
• Swelling • Sit them up with head tilted slightly forward
• Bruising • Pinch the soft part of the patient’s nose together between the fingers and hold for
• Instability of the nose bones 10 minutes (do not do this for a broken nose)
• Deformity • Apply ice packs to the neck and forehead
• Facial lacerations • Seek medical assistance for a broken nose, or if bleeding from the nose does not stop
Burn injuries
Burns are common injuries and can be caused by an array of substances
and external sources such as chemicals, friction, electricity, radiation,
water, steam, and extreme hot and cold temperatures. The severity of a burn
depends upon its extent, which parts of the body are burnt, the burn’s depth
and the age of the patient. If a burn is larger than a 20-cent piece, it will
generally require medical attention. Severe burns can result in a number of
complications such as shock, infection, breathing difficulties and swelling
that may cut off circulation.
Figure 7.11
What to do if your clothes
catch on fire
Burns are classified according to the depth of the burn and the tissues
affected.
Superficial burns—damage to the top layer of skin, for example, sunburn.
The burn site will be red and painful.
Partial thickness burns—damage to the first and second skin layers plus
the underlying tissues. The burn site is very painful and will be red,
blistered, peeling and swollen. There may be clear or yellow fluid leaking
from the site.
Full thickness burns—damage to the first and second layers of skin plus
underlying tissues, muscle, bone and organs. The burn site is white or
charred and there may be exposed fatty tissue, muscle or bone. As the
nerve endings are generally destroyed, there tends to be little or no pain at
the site; however, the surrounding areas may be very painful.
The main aims of burn injury management are to stop the burning process,
to cool the burn to provide relief and to cover the burn to reduce the risk of
infection.
Primary management
• DRABCD DO NOT:
• Instruct the person to stop, cover, drop and roll if there are flames present • Apply any sort of lotion or cream
• Remove the person from the source of the burn • Put butter on the burn
• Immediately cool the burn under running water for at least 20 minutes • Use ice to cool the burn
• If possible, remove jewellery or other constrictive items from the burn area • Break any blisters
• Cover the burnt area with a non-stick dressing or plastic wrap • Remove any stuck clothing
• Reassure the patient and monitor for shock • Give alcohol
Teeth injuries
Injuries to teeth are relatively common, particularly in children, teenagers and
athletes. Any injuries to the teeth should be referred to a dentist as quickly
as possible to increase the chance of any damaged teeth being saved. Teeth
injuries from sport can be easily prevented by the use of a well-fitted mouth
guard. The first aider should also be alert to possible head injuries that may
result from a blow to the mouth.
• Bleeding • DRABCD
• Lacerated mouth • Ensure a clear airway is maintained, as teeth may be knocked down the patient’s throat
• Broken teeth • Treat any bleeding
• Empty tooth socket/s • If a tooth has been knocked out, find it and save it
• Swelling and/or bruising • Gently clean any dirt from the tooth using the patient’s own saliva, milk or a sterile
around the mouth and jaw saline solution
• If possible, replace the tooth in the socket and ask the patient to hold it in place
• If it is not possible to replace the tooth, wrap it in clean plastic and store in milk or a
sterile saline solution
• Take the tooth and the patient immediately to a dentist
Electrocution
Electrocution is considered life threatening, as an electric shock can cause
the heart to stop and may cause severe burns. Safety of the first aider is
Table 7.12 paramount in electrocution situations and the first aider should avoid any
Signs, symptoms and
primary management risk of shock to themself. If this cannot be guaranteed, it is better to wait for
of electrocution emergency services to arrive.
• No signs of life • Check for danger and ensure that any power source is disconnected before
• Burns on the skin, commonly the approaching the casualty
hands or feet • Remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly touching them
• Power lines, electrical cables or • DRABCD
electrical equipment near the victim • Cool any burnt areas under cool running water
• Cover burns with non-adhesive sterile dressings
• Monitor for signs of life and shock
• Call for urgent medical attention
Chest injuries
The chest contains the essential organs of the heart, lungs and major blood
vessels and, while they are somewhat protected by surrounding bone structures,
these organs are very vulnerable. Chest injuries can be caused by blows, falls,
crushing, stabbing or shooting and include a range of injuries from simple
bruising to damage that affects breathing and circulation. Types of chest injuries
Table 7.13 include fractured ribs, flail chest (floating ribs), penetrating chest wounds and
Signs, symptoms and
primary management lung collapse. Treatment for all chest injuries should focus on seeking medical
of chest injuries assistance and on keeping the patient as comfortable as possible.
• Pain (if the patient has fractured ribs, pain may be • DRABCD including calling 000
worse when they breathe or cough) If conscious:
• Tenderness at the injured site • make the patient comfortable by placing them in a half-sitting
• Difficult and painful breathing position leaning to the injured side
• Rapid, weak pulse • Reassure and calm the patient
• Shallow, rapid breathing If unconscious:
• May be holding the injured area (fractured ribs) • Lie the patient in the recovery position with the injured side down
• Restricted movement of chest wall (collapsed lung) • Monitor signs of life
• Possible unconsciousness ADDITIONAL TREATMENT FOR:
• Blood-stained and frothy spit (fractured ribs) Fractured ribs
• Sound of sucking air when the patient inhales • Apply padding gently to the injured site
(penetrating wound) • Bandage the patient’s arm to their side
• Bloodstained bubbles around the wound • If comfortable, immobilise the patient’s arm in a sling
(penetrating wound)
Penetrating chest wound:
• Part of the chest does not move with normal
• Cover the wound to stop air going into the chest with plastic or
breathing (flail chest)
similar and seal with tape on the sides and top but NOT the bottom
• Blue around lips, nails and earlobes (i.e. seal on three sides)
• Difficulty speaking Flail chest:
• Possible unconsciousness • Place padding over the injured site with a firm bandage
Abdominal injuries
The abdomen houses a number of important body organs. As there is
no protective bone structure around the abdomen, these organs can be
easily injured. Complications that may arise with abdominal injuries are
extensive internal bleeding and infection, therefore, it is essential with any
abdominal injury that urgent medical attention is sought.
• Pain • DRABCD
• Bruising, swelling or tenderness around the wound • Ensure the casualty is comfortable
• Unnatural paleness • Lay the casualty on their back with the knees slightly raised and
• Cold, clammy skin supported
• Nausea or vomiting • Loosen any restrictive clothing
• External bleeding • Cover any protruding organs with a sterile dressing or similar and
secure with a bandage (if available)
• Blood in the urine and/or bleeding from the anus
and/or genitals • Ensure medical assistance is on its way
• Protrusion of abdominal organs through the wound DO NOT:
• Shock • give anything to eat or drink
• Possible unconsciousness • apply direct pressure to the wound
• try to push organs back into the abdomen
• Complaining of ‘indigestion’ that does not go away • Have the casualty stop what they are doing and rest
• Discomfort or pain in the chest—may be described as • DRABCD
tightness, heaviness or squeezing • Call 000 for an ambulance—do not drive the casualty to
• Pain may spread to the neck, shoulders, back and arms hospital yourself in case they go into cardiac arrest on the way
• Shortness of breath • If the patient is conscious, place them in a sitting position
• Nausea or vomiting with the head and shoulders upright and help them to take any
angina medication. They can also be given one aspirin tablet in
• Sweating
water to thin the blood
• Dizziness or light-headedness
• If the patient is unconscious, place them in the recovery position
• Anxiety and/or confusion and monitor signs of life
• Cardiac arrest with no warning signs • Loosen any tight clothing
• Collapse and unconsciousness • Reassure the patient and rug them up
Stroke
A stroke occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the
brain, usually due to a blockage or rupture of one of
the blood vessels. When blood flow to a part of the
brain is cut off, that part can no longer get the oxygen
it needs and the brain cells in that area die, causing
permanent brain damage. While many people
recover fully from a stroke, it is still a life-threatening
emergency. The National Stroke Foundation
encourages people to be aware of the ‘FAST test’ to
check whether a person is suffering from a stroke.
Figure 7.12
The National Stroke
Foundation’s campaign F Facial
to encourage people to Check their face. Has their mouth drooped?
recognise the signs of
stroke and act fast
A Arm
Can they lift both arms?
S Speech
Is their speech slurred? Do they understand you?
T Time
Time is critical. If you see any of these signs, call 000 now!
Hypoglycaemia Hypoglycaemia
• Weakness, dizziness, • Tingling or numbness If conscious: If unconscious:
light-headedness around the lips and fingers • Give a quick-acting/easily consumable • DRABCD
• Headache • Hunger carbohydrate, e.g. a sweet drink (not • Call 000
• Shaking • Confusion or aggression ‘diet’ drink), honey or jelly beans
• Give nothing
• Sweating • Unconsciousness • Follow this with a more long-acting by mouth
carbohydrate, e.g. fruit
• Lack of concentration
• Monitor the person and, if they still feel
• Rapid pulse and racing
unwell, repeat the first step and seek
heart beat
medical advice
Hyperglycaemia Hyperglycaemia
• Excessive thirst • Rapid pulse If conscious: If unconscious:
• Frequent urination • A smell of acetone on the • Allow the patient to self-administer • DRABCD
• Tiredness breath (extreme cases) their insulin or diabetic medication • Call 000
• Blurred vision • Unconsciousness • Seek medical attention if required • Give nothing
• Hot, dry skin • Encourage patient to drink sugar-free by mouth
drinks
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a disorder of normal brain functioning that takes the form of
Seizure a fit or convulsion. seizures. A seizure occurs when the brain’s nerve cells misfire and generate
a sudden, uncontrolled burst of electrical activity in the brain. Epilepsy
can result from brain injury, infections, tumours, degenerative conditions
and family history. An epileptic seizure can be very frightening but most
seizures will stop of their own accord and, once the person becomes
reoriented, there will be no adverse affects. Many people with epilepsy
control their seizures with medication.
• A sudden cry During the seizure: After the seizure: Seek medical aid if:
• The person may fall to • Note the time the seizure • DRABCD • The seizure lasts for
the ground and lie rigid began • Place in the recovery position more than 5 minutes
for a few seconds • Do not restrain the person • The person is injured
• Reassurance
• Jerky, spasmodic or try to put anything in • The person is pregnant
• Manage any injuries
muscular movements their mouth
sustained during the seizure • You know it is the
• Frothing at the mouth • Protect them from injury person’s first seizure
• Allow the patient to sleep
• Loss of control of or danger, for example,
while monitoring signs of life
bladder or bowel move tables and chairs
away
• Protect their head
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways. The
bronchioles (small air passages) contract and, therefore, restrict the amount
of oxygen exchanged within the lungs. The narrowing of the airways leaves
people with a tight chest, breathlessness and wheezing. Many factors can
trigger an asthma attack including allergies, respiratory infections, exercise,
emotions, smoke and/or a change of seasons.
Figure 7.14
The asthma first aid
procedure
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a severe and sudden allergic reaction. It can occur when a
susceptible person is exposed to an allergen such as a food, certain drugs or
an insect sting. Reactions usually begin within minutes of exposure and can Adrenalin a hormone that
progress rapidly. Anaphylaxis is potentially life threatening as it can result in increases the body’s heart
blockage of the airway and always requires an emergency response. Prompt rate and blood pressure. It
is manufactured by the body
treatment with injected adrenalin is required to halt progression of the allergic but can also be produced
reaction and can be life saving. synthetically.
Figure 7.15 Table 7.20 Signs, symptoms and primary management of anaphylaxis
How to administer an
Epipen in the case of an Signs and symptoms Primary management
anaphylactic reaction
• Flushing and/or swelling of the face • DRABCD
• Itching and/or swelling of the lips, tongue • Call 000
or mouth • If the patient has an emergency action plan
• A sense of tightness in the throat for anaphylaxis—follow it
• Difficulty breathing and/or swallowing • Administer EpiPen or EpiPen Jnr
• Hives or an itchy rash on the body at once
• Swelling of the extremities • If the patient is conscious, help them into a
• Nausea, cramps or vomiting position that makes breathing easiest
• Faint, rapid pulse • If the patient is unconscious, place them in
recovery position and monitor signs of life
• Low blood pressure
• Light-headedness, feeling faint, collapse
• Anxiety or distress
• Unconsciousness
Poisoning
A poison is any substance that harms body tissues when it is used in the
wrong way, by the wrong person and/or in the wrong amount. Some poisons
are harmful in small amounts, while others require larger amounts to be
poisonous. Most environments house a number of poisonous substances,
which are often not stored correctly, allowing easy access. Simple measures
such as storing poisons in a locked cupboard, disposing of medications
appropriately, buying products with child-resistant lids, reading instructions
on medications, and wearing protective clothing when working with
chemicals can go a long way to preventing poisoning.
Table 7.21
Signs, symptoms and primary management of poisoning
These will differ depending on the type of poison but may include: • DRABCD
• Abdominal pain • Call 000
• Burns • Try to establish what the poison was
• Headache • Call 13 11 26
• Nausea or vomiting • Do not induce vomiting (ingested poison)
• Drowsiness • Do not give anything by mouth (ingested poison)
• Difficulty breathing • Wipe obvious contamination away from the mouth and nose
• Blurred vision (ingested poison)
• Bite or injection marks • Ask the patient to remove any contaminated clothing
• Smell of fumes (absorbed poison)
• Odours on the breath • Flood the skin with cool, running water (absorbed poison)
• Burning pain in mouth, throat and stomach • Move the person to fresh air, or open any windows (inhaled
poisons)
• Seizures
• Loosen tight clothing (inhaled poisons)
• Sudden collapses
• Reassure the person
• Unconsciousness
• Open chemical or medication containers near the patient
Table 7.22 Signs, symptoms and primary management of bites and stings
bee nettle sea urchin flat head snake funnel web spider
mosquito jelly fish sting ray leatherjacket blue ring octopus cone shell
wasp centipede stone fish crown-of-thorns starfish allergic reactions
ant scorpion bullrout box jellyfish—douse liberally with vinegar
tick redback and other spiders
Hypothermia sub-normal Hypothermia occurs when the body experiences overexposure to cold
body temperature that temperatures causing the core body temperature to drop. The extremities are
causes a drop in core body
temperature.
often the first thing affected from overexposure to cold, as blood vessels in
the skin will shut down (vasoconstriction) to prevent core heat from escaping.
Hypothermia can be categorised as mild, moderate or severe. The further the
body temperature falls, the more life threatening the condition.
In light of these first aid principles, there are number of things the
individual should consider before, during and after the administration of
first aid.
Physical environment
As already mentioned in this chapter, the safety of the first aider, the victim
and any bystanders is of paramount importance in a first aid situation. The
physical environment can pose a number of threats to safety, and the first
aider should analyse the various safety issues associated with common
physical environments to enable the formulation of protective strategies.
Traffic accidents
Traffic accidents are a dynamic environment; danger, in the form of oncoming
cars, fire, chemicals, unstable trees or powerlines and damaged vehicles, is
always present. The first aider needs to look for ways that the traffic accident
site can be made safe for all involved and ensure that no further accidents
occur. Things that can be done to reduce danger include:
Ensuring any assisting cars are parked safely off the road with hazard
lights on.
Setting up warnings for oncoming cars a fair distance from the accident, in
both directions, by, for example, asking a bystander to warn cars to slow
down or placing warning markers on the road.
Using headlights to illuminate the accident area.
Turning off the ignition of any cars involved in the accident, applying the
handbrake and, if on a slope, chocking the wheels of the vehicles.
Stopping people from smoking at the scene.
Not moving victims from the scene unless they are in immediate danger.
Checking around the accident site for victims who may have been thrown
from the vehicle/s.
Avoiding any wires or power lines.
Treating any injuries, giving priority to unconscious and bleeding
casualties
Calling emergency services.
Water environment
Water environments have a number of inherent risks and every year there
are several cases of a rescuer drowning while trying to save someone else.
The personal safety of the first aider is paramount, and assessing a water
environment should always involve considering ways to get a person to safety
without the rescuer actually entering the water. If the casualty is conscious,
the first aider can first talk to the person and encourage them to move to
safety. Reaching out to the casualty with a broom, branch or other rigid item
may be a way of pulling them to safety. It may also be possible to throw the
casualty some sort of floatation device such as a ball, body board or Esky, or
a rope to tow them in. If the casualty is too far away for these methods to be
useful, it may be necessary to wade, swim or row out to them. Care should
always be taken when approaching a casualty in the water, as they will be
panicking and may pull the rescuer under if they get too close. The first aider
should try to reassure the person and, in the first instance, use a towel or rope
to tow them back to shore rather than making physical contact with them.
If the casualty is unconscious, the first aider should use the DRABCD
Action Plan and get the person to shore as quickly as possible. Deep-water
resuscitation is an advanced skill that should not be attempted by an
untrained person.
Electricity
Any first aid situation where electricity is involved is considered extremely
dangerous and could be fatal. The first step in making the environment safe
would be to turn the electricity off at the mains, if possible. The first aider
should try to remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly
touching them, for example, by using dry clothes to drag them, or a wooden
stick to push them away from the source of the electricity. If the casualty is
in contact with high-voltage power lines, under no circumstances should the
first aider approach the victim. The job of the first aider in this circumstance
would be to keep bystanders at least 6 metres away from any live materials.
HIV/AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is found in blood and body fluids
and weakens the immune system of the infected person, causing them to
become more susceptible to different infections and illnesses. Transmission of
HIV can occur through numerous means, including infected blood being
passed to another person via a cut on the skin. There is no evidence that HIV
can be spread through saliva. HIV can cause Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), which is the development of life-threatening diseases
due to the breakdown of the body’s immune system. There is no cure for
HIV/AIDS, although there are treatments available to slow down the HIV
and damage to the immune system.
Legal implications
In our increasingly litigious society, people can be reluctant to provide
assistance in an emergency. However, gaining an understanding of the
various pieces of legislation that are in place in relation to administering
first aid can allay some fears. Citizens have no legal obligation to assist
someone in an emergency and cannot be held accountable if they choose
not to help. However, many states and territories in Australia have in place
regulations that provide some measure of protection for the public from
Moral obligations
Legally there is no obligation for an everyday citizen to stop and render
assistance in the event of an emergency; however, many people would see
it as their moral obligation to help someone in difficulty. ‘Duty of care’
refers to the duty by one person to another to act in a certain way. Due to
the knowledge and skill a first aider may have in relation to first aid, they
have a duty of care towards any casualties in an emergency. The first aider
also has a duty of care to exercise reasonable care and skill when providing
treatment. There is an additional duty of care, which is to continue
administering first aid once started until someone more qualified takes
over or the first aider is no longer physically able to continue. A first aider
also has a duty of care to themself to ensure that they are not at risk when
providing first aid treatment.
Society values responsible citizenship and there are many ways that a
person can exhibit these qualities in relation to first aid. A responsible citizen
undertakes first aid training in order to obtain the skills and knowledge
necessary to administer first aid if required and, in doing so, shows care and
concern for their fellow citizens. A responsible citizen may also carry first
aid equipment and supplies with them when travelling and may volunteer
to be the point of contact for first aid in their workplace or sporting club. A
responsible citizen will also seek professional help for a casualty as soon as
possible in any emergency.
The types of responses that may occur include fatigue, disturbed sleep,
restlessness, mood changes, anxiousness, withdrawal, poor concentration
and recurrent thoughts about the event. The person may also feel emotions
such as guilt, sadness, fear or anger. These reactions may last a few days or
weeks and are part of the healing process. The first aider
can address these feelings and reactions with the help
of family and friends, and by employing a number of
coping strategies such as:
acknowledging that the event was distressing
confronting what happened by talking about it and
expressing their feelings
endeavouring to return to a normal daily routine
getting plenty of rest
participating in regular exercise
using relaxation methods such as meditation or yoga
avoiding the excessive use of drugs or alcohol.
Debriefing
Sometimes it may be necessary for the first aider to be involved in a debriefing Figure 7.17
session after an emergency or traumatic event. This can be informal in nature Talking can help first
and may involve talking with people who were present at the scene or with aiders cope with emotional
and physical reactions
empathetic others. Debriefing can also be more formal and may be organised
which may follow
by the person’s workplace using an external facilitator. Debriefing sessions their involvement in an
generally involve talking about the event, asking questions, expressing emergency or trauma
concerns and discussing the individual’s needs. Involvement in a debriefing
session allows the first aider to put the event into perspective and experience
closure, making it easier to move on and resume their normal life.
Counselling
Most first aiders who have experienced a traumatic or emergency event will
recover on their own in a few weeks with the support and encouragement of
others. However, some people may find they cannot move past the experience
and that their life is being adversely affected. Normal physical and emotional
reactions to stress can give way to more serious effects such as severe sleep
problems, depression, feeling on edge, constantly reliving the experience
and losing touch with reality. People should consider seeking professional
assistance if they:
do not start to feel better after three weeks
are feeling anxious or distressed all the time
are thinking of hurting themself or others
are unable to respond emotionally to others
find their reactions are interfering with their day-to-day life
are using drugs, alcohol or gambling as a coping mechanism.
There are many people and resources in the community that can be
accessed to gain help. These include speaking to a local general practitioner,
the local community health centre or contacting mental health professionals
such as counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers. The
Australian Psychological Society has a free referral service which can be
contacted on 1800 333 497.
chapter review
Recap
A situational analysis can assist the first aider to assess an emergency and make
informed decisions about treatment priorities.
The DRABCD Action Plan is a useful assessment tool to be used when dealing with any
serious injuries, medical conditions and emergencies.
The STOP plan is a series of steps that can be followed to assess, treat and manage
injuries or illnesses that are not life threatening.
In a crisis, a first aider should be aware of the importance of being able to quickly
administer CPR, if necessary, and of the critical nature of bleeding, shock and spinal
injuries.
A casualty should only be moved if they are in danger of further injury.
A first aider needs to be able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types
of injuries and medical conditions so they can decide upon the best way to manage
the casualty.
An unconscious person should always be placed in the recovery position and monitored
for signs of life, which include breathing, movement and responsiveness.
Shock can occur after any emergency and, if left untreated, can be life threatening.
When administering first aid, it is important to analyse the safety issues that may
be associated with various physical environments such as traffic accidents, water
environments and electricity. The first aider’s number one priority should be to do no
harm to themself, the casualty or any bystanders.
A number of legal and moral dilemmas may arise when a person is considering whether
to administer first aid. Common sense should always prevail when making decisions.
chapter review
Useful websites for study
Organisation Current URL Useful for …
Australian Red Cross www.redcross.org.au First aid safety tips, first aid courses and equipment
(search under NSW)
Australian Stroke www.strokefoundation.com.au Information on the nature of stroke, and advice for
Foundation detection and treatment
Royal Life Saving www.royallifesaving.com.au Fact sheets relating to safety advice and first aid in
Society—Australia water environments, and drowning statistics.
Exam-style questions
1 Describe the signs, symptoms and management of a head injury. (3 marks)
3 Explain the assessment and management procedures a first aider should (12 marks)
follow when responding to an emergency.
8 and performance
Figure 8.1
The elements of
composition are the
TIME AND RHYTHM SPACE building blocks of all
(when) (where)
• musical • direction
movement
applications • level
• duration • dimension
• momentum • patterns and
• pace formations
RELATIONSHIPS
(with whom or what) THE
• people DYNAMICS
ELEMENTS
• apparatus and (how)
equipment
OF • force
• formations COMPOSITION • flow
(team/partner)
and positions
Direction
We use direction as a component of the space around us every day, whether
by walking down the school corridor or mowing the lawn. This is the path
you take to move from one area of space to another. Direction can be as simple
as forwards and backwards, however, it also includes sideways, diagonal, up
and down, zigzag and circular movements. Direction is generally determined
by the way the body is facing when it moves or the body part that leads the
Figure 8.3
movement. For example, forward movement occurs when the body is facing
An arabesque will have
more impact for the forwards and the front of the body leads the movement. In most movement
audience if viewed from mediums, a variety of different directions are combined in order to best use
side on the performance and general space.
Direction, when applied to composition,
usually serves a specific purpose. A
choreographer composing a dance or
cheerleading routine will make use of different
directions to add to the aesthetic value of a
performance. Combining different directions
within a performance can also add to its
complexity. A dance routine that uses only
forwards and backwards directions is less
difficult to perform than one that incorporates
circular and zigzag movements. Direction
changes during a performance will also add
to its intricacy and appeal. Certain skills
within a performance may have more impact
for the audience when viewed from different
directions. For example, an arabesque is more
effective when viewed from the side rather than
the front; therefore, a performer may change
their direction in relation to the audience
before executing this skill.
A performer can apply can directional change to use a performance space
Intricacy the difficulty, to their benefit. For example, a rhythmic gymnast will cover the whole area of
complexity or sophistication the designated mat space by using directional changes. This gives them more
of a movement.
room to perform the skills required in their routine, makes the routine more
visually interesting to the audience and may allow more complex skills to
be incorporated.
Direction can be used to communicate a message to the audience via the
visual medium. An example is that moving backwards generally indicates
retreat, while forward movement can suggest a chase; spinning can suggest
confusion and jumping up can convey excitement.
Within the game’s movement medium, direction has a more functional
purpose. In team sports, the direction of movement is often determined by
the aim of the game, which may be to move in the direction of the goal area
in order to score. A player chooses the direction they move with a particular
purpose in mind, such as to outmanoeuvre the opposition. To do this, a
hockey player may dodge in a zigzag direction, while a touch player may
perform a dummy pass by moving sideways to confuse the opposition.
Level
The term ‘level’ refers to the height at which movement occurs. A number
of different levels can be used within space: they can be applied to the
individual and the height of their movement within their personal space,
and to groups and the height of their movements within the general and
performance space. ‘Level’ can also refer to the use of floor space and air
space by equipment or people. In all movement mediums, three levels are
used to varying degrees. These are:
Dimensions
Dimension is a measure of spatial extent. It refers to the amount of
performance space that is available to be used, and can refer to an individual
and the extent of their movement within the general space. The dimensions
of a space include its:
height
width
depth
Dimension is an important aspect of composition, as the size of a space
will determine the type of activity that can occur within it, and the skills and
movement patterns that may be included in a performance or game.
Someone who is composing a dance or gymnastics routine must be very
familiar with the dimensions of the performance space they have to work
in. This will determine the number and type of skills used, the directions in
which the performers can move, and how many performers can fit within
the space to have the most effect. In gymnastics, points will be deducted if a
gymnast moves outside the allocated performance space, so it is critical that
the gymnast has an intimate knowledge of the area’s dimensions. Part of the
impact of a mass dance performance, such as the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge,
is large numbers of dancers on stage moving together. A choreographer needs
to know how many dancers will fill out the performance space without it
looking too crowded or too empty.
Sometimes a performance will need to be altered if the performance space
changes. For example, a jazz dance group may have developed a routine that
they perform in their dance studio. The routine is designed to fit within the
dimensions of the studio space. However, if they are then asked to perform at
a shopping centre to promote the group, they may need to alter their routine
to fit the area provided for the performance. If the space is smaller, it may
mean a change in the range of movements included in the dance or in where
dancers can move to within the space. Alternatively, if the space is larger,
the dancers may need to incorporate stronger moves and to produce more
movement around the performance space.
The dimensions of a court or field can affect the rules of the game played
within that space. Consider the differences in rules from field to indoor
hockey or soccer, and how the skills of those games need to be modified to
best fit the change in space from a larger outdoor field to a smaller indoor
area. The rules of half-court basketball change from that of a full-court
basketball game to account for the smaller space in which the players move.
Many sports have modified versions for younger players, for example Kanga
cricket and Tee-Ball. A common denominator in all these modified games is
that the dimensions of the playing area and goals are reduced to accommodate
the size of the players and their less developed skill levels.
Coaches and tacticians can use court or field dimensions to gain advantage
in play. They may choose to use only a particular part of the playing area
during the game in order to put pressure on the opposition, for example, using
a half-court press in basketball or they may position their players in certain
areas of the court to maximise their strengths, for example, using 6-2 offensive
formation in volleyball.
An individual performer or athlete needs to consider dimension in relation
to their personal space and their movement in the space around them.
Centre line
9m
radius Minimum 18 m
3m
to maximum 22 m
2.19 m
14.63 m
3.66 m 55 m
22.9 m
A dancer or gymnast can add interest and appeal to their performance by Figure 8.5
exploring the space above, behind, in front of, or beside them by stretching, The dimensions of the
space performers have
bending, expanding, shrinking, reaching or sinking to the ground. A goalie
to work in will determine
in handball or soccer may extend their arms and legs into the space around the types of skills and
them to lessen the goal space making it more difficult for the other team, or a movements used in the
basketball player may draw their arms and legs close into them and stand still activity
in an attempt to draw a foul from an approaching player.
An individual athlete or performer requires a certain amount of body
awareness in relation to their dimensions in space, if they are to be successful Proprioception an
in their movement medium. This body awareness, known as proprioception, awareness of where the body
is in space, and the capacity of
can assist them to create appropriate muscle tensions in movement activities, the body to determine where
to know where the body ends and external space begins and to feel the all of its parts are positioned
correctness of a movement or body position. at any given time.
basketball is a formation, as are the short corner in hockey and the free kick Figure 8.6
in soccer. Coaches will often change the formations of players during a game Different floor patterns and
formations can be used
in order to disrupt the pace of the other team or to counteract strategies the
for effect or for a specific
opposition is using. purpose
FLOOR PATTERNS
Straight Spiral
Curved
Combinations
of pathways
Zigzag
FORMATIONS
Geometric
shapes
Circle
Figure 8.7
The formation of a short
corner in hockey
Attacking team
Ball
Defending team
Dynamics
Dynamics refer to how the body moves. They relate to the quality of
Figure 8.8
Different skills and movement and the muscular tension used to create a movement. The
activities require differing dynamics of movement are concerned with energy and how a performer
amounts of force or athlete expresses the meaning or purpose of their movement. This is the
element that gives movement its expressiveness. When people
describe a movement or movement sequence as strong, flowing,
explosive, smooth or weak they are commenting on the dynamics
of that movement and how the components of force and flow are
being used to give the movement interest and appeal. Performers
and athletes can alter the dynamics of the skill or movement
sequence they are undertaking to achieve specific purposes.
Force
Force has to do with the intensity of energy that is exerted,
expended or released in a movement. The amount of force will
affect the quality and substance of any given movement. Force
exists on a continuum that ranges from strong to gentle, and can
be generated by the performer or athlete themself or as a reaction
to something external such as a beat board in gymnastics. Some
skills require a greater amount of force than others, in order to be
successful. For example, a gymnast will not be able to complete
a handspring unless they exert a large amount of force in their
takeoff, and a batter in baseball will not achieve a home run
unless they hit the ball with strong force. Conversely, much less
force is required to successfully putt a golf ball or complete a drop
shot in badminton. Skills that require large amounts of force will
often be referred to as strong, powerful, explosive or forceful;
whereas skills that require less amounts of force may be referred
to as delicate, light, soft, gentle or precise.
An athlete or performer needs to be able to control the amount
of force they apply in different situations. This can be a challenge
when learning new skills. As a person becomes more skilled, they
will have more control over the force they use and can turn this
to their benefit. For example, a skilled baseball player is able to
choose whether they bunt or hit the ball, depending upon the state
Figure 8.9
The use of strong,
forceful movements in
a performance of the
Haka puts across a clear
message
Flow
Flow relates to the movement of the body or an object through space and time.
Effective movement skills and patterns are based on a person’s ability to use
their whole body skilfully and on the way their force is controlled or released.
The two most commonly used words to describe flow are ‘bound’ and ‘free’.
Bound flow relates to the performer controlling the energy of the movement.
A movement is said to be bound if it can be stopped or restrained at any time
without difficulty; for example, changing direction in a dance or pausing in
a shape during a gymnastics routine. Bound flow does not necessarily mean
that the movement stops altogether but it often involves a change of pace and
energy. Often when an athlete or performer is learning a new skill, they will
need to stop and start the movement until they gain mastery. Bound flow is an
integral part of game play, where an athlete needs to be able to stop and start
regularly when avoiding their opponent, looking for a pass, setting up a play
or shooting a goal.
In free flow, the movement tends to be uninterrupted. The person may
not be totally in control of the energy of the movement and it is not easy to
stop. This use of energy requires the performer or athlete to take some risks.
Free flow tends to be the realm of the more skilled performer, as they are at
the autonomous stage of skill acquisition and can perform in a more flowing
manner instead of having to think about engaging their skills. Free flow is
often seen in activities where improvisation is called for, such as dance.
Flow can be used to describe continuity of movement, where the actions
of the performer or athlete seem smooth and effortless and, as a result, are
Aesthetically pleasing aesthetically pleasing. An example of this is linking together a series of
when something is pleasing skills into a movement sequence such as in aerobics or gymnastics, and then
to look at; it has a sense of
flow and balance. performing this sequence as a continuous motion. Flow is also necessary
between various body parts in order for an athlete or performer to execute a
skill such as throwing, kicking or hitting with ease and efficiency.
Musical applications
Many movement mediums such as dance, synchronised swimming,
gymnastics (artistic and rhythmic), ice dancing, aerobics and cheerleading are
directly tied to music. The musical accompaniment determines many aspects
of the movement including timing, duration and speed. There are a number of
musical applications in relation to time and rhythm to be familiar with.
Beat—a beat occurs at regular intervals, such as marked by the clapping
of hands or the beat of a drum, and is the steady pulse that can be heard
in a lot of music. A beat can be regular or irregular, which indicates
unpredictability. Beats in music are generally organised into patterns or
phrases known as bars.
Bar or measure—this is a specific number of beats or counts arranged in
a group. There can be two, three or four beats in a bar that make up the
rhythm of the music. The first beat is usually the strongest.
Metre—is the arrangement of the rhythms of a particular musical piece
in a repetitive pattern of strong and weak beats. It is a very useful way
to organise music as it sets up an underlying pattern in the pulse of the
music, for example, strong–weak–weak–strong–weak–weak. It establishes
regularity in timing.
Accent—is an aspect of rhythm and refers to the emphasis placed on a
particular beat in a bar. Placing an accent on a beat means that one note
lasts for a different amount of time to the other notes surrounding it. The
accent is usually placed at the beginning of the bar but may occur on
any beat.
2
Heel and Toe Polka First beat of bar Fast
4 1 & 2 1 & 2
> >
3
Waltz First beat of bar Moderate
4 1 2 3 1 2 3
> >
Duration
Duration can mean the length of time required to complete a particular
movement, and the length of time in which an activity is performed.
In movement mediums where a performance is accompanied by music,
the duration of the routine is determined by the length of the track. In
trampolining, all routines are restricted to 10 bounces but the duration of
the routine will vary depending upon the complexity of the skills included.
Skills that involve many twists and turns will take longer to execute than
simpler skills and, therefore, extend the performance time. In many games,
the duration of activity is predetermined, such as four 15-minute quarters
in netball or two 40-minute halves in rugby. However, other sports are not
restricted by a time limit and the duration of play may be fairly short, or
extended, depending upon the skill of the players and how many points are
scored; for example, in volleyball, tennis or table tennis. Coaches and players
can attempt to manipulate the use of time in some game situations by calling
time outs to slow down a game when losing or by speeding up the game play
with distance throws when winning.
Some skills have a finite range of duration. For example, a gymnast can only
be airborne when performing a leap or somersault for so long. Conversely, other
sports can continue until the person decides to stop, for example, swimming
laps. The rules of a game can determine the duration of a movement or the
positioning of the players. For example, in handball and netball, a player must
play the ball within three seconds; and in basketball, there is a 3-second limit
in the key for offensive players. The duration of a performance or movement
can give it meaning or make it more or less effective. A golfer who is trying to
putt their ball may not be successful if they have to rush the shot, for example.
Momentum
Momentum refers to the velocity at which a movement is performed and
the mass that drives the movement. It is closely linked with acceleration
(speed gain) and deceleration (speed loss) of movement. The performance
speed of a particular movement will be determined by the movement. If it
is not performed at the necessary velocity, it may affect outcome, success or
safety of the movement. For example, a sprinter needs to accelerate quickly
to complete their race in the minimum amount of time, an ice skater doing a
number of turns will need to gradually slow down to move onto the next skill
in their routine and an athlete who is trying a new skill may find it beneficial
to start slowly and gradually increase the speed of the movement over time.
It is quite common for the speed in movement to alter during a
performance or game. This indicates that the performer or athlete has control
over their performance. In dance, changes in speed and momentum can
complement a story or create a feeling. Increasing or decreasing the speed
of play in a game can be a useful strategy to confuse the opponent and
potentially lead them to make mistakes. In field athletics, a hammer thrower
needs to increase the speed of their turn so they can throw with the most
momentum, and a gymnast will constantly increase and decrease their speed
in a routine depending upon the skills they are performing.
into normal game play and their skills become externally paced, as they are
affected by the speed and direction of the ball and by the positioning of other
players. Many external factors will impinge on the execution of the skills
of the game and there is often pressure to perform quickly. Most sports that
Figure 8.10
require a high level of externally paced movement, such as basketball, soccer
Jogging is a self-paced
or hockey, will still have some room for self-paced skills to be used; and movement, whereas
within these games, athletes can have some control over the timing of their sprinting is externally
movements, such as making decisions about when to pass or when to move. paced
Timing
Time is an ordering force in all movement mediums, and correct timing is
critical for the performance of most skills and movements. If the timing of
movement is wrong, it can detract from the performance and can mean that a
play is missed or an opponent allowed to score. When movement sequences
are designed to be accompanied by music, it is glaringly obvious when the
performer is out of time with the music and this negatively affects the visual
impact of the performance. Choreographers will often choose the speed of the
music to suit the ability of their performers so it is easier for them to stay in
time. Some activities, such as aerobics and synchronised swimming, diving or
trampolining, require the performer to be in time with other performers and
this takes a lot of time and practice to perfect. Timing can be used in different
combinations to create intricate visual effects such as including a hesitation
during a performance followed by a quick movement, which can surprise
the audience.
Timing is critical in many sports. An athlete needs to be able to assess the
best moment to pass the ball to their teammate or to shoot for a goal. It is also
essential for the correct performance of some skills, such as timing the swing
of the bat in softball to connect with the pitched ball, or the combination of
timing and rhythm in a hurdles race. Timing can be manipulated in some
games by modifying the equipment used, for example, the use of low-bounce
balls in tennis means the balls are slower in flight and, therefore, the game can
be slowed down.
Relationships
When applied to physical activity, the term ‘relationships’ refers to who or
what the body moves with. Relationship is the connection between people
and things, such as the performer with other people, with the performance
space, with sound and visual images or with the equipment and apparatus.
An awareness of the importance of relationships in all movement mediums
is encouraged; and the more understanding of relationships a performer
has, the more efficient and effective they will become in their movement.
Relationships, in a movement context, can change depending upon what is
intended by the particular movement being performed.
Other people
The relationships a performer or athlete develops with other people can
greatly enhance a performance or outcome. Alternatively, they can have a
negative impact upon the performance. In all relationships with other people,
communication is a key component. It can be verbal, such as a player calling
for the ball or letting other members of the team know that a defender is
approaching, or non-verbal including gestures, hand movements or facial
expressions. A non-verbal example would be the signals passed between the
bowler and wicket keeper in cricket. There are a variety of people that an
athlete or performer can form a relationship with.
Team members—successful teams have a shared understanding of their
purpose along with an appreciation of their role in that team, and the
roles of other team members. Effective teamwork involves trust and
communication. As relationships develop between team members, each
one knows how they contribute to plays and manoeuvres. They are well
aware of the positioning of their teammates and they know they can rely
on them to be in the right place at the right time to receive a pass, block
an opponent or make a space on the field or court to gain advantage. Often
a team will practise set plays or movement sequences to be implemented
during the game. If something changes during play to alter a strategy, a
team with good relationships will be able to adapt easily and quickly
communicate with each other to put another tactic into place.
Opponents—a player needs to be able to read their opponents well.
An understanding of body movements will help a person to anticipate
what their opponent is going to do next. Studying the plays and
skills of the opponent away from the game can help a player to learn
common patterns and strategies of the other team, assisting them to put
countermeasures in place.
Performers—relationships between performers in dance, aerobics and Figure 8.11
gymnastics are clearly defined. The moves and routines are choreographed Trust and communication
is important for performers
and there tend to be no surprises. However, there is still the expectation
when developing
that the other members of the group will be in the position they are relationships with each
meant to be in, at the time they are meant to be there. In ballroom and other and the audience
Latin dancing, the relationships are very clear: with one
person leading the dance and the other following. Often
the relationships between performers in group routines are
developed using different techniques, such as everyone moving
in unison (at the same time), groups working in contrast
(performing movements that have opposite qualities like fast
and slow), or groups moving in canon (performing the same
movement at different times).
Partners—often in dance, ice-skating and aerobics, a performer
will have to work closely with a partner. The relationship
between partners is an intimate one, as each partner relies
on the other to perform the movements or skills to the best
of their ability. A large amount of trust is required, as in
many sequences one partner is required to lift, catch or hold
the other. This trust can be developed through practice and
communication. The relationship that forms between partners
can also assist in conveying a desired message through the
movement medium. For example, a dance couple who have
formed a strong relationship will easily communicate the
passion and story of the bullfight while dancing the Paso Doble.
The audience—in order to convey the story or message
of a performance, it is vital that the performers form a
connection with the audience. The choreographer may begin
this relationship with the way they link various movement
sequences and the type of music they use. Performers can then
continue to form links with their audience by their proximity,
eye contact, through subtle or obvious gestures and even by the
clothing or costumes they wear. In other movement mediums, a
relationship with the audience may be formed simply because
the athlete is from the same country as some members of the
audience, such as at the Olympic or Commonwealth Games,
or because the audience supports the team they are watching,
such as AFL teams who represent a town or region.
partner make up the whole, and each is essential to the other and the overall
routine. Ice skaters will work together and use various combinations of space
and time, such as unison, mirroring, shadowing, echoing and supporting, to
form relationships with each other in the performance of their dance. The
skaters may not be touching in some parts of the dance but, by simply skating
in unison next to each other, they make their relationship very clear and this
adds meaning to their performance.
Figure 8.12
Player positions for netball Team formations and
positions assist teams to
develop relationships
Goal third Centre third Goal third
WA GD
WD GA
GS C GK
GK C GS
GA WD
GD WA
Figure 8.13
The stimulus for creating
Visual movement can come from
anywhere
Kinaesthetic Auditory
STIMULUS
Ideational Tactile
Figure 8.14
Wakakirri Performing and
Visual Arts Festival
Exploring variations
It is said that variety is the spice of life and this is true in movement
composition. When creating movement sequences and routines, a skilled
choreographer will continually look out for how they can vary their
Improvising
To improvise means to perform or compose something without preparation
or a set of rules to follow. Improvised movement tends to be spontaneous and
can lead to the invention of new practices and the creation of unique and
innovative movement designs. When they are new to movement composition,
an individual can be very set in their approach and tend to follow recognised
ways of doing things. As they become more comfortable with the process of
creating movement, they are less inhibited and will more readily experiment
with different concepts of space, shape, time and energy. Similarly, a
performer may be less inclined to branch away from established routines,
steps and skill combinations when they are first involved in a particular
movement medium. However, as they become more skilled they may feel
comfortable using a range of options that best suit the situation. Although
improvisation allows a performer to move away from the normal conventions
of their movement medium, it is still important for their movements to flow
and connect to one another if they are going to have the desired impact.
The term ‘improvisation’ is most commonly associated with modern
dance; however, it simply means changing movement to meet the need of the
moment. This can happen on the sports field as easily as on the dancefloor.
An athlete may need to improvise in order to make a play work. For example,
the team may have practised a set play developed by their coach but on the
field the opposition may do something to stop the play from going according
to plan and players are then required to improvise a variation to make their
movement successful.
Gymnastics
‘Gymnastics’ is an all-encompassing term for a number of different forms of
the sport. These include:
Artistic—using the floor and a variety of apparatus.
Rhythmic—combining gymnastic skills with equipment such as ribbons,
balls and clubs.
Trampoline sports—using the double mini and large trampoline.
Dance
Dance has many different styles and forms which can be grouped in the
following ways:
Traditional, cultural or ceremonial—these dances reflect the culture and
stories from where they originated, for example, folk dance, square dance,
bush dance and traditional Indigenous dance.
Social—dances that have the purpose of socialisation and are usually
performed with partners or in groups, for example, ballroom dancing,
Latin dance and hip-hop.
Performance—dances that require a high-skill level and are often performed
for an audience, for example, jazz and classical ballet and modern dance. Figure 8.15
The rules and conventions
These groups are certainly not definitive, and many additional styles
for these styles of dancing
of dancing have emerged over recent years such as Bollywood dance and are quite different and have
krumping. The rules and conventions of dance are very particular to the style an impact on the movement
of dance. Performance dance and some forms of social dance are generally that is performed
Aerobics
Aerobics is the performance of a series of movement sequences to music. It
includes general aerobics classes for fitness and fun along with competitive
aerobics. The purpose and structure of the movement skills and elements
in these styles differ accordingly. A competitive aerobics routine contains
compulsory moves, set timings and strict attention to technical detail, yet a
performer can still use the elements of composition in different ways to create
a distinctive and individual routine.
There are many styles of non-competitive aerobics classes including step,
combat, pump, jam and attack. These styles cater for different ages, fitness
levels, abilities and needs. As a result, movement skills will be incorporated
and elements of composition applied according to the particular need for
which the class is meeting. Music is an important component of both forms
of aerobics and is used to develop movements and sequences.
Games
Games are somewhat different to other movement mediums as they have
specific rules that determine what is performed, how it is performed, and
where and how it occurs. These rules affect how the elements of composition
are applied to the game. It is sometimes difficult for an athlete to move from
one sport to another because, while the skills they have may be transferable,
the rules and conventions of movement that apply to one sport may not
apply to another. For example, a basketball player may have trouble if they
start to play netball and will need to reconsider aspects of movement such as
dimension (they are now restricted in their movement around the court) and
force (they cannot throw ‘over a third’).
Sequencing
All movement mediums are comprised of a number of individual skills or
movements. While each of these is important in its own right, the crux of
movement composition is the organisation of these single skills into a logical
order that has a purpose. Sequencing is the foundation of dance, aerobics,
Movement phrases a gymnastic and games, and it is essentially the building of a performance. It
number of related skills or takes single movements and joins them together to make movement phrases.
actions.
These phrases are then joined together to make a movement sequence, and the
sequences combined to make the full performance. A movement sequence is
like a story and needs to have a beginning, middle and end. A sequence can
be performed on its own, which is usually the case in games and sports. For
example, in athletics the triple jump is a movement sequence in its own right
(comprising of the following skills—run, hop, step, jump and land), as is a
lay up in basketball and the tennis serve. The success of a sequence depends
on how well its component parts are performed and, in training, a performer
may practise the sequence in parts—gradually combining the skills until they
are able to practise it as a whole. Sequences will increase in complexity as
variables are added, such as the inclusion of skills that are more difficult or
the number of movements in the sequence.
SEQUENCE 1 SEQUENCE 2
Repeat Repeat
These two separate movement sequences can be repeated individually or joined together
to form a full routine
Transitions
Earlier in this chapter, the importance of flow, rhythm and continuity within
a performance was discussed. Transitions are the joining of movement
skills, phrases and sequences to make a whole and give performances
connectedness. A transition in a movement composition is often determined
by physical necessity, that is, by the need to turn around to complete the next
move. However, a performance would look unusual if the performer stopped
every time they needed to change direction, use a different skill or move from
one level to another. This would detract from the performance and would not
seem smooth or logical.
Transitions are an integral component of the composition, yet are very often
neglected or put in as an afterthought. The use of transitions contributes to the
flow of movement and, to be most effective, a transition needs to be seamless and
appear to be part of the movement itself. The size and complexity of a transition
is generally determined by the context in which it occurs, and it should only last
as long as it takes to fulfil its function. It can be a jump, a turn or a leap, a change
in music or music tempo, or a change in possession of the ball.
Repetition
Repetition means doing the same thing over again. In relation to the process
of arranging movement, it involves combining a number of skills into a
movement phrase and then repeating that phrase within a dance or routine.
Repetition in different movement mediums serves a number of purposes.
It can assist an individual to learn a new skill or sequence.
It can help to develop fitness levels. For example, a soccer coach may
put together a short movement sequence that involves running, passing,
dribbling and shooting, and then have the players repeat this a number of
times in a training session.
It can add focus to a performance. For example, a folk dance may have a
chorus that includes a small movement sequence that is repeated a number
of times throughout the dance.
It can add meaning to a performance, when a particular skill or movement
is emphasised through repetition to get a point across.
Most movement mediums involve some sort of repetition; however, it is
important not to include too much repetition. In dance, skating, aerobics and
gymnastics, the overuse of repetition can make a performance tedious and the
audience can lose interest. Repetition in games’ strategies and tactics may make
plays predictable and eliminate the element of surprise for the other team.
Variation
Variation is the way various movements are combined and arranged. It adds
interest and keeps the motivation levels of the performers and audience high.
Performances with little variation can become boring to watch, yet too much
variety can be confusing and distracting. Music is a good way to incorporate
variety into the composition of a routine. By selecting music that has a number
of different tempos within it, the composer can then combine different skills
within the routine to link with the music.
In some movement mediums, such as gymnastics and trampolining, there
may be little opportunity for variation in the arrangement of movement skills,
as they include routines or exercises that are compulsory. These are generally
balanced with the opportunity for performers to develop an optional routine
that allows them to show their individual style and flair.
Coaches can include variation in their training sessions by arranging
skills practices in different ways and by designing numerous arrangements of
players and movements when teaching strategies. By varying skills and play
combinations, they are providing more options for when the players are in
game situations.
Ways of appraising
Performance can be appraised in a number of different ways, each with its
own benefits and drawbacks.
1 Observing
Observing is a common form of appraisal and often occurs informally—
for example, a coach may observe a set play being performed during a game
and at half-time will talk to the players about how the play affected the
game, giving suggestions for how the play can be improved next time.
Observation can be objective or subjective. When using objective observation,
a non-biased assessment will be made of the performance against set criteria.
The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based on facts rather
than on thoughts or opinions, and is taken from an artistic perspective that
involves a degree of critical analysis and evaluation.
There are levels of objectivity in appraisal. Measures like how fast, how
high, how many and how long allow little room for debate, whereas checklists
and rating scales that indicate what an observer should be looking for are less
objective. The use of criteria provides a means to decide why a performance
Figure 8.17
An example of marking
criteria
2 Analysing
Analysing involves examining the technical aspects of the performance,
scoring them and comparing the scores to others. A common form of analysis
is the use of statistics to appraise individuals or teams in a game situation.
Statistics relating to different aspects of the game, such as the number of
lineouts won in rugby union, the number of successful blocks in volleyball
or the shooting average of individual players in basketball, are collated and
then used to appraise the performance. Statistical feedback can be used to
develop different tactics and strategies or to focus on a skill a player may need
to work on.
Other forms of appraisal through analysis include norm ratings, where
an individual’s score on a test is compared to the standard of large groups
of others who have taken the same test, for example, maxVO2 testing or the
Harvard Step Test. Percentile rankings are also used in sport and games. An
actual performance score is taken and compared with that of others taking
the same test. If the person scores in the 70th percentile, this means that they
have scored or performed better than 70 per cent of people who participated
in the test. Norm reference testing in sport may be used for team selection or
talent identification.
3 Experiencing
Experiencing is a very valuable method of appraisal for both performers
and external observers. The more time an individual can spend looking at
different performances, applying the judging criteria and discussing their
ideas with others, the better they will become at critical analysis. Group
discussion of the application of criteria can lead to high levels of consistency
in judgment and greater objectivity in appraisal. Judges who are new to
appraisal in a particular movement medium can gain experience in judging
by watching a variety of performances from beginners to advanced. As a
performer becomes more experienced in their ability to perform a particular
skill or movement sequence, they will find they can use this experience to
make their own judgments in relation to their performance.
Elements of composition
The elements of composition are an integral component of movement
development and should enhance the quality of a performance. Therefore,
they have an important role to play in the appraisal process. Each element
should be looked at in relation to the movement medium, and questions
raised about how well the element was applied to the performance.
For example:
Space—was all the available space used to the best advantage? Did the use
of patterns and formations add to the appeal of the performance? How well
did the players draw out their opponents to create space?
Dynamics—was the player able to control their shots? Did the performance
flow smoothly? Was the takeoff from the floor explosive?
Timing and rhythm—was the performance of the correct duration?
Were the performers in time with the music? Was variety added to the
performance, with changes in tempo and accent?
Relationships—did the positioning of players allow the set play to be
carried out? Did the performers establish a positive relationship with the
audience? Did the performers’ use of equipment or props blend in with the
movement being performed?
Arrangement of movement
The way movement is arranged is an essential aspect of appraisal. The
importance of sequencing and the placement of transitions were highlighted
earlier in this chapter as critical elements in ensuring the overall smoothness,
continuity and flow of a performance.
Looking at movement patterns in games can assist in appraisal and
analysis by identifying weak spots and deciding which arrangement of
movements resulted in the best and most successful strategies.
Achievement of purpose
When we discussed the process of creating movement, we identified that all
movement compositions need a purpose. When making an appraisal, we also
make a judgment about whether or not the performance achieved its purpose.
In some movement mediums, the purpose of the performance is very clear-cut
and, therefore, easy to appraise. For example, the purpose of the game of AFL
is to score the most goals, and the team with the greatest amount of points at
the end of the game is deemed successful.
In dance, rhythmic gymnastics and ice-skating, the purpose of the
performance may be less obvious and, therefore, it is up to the performers to
clearly communicate their message and/or story through their movements,
music and use of props. A performance that leaves the audience wondering
what its point was may not be appraised as highly as one that captures
audience understanding throughout.
Gymnastics Features that judges may look for when appraising gymnastics routines and passes include:
• Form—does the skill look as it is meant to look (e.g. back straight not arched); skill control?
• Amplitude—includes height, length, flexibility
• Body stretch and extension
• Landings—must be solid; deductions are made for not maintaining balance and also for moving outside
the area of competition
• Separation—there is a minimum degree of separation of the legs in skills like leaps and straddles
• Precision of timing and rhythm
• Falling and dropping—marks are deducted for falling off a piece of apparatus or for dropping equipment
• Inclusion of all compulsory elements or skills
• Composition of the routine
• Degree of difficulty of skills
• Skill execution—includes style, technique and creativity.
Dance There are various criteria for dance, dependent upon the style; however, in general, judges need to
look for:
• Use of the elements of composition
• Technical competence—showing technical skill in performing the moves, coordination
• Communication—with the audience, with a partner and showing stage presence
• Choice of music—appropriateness, timing
• Achievement of purpose
• Inclusion of compulsory elements
• Production elements—set design, staging, lighting, costumes.
Games The judging of games is regularly done through objective means, for example, collection and analysis of
statistics. However, criteria for subjectively appraising games includes:
• Skill execution—how well does the athlete perform general skills such as running, dodging,
weaving, passing?
• Communication
• Teamwork
• Game technique—how well does the athlete perform skills specific to the game?
• Physical fitness.
PIKE POSITION
Angle upper
body/thighs
Elements/phases
without twist
Multiple somersaults
with twist in at least
two phases
Vertical jumps
Straddle jump
Figure 8.18
Examples of trampoline
deductions Understand and apply
1 Explain which movement medium would be the most difficult to
judge. Justify your answer.
2 From one of the movement mediums, choose a particular style of
that medium and research the technical information that relates
to its appraisal. Summarise this information into a
fact sheet that could be given to a new judge in this area.
3 Watch a dance performance, for example, a routine from So You
Think You Can Dance or Dancing with the Stars and identify which
aspects of the performance you think could be judged.
a Propose a set of marking criteria for the dance performance
taking into account the various aspects for appraisal.
b Watch the performance again and use your criteria to appraise
the performance and give it a mark.
c Compare your marks and judgment with a partner.
d Investigate ways that your marking criteria can be altered to
make marking more objective.
chapter review
Recap
There are four elements of composition, which are the building blocks of all movement.
These are space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships.
Space refers to where we move. It incorporates personal space, general space and
performance space and has a number of components that are particular to it, including
direction, level, dimensions, patterns and formations.
Dynamics refer to how we move and this is the element that gives movement its
expressiveness. Dynamics include force, which is the intensity of the release of
energy in movement and its control; and flow, which is concerned with continuity
of movement.
Time and rhythm refer to when we move and impact upon the quality, flow and precision
of movement. Time and rhythm include the components of beat, tempo and accent as
they apply to music along with duration, momentum, self-paced versus externally paced
movement and timing.
An awareness of relationships in all movement mediums is important, as relationships
can help a performance convey a message or assist a group to achieve their movement
goals more successfully. There can be relationships between people, with apparatus or
equipment, and those connected with team formations and positional play.
When using the elements of composition to compose movement, an individual must
define the purpose of the movement and establish the motivating factors behind the
movement. Obscurity of purpose can result in a failure to achieve the desired outcome
of a performance.
The ability to improvise within a movement medium can greatly enhance performance.
When combining and arranging movement, a composer should consider how the
different parts can be best put together to make a whole. This involves looking at
different movement phrases and how these can be connected into sequences. Repetition
and variety should be used in balance when developing movement sequences and
performances.
Appraisal is an integral component of movement composition and is an effective
evaluation and feedback tool. Appraisal can be subjective (an aesthetic perspective)
or objective (an artistic perspective).
In order to be consistent and fair in appraisal, a set of criteria should be developed
specific to the movement medium and the styles of movement within that medium.
Exam-style questions
1 Outline the differences between subjective and objective forms of appraisal. (2 marks)
Exercise has different meanings to different people, and individuals have varying fitness
needs, so it is important that a wide range of fitness choices is available. People need to be
able to access the types of activities that will help them best meet their own needs.
9
Personal goals and commitments, financial capacity, geographic location and general
health and wellbeing are just some of the factors that can influence the fitness choices people
make. This chapter will feature a series of Fitness Profiles that provide a snapshot of real
people’s lives and highlight their varying fitness needs.
Meanings of exercise
Exercise as a form of physical activity
For some people, the thought of exercise stirs up an array of negative
emotions. They recall feelings of pain and fatigue brought on by a sense
of obligation to ‘get fit’. They hear the overzealous parent, coach or trainer
pushing them physically beyond their comfort zone, and they sense the
discomfort of their body temperature rising. While they labour under the
weight of sweat-soaked clothes, they anticipate the stiff and sore muscles they
will experience for days after the torture is over.
For many others, their memories of physically demanding exercise bring
a sense of satisfaction; a recollection of establishing challenging goals and
successfully achieving them; a reminder of the camaraderie developed with
friends as they encourage each other to keep going through the pain; and that
satisfying feeling of being at one’s physical peak.
There are other people who view exercise as simply a means to an end: an
activity that can be undertaken regularly and moderately to maximise their
health and wellbeing. Clearly, exercise means different things to different
people. So what exactly is ‘exercise’?
As mentioned, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured
activity or series of activities to improve fitness. It implies the presence of a
basic plan involving a series of physical activities that have been organised to
help achieve a set purpose, which is usually fitness related.
An example can be seen in applying the FITT principle, where the
purpose or goal is to reduce body fat levels and the plan is to achieve this by
exercising using the following plan.
Physical activity the Physical activity is currently used as the overarching term that includes all
overarching term that movement-related activities that have a physical dimension. Physical activity
includes all movement-related
activities that have a physical
can include everything from an adult walking their dog or children playing a
dimension, including exercise. game of hide and seek, through to an elite athlete training and competing in
their chosen sport.
Exercise is a form of physical activity and, therefore, fits along the physical
activity spectrum. A defining feature of where different activities might fit
best along the physical activity spectrum is in the purpose of the activity.
As an example, one person may go for a walk because it is a nice day and
they have some free time available. This would be considered recreational
activity. Another person may be taking part in a structured program to lose
body fat, which involves regular sessions of walking for specified distance in
a set time. This would be considered exercise.
Both people are walking, but the different purpose and the level of
structure distinguishes recreational activity from exercise.
Figure 9.1
SPORT The physical activity
spectrum
Competition Recovery
programs
EXERCISE
ACTIVE
RECREATION
PLAY
Frisbee Fishing
Hide and seek
Strength-training Cardiovascular
programs Play wrestling fitness
Chasings programs
Fat-loss programs
Sport-specific training
1970s Fit and strong The rise of jogging as a form of exercise Arnold Schwarzenegger
The rise of weight training as a form of exercise in the movie, Pumping Iron
1980s Celebrity role models The rise of aerobics as a form of exercise Jane Fonda aerobics videos
The Hawaii Iron Man triathlon becomes an iconic event
‘Life. Be in it’ campaign
1990s Too busy; no time The rise of professionalism in sport Personal training
A reduction in memberships of sporting clubs due to time-poor
people wanting flexible and individualised fitness options
2000s Fitness for health The obesity epidemic Structured fitness programs
Holiday and after-school sports clinics and camps for kids for children
Active living
Figure 9.2
Enduring images often
symbolise the attitudes to
fitness which characterise
different eras
The NSW Government is seeking to promote health and wellbeing and Incidental physical
alleviate costs associated with obesity and physical inactivity through the activity unplanned movement
that occurs normally within
Premier’s Council for Active Living (PCAL). PCAL aims to encourage more an everyday lifestyle, such as
people in NSW to be more active every day. They intend to achieve this walking to the bus stop instead
by building and strengthening physical activity environments that support of driving, or using the stairs
instead of an elevator.
people to be active in ways ranging from incidental physical activity through
to structured fitness and sport programs. Table 9.2 outlines some of the
strategies that PCAL is considering.
• Ensure footpaths on streets are in good repair and conducive • Ensure state and local planning policies promote active
to walking and jogging living, such as the provision of open space for sport and
• Provide seats and access to water periodically along walking recreation
routes • Encourage developers to design and build suburbs that
• Increase the number and quality of trails for walking and support active living
cycling near beaches, coastlines, parks and bushland • Provide adequate transport options that reduce reliance on
• Ensure lighting is adequate and working in public places the car
• Provide bicycle-storage facilities near public transport points • Promote a culture that encourages active choices in favour
of convenience
• Encourage workplaces to provide showers and change-room
facilities for staff
• Encourage workplaces to promote staff participation in
physical activities and lunchtime recreational games
Fitness profile—Susan
Susan is 43 years old, married and the mother of three
children under five years old. She works part time at a
public hospital.
‘I migrated from the north of England about 15 years ago
and the biggest impact on my approach to fitness has been
the weather. In England, I found myself needing to exercise
indoors if I wanted to do it with any sort of regularity
throughout the year. As a result, I mostly went to the gym.
I really had to force myself to go to the gym because I have
never particularly enjoyed it.
Since I’ve moved to Australia, my personal exercise has
mainly been unstructured outdoor activities like walking.
The weather is so nice and there are so many beautiful
places to walk; it is just an enjoyable way to get and
stay fit.
Also, since the children have been born I’ve really
needed to be flexible with my commitment to exercise and
so walking is a great option for me.
I have been really fortunate to connect with some of
the local mums and we often go walking together for about
an hour or so twice a week. We tried getting a personal
trainer for a small group of us but in the end, we decided
walking was ideal for us. It is flexible, a really good
workout and we can talk the whole time we are walking.’ Figure 9.3 Walking is a fitness priority for Susan.
Fitness as a commodity
In 2009, Business Review Weekly identified the fitness industry as earning
$12–15 billion per year in Australia, with that figure expected to be $60
billion per year in 2012.
The fitness industry employs large numbers of people. Fitness Australia,
the peak body for the fitness industry, has over 20 000 registered exercise
professionals. Money in the fitness industry is generated through a wide
range of commercial transactions related to aspects such as employment,
gymnasium memberships, fitness equipment, training services, fitness
clothing and nutritional supplements.
Swimming
Swimming is a low-impact activity in which individuals benefit from the
buoyancy of the water. Swimming requires a fairly high degree of skill and the
level of skill can be a factor influencing the amount of energy burned during
exercise. An inefficient swimmer is likely to burn up more energy and swim
less distance than a more skilled swimmer.
Some evidence suggests that swimming is a less effective form of exercise
for reducing fat than running or cycling possibly because of buoyancy-related
factors, the performance benefits of slightly higher levels of body fat for
endurance swimming performance, and/or the cooling effect of being in
the water.
Cycling
Cycling is a low-impact form of exercise that promotes excellent gains in
cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance. Cycling on the road adds
a potentially dangerous dimension, with the increased risk of road-related
injuries from collisions or falls. Using a stationary bike allows for controlled
measures of time, distance and speed; while avoiding collisions or falls as
well as potentially performance-compromising factors such as wind, rain
and sun.
Weight-training programs
Weight-training programs are commonly structured to promote the
development of fitness components such as muscular strength, muscular
endurance, power and speed. Strength-based programs typically involve
moving heavy loads with lower repetitions. Muscular endurance-based
Repetition the number programs use light to moderate loads moved with more repetitions. Power
of times the load is lifted and speed-based programs use moderate to heavy loads moved quickly a
consecutively before a rest.
moderate number of times.
RM stands for Repetition As people often use heavy loads in weight training, there is potential for
Maximum, which refers to soft-tissue injuries such as strains, sprains and tears. It is important to develop
the heaviest load that can be
lifted once. a sound technique using lighter weights before graduating to moving heavier
loads, and to be very careful when testing your RM.
Table 9.3
Component of fitness Load Repetitions Rate of movement Basic principles
of weight-training
Muscular strength Heavy (80–100% RM) 2–6 Slow to moderate programs
Power Moderate to heavy (60–80% RM) 2–10 Fast
Muscular endurance Light to moderate (40–60% RM) 15–25 Moderate
Fitness profile—Michael
Michael is 42 years old and is married with one child.
He has a demanding corporate job based in the city.
‘I played a lot of team sports as a kid, soccer and cricket
mostly, but when I left school I found myself drawn to the
attraction that individual fitness activities offer. I found that
I enjoyed swimming laps for exercise but it was cycling that
really enthused me.
I began doing long rides on weekends and found that, apart
from the physical health benefits, it was really therapeutic
from a mental health perspective. It really relaxed me to be
able to take my mind off everything else and just focus on the
ride; and there are some absolutely beautiful places to cycle.
I soon started riding to university each day and also set up a
stationary bike in my house that I could use for my cycling ‘hit’
on days of inclement weather when I didn’t want to ride outside.
I’ve done a few corporate rides and charity events but the
prospect of racing competitively has never held any appeal.
Mostly I ride to work and back each day. I get the physical and
mental health benefits and it is also quicker in peak hour than
public transport or driving. Figure 9.5 Michael finds cycling has both physical and
I aim to do at least four rides each week.’ mental health benefits
Tai Chi
Tai Chi comes from Chinese culture and is often observed being practiced in
local parks by devotees. Tai Chi has its origins as a form of developing combat
and self-defence skills, although equally it has been used for centuries as a
way of promoting general health, fitness and wellbeing.
Tai Chi is characterised by controlled, gentle and tranquil movements
designed to foster harmony in mind and body as well as improve movement,
flexibility and mental alertness. There is an ancient Chinese saying: ‘Whoever
practices Tai Chi regularly will, in time, gain the suppleness of a child, the
strength of a lion, and the peace of mind of a sage.’
Pilates/yoga
Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled
fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the body’s ideal position
during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength.
Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups for the purpose of strengthening
weak muscles and/or lengthening tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create
balance within the body.
Holistic approach in
addition to placing our
focus on the physical
Understand and apply
dimensions of health, we also
emphasise mental, emotional
1 Discuss why a holistic approach to fitness might appeal to some
and sometimes spiritual
dimensions with a view to people.
supporting and aligning the 2 Explain how controlled, gentle and tranquil movements, such as
dimensions of the whole
person. those practised in Tai Chi, can have a fitness benefit.
3 Describe ways that a person could distinguish between the different
styles of yoga to find a style that is most suitable for them.
4 Outline benefits associated with improving core body strength.
Pump/step/spin classes
A key strategy of any commercial gymnasium is to continually update the
program of classes they offer. This demonstrates their currency with the latest
research and trends in fitness, helps to keep members motivated and enthused
by offering new classes, and enables the gymnasium to meet the varying needs
of their members.
Major fitness-class categories that have been added to gymnasium
timetables in recent years include:
Pump—this is weight training, using barbells and dumbbells, performed to
music. The class promotes improvement in the areas of muscular strength,
muscular endurance, muscle tone and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Step—this class involves choreographed movements, which involve
stepping in various directions (up down, back, forward and across) to the
beat of music.
Spin—this involves group fitness, where participants exercise on a
stationary bike to the sounds of inspiring music. The class leader may
Circuit training
Circuit training involves completing a number of
different exercises one after the other, with little
or no break in between. The intent is to provide a
cardiorespiratory workout with some gains in muscle
tone and muscular strength and endurance.
Figure 9.8 Circuit training can involve the use of different weight-training equipment,
Spin classes are a popular medicine balls, fit balls, boxing gloves and other equipment; however,
group fitness activity
bodyweight exercises are extremely common in most circuit classes.
Examples of common exercises used in circuit classes include push-ups,
dips, sit-ups, lunges, boxing, skipping, squats, star jumps, step-ups and
agility runs.
Team games
Team games appeal to many people because they are based on the principle
of working collectively to achieve a common goal. Many team games are
inculcated in people from a very young age, and games culture becomes
ingrained in the social and cultural background in which people exist.
Team games also offer an added social dimension, because of the sheer
number of people involved and because people to want to debrief with one
another after a hard training session or competitive match. Team games are
resource-efficient because they provide exercise opportunities for a reasonable
Pregnant women
Exercise is beneficial for pregnant women; it can improve posture, lower
body-fat gains, provide stress relief and better sleep, and enhance preparation
for the physical demands of motherhood.
Pregnant women should consult with their doctor, physiotherapist
and/or health-care professional prior to commencing an exercise program,
and it is advisable if they already currently exercise regularly that the
nature and extent of their existing program should be discussed. For women
with hypertension, heart disease, multiple foetuses or those who have an
increased risk of premature labour, it may be best to avoid exercise during
pregnancy.
Common elements to consider for pregnant women exercising include:
remain well hydrated and avoid overheating
select low- to moderate-intensity exercise, especially during the later stages
of the pregnancy
restrict high-impact activities and contact sports
have at least two rest days per week and do not exercise on a particular
day if not feeling well or not feeling like it.
Children
Children are not little adults and the structure of an exercise plan should
reflect this. Children tend to come from a low knowledge and skill base and
they are experiencing consistent growth with periodic rapid bursts of growth.
These factors dictate that the exercise focus for children needs to be on skill
development, variety, enjoyment, participation and good health.
It is generally considered inappropriate for high-intensity exercise and
excessive specialised activities to be imposed on children because they are
not ready to cope physically or emotionally with these demands.
Children can be particularly susceptible to overuse injuries, such as Overuse injuries occur
stress fractures, which can be caused by repetitive actions placing stress and when repetitive actions place
undue stress on muscles,
subsequent wear and tear on bones, muscles and joint components such bones and joints.
as cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Thermoregulation is another major
consideration for children when they are exercising, because children do not Thermoregulation the body
processes through which heat
have a fully developed cooling system and, therefore, they are less efficient at is gained and lost to maintain
losing heat through sweating. the ideal body temperature
Shorter-duration activities, lower intensities, appropriate clothing and of approximately 37 degrees
Celsius.
regular breaks for water are important strategies to incorporate when
children exercise.
The aged
In some respects, the aged have similar exercise needs to children but for
different reasons. Whereas exercise modifications for children stem largely
from under-development of their physical capabilities, the aged need to
manage exercise because their bodies may now be less able to cope with some
challenging activities.
The natural loss of strength and flexibility that occurs after middle age can
mean that older people need to perform movements at a slower rate and at a
reduced intensity. Exercise that requires fast or intense movement can place
the aged at heightened risk of tears, sprains and strains, as well as injuries
from falls. Many older people have reduced bone density and so consistent
participation in high-impact exercises can place them at greater risk of bone
injuries such as fractures.
In addition, the duration and intensity of endurance activities need to be
carefully monitored because of the stress that these activities can place on the
circulatory system when they are performed too long or too hard.
Figure 9.10
Boot Camp and other
similar group fitness
activities seek to motivate
people to commit to their
training and achieve their
fitness goals
2 Do you prefer individual or group fitness activities? Explain the reasons for your preference.
3 Propose suitable fitness activities for the following people:
• a 35-year-old woman who is six months pregnant
• a 75-year-old man who has regularly trained and competed in masters athletics
competitions
• an average seven-year-old child.
4 Predict individual and group fitness activities that could become significant in the next
10 years.
Fitness Profile—Daniel
Daniel is a 47-year-old sales manager. He has been the
sole parent to his two children aged 11 and 13 years,
since his wife died three years ago.
‘I was never particularly into sport or fitness growing
up. Even as a young adult, it was not a priority for me.
It wasn’t until my wife died that I became really quite
serious about getting fit and staying fit.
The motivation for me was the fear that being
unhealthy might cause something to happen to me, which
would leave me unable to look after my two children. As a
sole parent, that became a major issue for me. I decided
to do all that I could to ensure my own good health.
I eat well, do not drink or smoke and I follow the
recommended physical activity guidelines. I exercise
3–4 times per week doing mainly aerobic-type activities
for about 30 minutes. I exercise at home in the evenings
because it doesn’t cost anything and I need to be at home
in the evenings when the kids are doing their homework Figure 9.11
and going to bed.’ Daniel finds exercising at home to be most convenient for him
Community facilities
Community facilities play a significant role in
providing equitable access to exercise facilities. In
many cases, community facilities are provided and
maintained by local councils. Community groups,
charities and sporting associations also sometimes
provide and/or maintain exercise facilities. Examples
of ways that community facilities are used for
exercise include:
Halls belonging to churches, schools and local
councils being hired out for a low fee to groups
wanting to conduct activities such as karate
classes, Pilates and yoga.
Tennis courts being provided and maintained by
the local council on land they own. Hiring fees
are usually quite reasonable.
Public golf courses being leased to a club, which is managed by a Figure 9.12
committee. The golf club can have members and allocate specific times Long Reef Golf Club is a
community facility that
for member-only competitions, but is also obliged to have significant times
provides people with the
set aside during the week for the course to be used by the public. Some opportunity to play golf and
public golf courses also build in tracks surrounding the course for walking use the surrounding tracks
and running. for walking and jogging
Local councils providing exercise equipment along routes commonly used
for walking and jogging
Local and state governments developing bushwalking paths through forests
and other natural environments.
The majority of costs associated with developing and maintaining
community facilities are borne by the body that owns them, often the local
council. In the case of local councils, they mostly use income from the
council rates paid by all local residents as well as government grants to meet
the bulk of the costs. The fees charged for using some of the facilities or for
parking nearby usually subsidise only a small amount of the costs.
smh.com.au has been inundated with membership after she became termi- However, Fitness First did not
emails from readers complaining nally ill and was no longer able to refund any of the fees deducted after
about their experiences with Fitness exercise. Mrs Lewis passed away, Ms Lewis
First. Despite being told it would be done, said.
About 70 per cent were from Fitness the fortnightly payments of $33.95 Christopher Zinn, from consumer
First customers who had difficulties continued to be deducted from their group Choice, said gym memberships
cancelling their memberships, or those bank account, he said. had a reputation for being unfair but
of a loved one. His wife, Maxine, passed away in that it was a difficult case for consumers
The readers often cited injuries, March, but the payments continued to argue after they had signed the
health concerns, or death as the reason despite a number of phone calls, he contract.
for cancelling, but often found their said. ‘Unfortunately in these cases, if you
accounts continued to be debited by ‘When she was ill it was bad sign on the bottom line, it tends to have
Fitness First. enough ... but Fitness First knew she a stronger legal pull,’ he said.
About 20 per cent complained was dead, the personal trainer even ‘The point of a contract is to lock
about the pushiness of staff when they came to the funeral,’ said Mr Lewis’s you in, which is fair enough, but they
inquired about joining the gym and daughter, Fiona. have to be fair.
the harsh terms and conditions of the Mr Lewis said: ‘They do a direct ‘With gym memberships in partic-
contracts. debit out of the account and with ular we have been seeing many ex-
The remaining customers com- the banks you’re not allowed to cancel amples of unfair contracts. It’s not
plained about a range of other issues, the account, it’s got to be cancelled necessarily unfair that they have a
including the cost of memberships and by the provider, so they’ve got you termination fee, but it might be unfair
the facilities. really.’ that they don’t allow somebody with
Terry Lewis, from Artarmon, said The payments finally ceased about genuine medical reasons for exiting it
he contacted the Fitness First in Chats- six weeks after his wife died, Mr Lewis to do so.’
wood in January to cancel his wife’s said. >>
Mr Zinn said Choice has been no automatic arrangement where you do that—they would rather do it
campaigning for unfair contracts to be can just write to cancel an agreement. anonymously.’
banned by national laws. For example, you can’t just cancel your Professor Clarke said he was un-
Carolyn Bond, co-CEO of the mortgage.’ aware of research into gym contracts,
Consumer Action Law Centre, said the However she believes the contracts but there was always chatter about
lawyers at the consumer group received ought to be made ‘fairer’, by allow- the difficulty of leaving contracts and
many complaints about gyms. ing for them to be broken in ‘valid he was not surprised Fitness First was
‘The gym industry is pretty no- reasons’. pursuing the paltry sum of $200 in the
torious for these sort of contracts that
Professor Philip Clarke, an expert in case of Suh Yoke Chong.
lock people in,’ she said.
contract law from Deakin University, ‘From the organisation’s point of
‘We think in many cases that’s
said the practices described were un- view they would have been concerned
unfair when people want to break the
contract for health reasons or other usual but not illegal. about the precedent created by the
serious reasons.’ As long as the gym did not attempt tribunal, not because they were worried
It was not legally possible for to mislead clients while they were about the $200,’ he said.
consumers to simply opt to break gym signing contracts, the terms stood. ‘It’s not uncommon at all for
membership, without any penalties, ‘I imagine it is designed to make companies to fight small claims like this
she said. you less inclined [to leave] because because they don’t want the negative
‘They are definitely worded in a there is a personal conversation,’ he precedent established that may put at
way that tries to tie people in. There’s said. ‘People are not inclined to risk their other contracts.’
Exercise clubs
Exercise clubs are usually built around like-minded people joining to form
a club based on a shared interest in a particular form of exercise. Running
clubs, walking clubs, cycling clubs and triathlon clubs are quite common.
While exercise clubs usually have one specific activity at their core, related
dimensions may include priorities that are socially based, training based and/
or competition based.
Generally speaking, many exercise clubs have suffered a drop in
membership numbers in recent years. There seems to be an overall trend for
people to want more flexibility and to feel less able to commit to the regular
participation that clubs often require. In addition, people do not always want
to follow the rigid rules and traditions that are sometimes part of clubs.
Other explanations include the possibility that, in recent years, the
work–life balance has shifted for many Australians to the point where
Figure 9.13
Bondi Icebergs Winter
Swimming Club is an iconic
club in an iconic location
Cultural groups
Acknowledging that sport and exercise have strong social and cultural factors
underpinning them helps us to understand the reasons why cultural groups
can demonstrate stronger affiliations to particular forms of exercise and have
proportionally greater participation rates.
Australia has a generally warm climate and according to the Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 83 per cent of Australians, in 2008, lived within 50
kilometres of the coast. It is no surprise then that large numbers of Australians
use swimming as a form of exercise. Other water-based forms of exercise, such
as canoeing and surfing, also have higher participation rates in Australia than
in most other countries.
There is evidence to suggest that cultural approaches to exercise and sports
participation continue when people migrate to Australia. For example, Pacific
Islander peoples have proportionally high rates of participation in the rugby
codes, while gymnastics participation rates are proportionally higher among
Australians with an eastern European family background.
In many cases, participating in forms of exercise and sport in Australia that
are similar to those in the home country provides a feeling of connection, both
to the home country and with other migrants from that country.
Promotional techniques
The fitness industry has been known to prey on the insecurities of its potential
clients. Promises of amazing results achieved in ridiculously short time frames
appeal to many people. Despite most people understanding at a cognitive level
that fitness gains are experienced gradually over a sustained period of regular
physical effort, there is a small part of many people that wants to believe that a
product or service exists that can provide instant results.
The fitness industry uses strategies that have proven successful in other
commercial industries. Some examples of these strategies include:
The free fitness assessment—this promotion provides an opportunity for
people to receive personalised health information that will enable them
to make informed decisions about what they might need to do to enhance
their fitness levels. The provider of this promotion clearly hopes that the
person will choose to access support from them in helping to meet these
fitness needs.
The free trial—this promotion invites people to use the gym for a limited
period or receive a personal training session at no cost. It is based on the
principle of try-before-you-buy. One purpose behind this strategy is for the
provider to be able to demonstrate the quality of the facilities and service
they can provide.
Of equal or perhaps greater importance is the opportunity to engage in
a one-to-one sales opportunity with a potential client whom they might
not normally have been aware of and to have access to their personal
details for future marketing purposes. The free trial nearly always requires
the individual to complete an information form and to meet with a sales
consultant.
Using clients to sell your product or service—promotions that invite you
to sign up a friend or family member in return for a discount on your own
gym membership are effectively using gym members as part of their sales
team. Gym membership sales increase and members who bring family
and friends on board receive a ‘commission’ in the form of a reduced
Figure 9.14
Many gyms offer free membership rate.
fitness assessment to new The celebrity endorsement—celebrities who may hold some appeal for the
or potential customers target audience can be effectively used to endorse a product. People show
an increased willingness to commit to a product or
service when a celebrity who they admire, respect,
believe or want to be like endorses that product or
service. Infomercials use celebrities to sell fitness
equipment, and celebrity fitness DVDs are big
business.
Perhaps one of the most effective strategies used to
increase gym memberships has been the inclusion of
childcare services in the gym. Providing this service
made it possible, in a practical sense, for a completely
new market to tap into the services provided by gyms.
Many mothers of young children are at home some
or all days of the week and they place a high priority
on their fitness, health and wellbeing. Without
childcare support, it would be next to impossible for
them to access the gym. With childcare being available
onsite during the time that they work out, usually between 9 am and 12 pm,
this niche market has provided a significant revenue stream for gyms at a time
of the day when previously they were often unused.
Accuracy of information
There is a basic expectation that information provided to consumers will be
accurate. This expectation is enshrined in legislation and supported in NSW
by the Office of Fair Trading, which safeguards the rights of consumers and
advises businesses on fair and ethical trading.
All consumers are protected from false and misleading advertising under
the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 and NSW Fair Trading Act
1987. Under these Acts, consumers have the legal right to receive accurate
information about products and services they want to purchase without being
lied to or misled.
A number of relevant industry-related mechanisms are also in place that
promote the provision of accurate information, such as self-regulation through
the Advertising Standards Bureau and the Fitness Australia Code of Ethics.
The Fitness Australia Code of Ethics provides explicit guidance around
advertising under its Professional Integrity section, as shown below.
‘Fitness professionals may advertise in connection with their professional
practice if the advertising is not false, not misleading or deceptive or likely to
mislead or deceive, is not vulgar or sensational, and does not claim or imply
superiority of the fitness professional over any or all other fitness professionals.
The advertisement for the fitness professional may contain a statement of the
areas of expertise in practice.’
While legislation, self-regulation and codes of ethics are useful strategies
for protecting people from false or misleading advertising, individuals also
need to recognise the role that they must play in adequately researching and
critically analysing advertising.
Ethics of advertising
Ethics are important in any industry. However, it would be naive to assume
that all or even most commercial organisations always advertise ethically.
In the fitness industry, some gymnasiums have been in the media and in
the courts over difficulties that some people have experienced with their
membership and unethical promotion tactics.
Problems have included significant penalty costs incurred when ending
long-term gym membership contracts, particularly when the penalty was not
Convenience of use
Convenience can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, having fitness
facilities and services conveniently located takes away a significant barrier.
On the other hand, when things are very convenient there is potential to take
them for granted and not access them adequately.
How many people have signed up for fitness centre memberships
and rarely used them? Many of these people continue to maintain their
membership under the misguided belief that eventually they will find the
time or the motivation to use the centre sufficiently.
Similarly, how many people have purchased fitness equipment for their
home only to have it remain in the garage or under the bed? Council clean-ups
often include rarely-used fitness equipment left on the side of the road to be
picked up, recycled or disposed of.
Cost
Local councils and higher levels of government subsidising costs of
developing and maintaining exercise facilities is one strategy that can work.
For example, building skateboarding facilities in community parks is a
relatively cheap way of providing an exercise option that will be freely used
by large numbers of young people.
Some exercise options, such as skiing, are inherently costly and some are
run as a commercial enterprise. As such, these options will cost money to
be involved in. It is important, however, that communities have a range of
options at their disposal, at least some of which cost little or nothing to do.
Exercise as a priority
When we place a high priority on something,
we usually make adequate time for it. If we
truly value fitness, we will find the time and
opportunities to exercise. Perhaps the most
effective strategy for prioritising exercise is to
use a diary. By timetabling regular commitments
to exercise into your diary, you are more likely
to follow through on your commitments.
Fitness Profile—Veronica
Veronica is 78 years old, married, with three adult
children and six grandchildren.
‘I have always been active and tennis is the
sport I have played consistently since I was a
child. I met my husband at a tennis tournament in
the 1950s and played midweek social tennis with
a group of local mothers while we were raising
our children in the 1970s and 1980s. The children
are grown up now but most of the original mums
still play today—every Wednesday.
I had my first hip replacement in 1995 and the
doctor suggested swimming was good for the
rehabilitation process. I had never really been
into swimming but I followed the doctor’s advice
and I quite enjoyed it. When I had my other hip
replaced in 1999, I began swimming again and
I have kept it up—every Friday. A friend from
tennis and I catch the train to the pool, we swim
for an hour and then catch the train home again.
Tennis on Wednesday and swimming on
Friday works out really well from a family point of Figure 9.16
view because my husband plays golf on both of Veronica has found tennis and swimming
those days.’ to have a positive impact on her life
Fitness Profile—Josh
Josh is 22 years old and single. He finished his HSC in
2006 and works as an apprentice electrician.
‘I’ve always played lots of sport. At school, sport and
exercise were always organised for you. You didn’t have
to do anything, it just happened. I also did lots of sports
outside of school.
Since I’ve left school I’ve kept up nearly all of my
sports. I surf twice a week and I also play tennis, golf and
Oztag competitively each week. I just can’t sit still and do
nothing—I get bored. Even when I am at home not doing
anything special I still kick a ball around with my brother
or look for something active to do.
It can be hard to fit everything in with work and
socialising but mostly I manage. When I first left school
I did some tennis coaching but I gave that up when my
fulltime job became more demanding.
Having a driver’s licence has made it easier to keep
playing sport because everything I play is fairly local
so I can just jump in the car and be there within 5 or
10 minutes.’
Figure 9.17
Josh is finding that exercise and sport can be enjoyed even
when transition stages in life bring new responsibilities
chapter review
Recap
Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities for a
sustained period of time, which can improve fitness.
Early experiences with exercise and fitness can influence our feelings about fitness in the
long term, positively or negatively.
People’s attitudes to fitness change over time and are influenced by transition stages
throughout life.
The fitness industry is expected to earn $60 billion per year by 2012.
For some people, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing goals
are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve these goals. For others, the
social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can have carries a high
priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and team-based games hold appeal.
Different fitness activities emerge or regenerate from time to time. Their increase in
popularity can increasingly be linked to globalisation and the ease of communication
possible in an era of pay TV, the internet and people becoming more globally connected.
Stand up paddle surfing and Pilates are two examples of this.
Useful strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and promotion
include critical literacy, questioning, checking credentials and seeking references from
reliable sources.
Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products, services and
facilities include offering free trials, offering a free fitness assessment, using existing
members to attract family and friends to join up and using celebrity role models.
Legislation, self-regulation and industry codes of ethics are approaches used to help
ensure that information provided to consumers is accurate, and that the product or
service provided is safe and of suitable quality.
Making exercise a priority increases the likelihood that people will, in fact, exercise and
improve their fitness.
The Premier’s Council for www.pcal.nsw.gov.au Information about the NSW Government strategy
Active Living to increase physical activity participation
Exam-style questions
1 Discuss how attitudes to fitness have changed over time. (4 marks)
2 Design a profile of someone who would have their fitness needs suitably (4 marks)
met by Pilates.
10 recreation
Figure 10.1
People participate in
outdoor recreation for
a variety of reasons
Stress management/relaxation
Stress is a normal and natural part of everyday life; simply learning
to live, getting an education and obtaining a job is stressful. This
level of stress can increase dramatically when you add other issues
such as conflicting relationships, financial difficulty, overcrowding
or urban noise into the equation. If levels of stress become high
and remain unresolved for an extended period, this can result in a
variety of stress-related illnesses such as heartburn, hypertension
and heart disease.
Outdoor recreation offers a range of ways to relax and reduce
stress levels. What makes outdoor recreation such a great tool
for alleviating stress and relaxing is that many outdoor pursuits
can be undertaken by people of all ages and at all levels of ability. If we take Figure 10.2
surfing as an example, we often see teenagers surfing alongside retirees in A surfer enjoying the thrill
the morning; then in the evening whilst watching the television we often see of riding big wave
professional surfers competing on huge waves at the world championships.
Figure 10.3
Competitive outdoor sports
like adventure racing, are a
part of outdoor recreation
Social interaction
Many outdoor pursuits require teamwork, cooperation and social interaction
in order to achieve planned outcomes. Rock climbing and canoeing are great
examples of these. With rock climbing, two people are needed to climb a
rock face safely. One person climbs first, while the second person belays the
climber to ensure their safety. Roles are reversed when the climber reaches
the top of the pitch. To do this safely, the two people must communicate
constantly throughout the climb.
Figure 10.4
In a two-person canoe, the person at the front provides the forward
Some people enjoy the
social interaction that is momentum, while the person at the back steers. Again, the two people must
a part of many outdoor communicate and interact to successfully get the canoe to go where they want
recreational activities it to, as without interacting they will not succeed.
Planning skills
Ensuring maximum fun and safety in outdoor recreation requires some degree
of planning. Whether this is quickly checking your tyre pressure and brakes
before a 30-minute bike ride or the years of planning needed to climb Mount
Everest, the degree of planning is likely to play an important role in the
success of the activity.
Environment planning
The environment plays an important part in outdoor recreation and knowing
how to plan a recreational activity considering all environmental factors is
an important skill in the outdoors. Without this, the enjoyment and safety of
the activity can be compromised. Important environmental factors to consider
prior to partaking in outdoor recreation include:
Weather—checking up-to-date weather forecasts prior to, and, if necessary,
during, an activity is an important consideration. During overnight camps,
think about getting weather forecasts twice a day, in the morning and
evening. This way you have more notice if bad weather is on the way and
can make appropriate arrangements. In countries like Australia, it’s not
only the cold and wet weather forecasts that you need to consider, but hot
and dry forecasts should also be treated with caution.
Venue—matching the skill level of the group with the venue, by planning
exactly where to go walking, camping, riding or climbing is also an
important consideration. By selecting an appropriate venue, a group leader
can help ensure that some group members are not out of their depth while
others are still challenged.
Identifying any possible escape routes, should the activity need to be cut
short for any reason, or if a group member becomes ill and needs to be
evacuated.
Identifying which phone numbers should be carried on the trip such as:
local police, hospital, national park offices, home contact numbers for all
group members, equipment rental company and transport company. In
addition, at what times will you contact outside people?
Risk management plan a Reconnoitering of the route by at least one group member prior to the trip.
document that identifies any Developing a risk management plan is also an important step in any
potential risks associated with
an activity and strategies to
emergency management planning. A risk management plan helps to identify
manage these risks. any potential risks as well as actions or precautions to minimise the risks.
A partly completed risk management plan for an overnight bushwalk can be
seen below.
Contact number 04 2222 8888 Location Royal National Park (see route plan attached)
Start date and 9.30 am, 27 March 2009 End date and time 5.00 pm, 31 March 2009
time
Total number 16 (see list attached) Aim of activity To teach friends to navigate
of people
Experience of All group members have Medical conditions John Doe has asthma
participants been on one overnight hike. of participants (see medical forms attached)
Medications Ventolin inhaler Method of A phone call will be made to his mother twice a
carried communication day at 9.00 am and 5.00 pm
Environment: Hot conditions Ensure all members carry 3 litres of water and that they drink frequently
factors that impact
on the activity: Exposed cliffs Monitor everyone and ensure that all members are at least 2 body lengths
weather, terrain, back from the cliff edge
water, River crossing Group will be shown how to cross rivers safely
snow/ice, etc. (will not be attempted Waist straps on packs will be undone and shoulder straps will be
if flooded) loosened
Swimming A buddy system will be adopted before swimming, with one buddy
swimming and the other watching
Others … ???
Food
How many meals will I need? For example, 2 breakfasts, 3 lunches,
2 dinners, 4 snack meals.
Will all the food have to be carried? If so, consider lightweight alternatives,
e.g. dehydrated food, 2-minute noodles etc.
Does the food require water to be cooked and will water be available?
How far do you have to carry it?
How is the food packaged and can I leave some of the packaging at home?
(Remember you will have to carry out all rubbish.)
How nutritious is the food?
Is anyone in the group allergic to any foods, e.g. nut allergies. If so, all
nut products should be left at home.
How easy is the food to cook, and how long does it take to cook? The correct
cooking utensils and the right amount of fuel will need to be carried.
Water
How much do I usually drink?
How hot will it be? Extra water will be required in hot weather.
How hard will I be exerting myself? (Extra water will be required if you are
working hard.)
How far or long before water will be available?
Will the water be safe to drink, or do I need to treat it or boil it?
The outer layer—is a waterproof and windproof shell. A outer layer made
of Gore-Tex (or similar fabric) will also allow the moisture that is being
Table 10.1 wicked away from your body by the inner and middle layers to escape.
Suggested equipment
needed for an Using a combination of these layers, it is possible to stay warm and dry in
overnight trip all conditions in Australia.
Campsite selection
Camping in a wilderness setting can be an amazing experience for some
people and a daunting prospect for others. To ensure you get the most out
of a camping experience, it is worthwhile spending time selecting the most
appropriate site to pitch a tent. This valuable investment can not only make
the camping experience more enjoyable for everyone, but it will also make the
experience safer and have less of an impact on the environment.
The initial planning can start at home prior to your trip. This is a good
time to research possible sites, as well as nearby alternatives in case the
scheduled campsite is unavailable. It is also a time to find the answers to
questions such as: Do you need to book or is a permit required to camp there?
Are there any fire restrictions? Is there water available at the campsite? What
is the weather forecast? Is there any specific local information that you need
to be aware of? Information like this can usually be found in guidebooks, on
websites, or in information centres.
Conservation skills
As more and more Australians are heading into the outdoors for recreation,
leisure and sport, we are running the risk of ‘loving our natural areas to
death’. To avoid this and to reduce the impact users have on the environment,
several educational programs and camping practices and procedures have
been introduced. ‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ practices are
two of the most well known of these.
Respect wildlife
All animals, to some extent, are affected by people visiting their habitats.
Some flee their homes; others are attracted by new sounds and food. Users
of the recreational area must consider this and plan to minimise their impact
and respect wildlife.
• Carry out things that won’t easily decompose. • Definitely don’t build a ring of stones as a fireplace.
• Carry a lightweight plastic trowel or a large This is unnecessary and unsightly. Dismantle stone
aluminium tent peg to make digging easier. rings wherever you find them.
• Sweep away all leaves, grass and other flammable
Keep water pure material for at least 2 metres around your fireplace.
• Wash cooking and eating utensils well back from the (Major bushfires have been caused by careless
edge of lakes and creeks, so waste water falls on campers who didn’t take this precaution.)
soil where it will be absorbed. • Burn only dead wood that’s fallen to the ground. Don’t
• Prevent soap, detergent or toothpaste from getting break limbs from trees or shrubs.
into natural water systems. Similarly, when washing • Keep your fire small—remember, the bigger the fool,
cooking utensils, don’t use detergent and don’t let the bigger the fire.
oils and food scraps get into creeks or lakes. Before you leave
• Always swim downstream from where you get your • Douse your fire thoroughly with water, even if it appears
drinking water. to be already out. Don’t try to smother a fire by covering
it with soil or sand, as the coals will continue to smoulder
Be very careful with fire for days. Only water kills a fire with total certainty.
• Have a fire only when you are absolutely certain you • Feel the ground under the coals. If it is too hot to touch,
can light it with safety. A fuel stove is preferable for the fire is not out. Douse it some more.
cooking and thermal clothing is better for warmth. • Scatter the cold charcoal and ashes well clear of
• Always use a fuel stove in places where even a your campsite, then rake soil and leaves over the spot
tiny fire may cause permanent damage. Places where your fire was. You should aim to remove all
where fire lighting should be avoided include many trace of it.
rainforest and all alpine regions. Respect Indigenous heritage
• Do not light fires: • Many places have spiritual or cultural significance for
– in hot, summer conditions our Indigenous communities. Treat such places with
– in dry windy weather consideration and respect.
– in declared ‘fuel stove only’ areas • Obtain permission from traditional landowners or the
– when there is a declared fire ban. relevant land manager to visit sensitive areas.
Always remember • Leave Indigenous relics as you find them. Don’t touch
paintings or rock engravings.
• Fire doesn’t destroy aluminium foil, and plastics
release toxic gases when burnt. So carry foil and Be courteous to others
plastics out in your pack with all your other rubbish, • The sound of radios, CD players, mobile phones
including food scraps. Don’t use your campfire as a and similar devices is out of place in the natural
rubbish incinerator. environment. Leave the electronics at home and switch
off your mobile phone.
If you light a campfire, follow these rules
• When you open a gate, make sure the last person
• In popular campsites, light your fire on a bare patch through knows it has to be closed.
left by previous fires. Don’t light it on fresh ground. • Respect the rights of landholders and land managers.
• Light your fire on bare soil or sand, well away from Don’t enter private property without permission. In
stumps, logs, living plants and river stones (which national parks, abide by plans of management and
may explode when heated). encourage others to do so too.
Ethical issues
Simply being in the wilderness has an effect on the environment of that
natural setting. Bushwalking might mean crushing small saplings; mountain
biking around muddy patches could widen the track; rock climbing means
you could leave chalk on a rock face and four-wheel driving could leave deep
wheel ruts in a wet field. These are all examples of harming the environment.
From one person’s point of view, they may be able to justify their behaviour
based on a particular situation; from another person’s point of view, this type
of behaviour may be wrong in any situation. These ethical issues are just a
few examples of the many in outdoor recreation. For example, how can we
justify the costs of the development of alpine roads, electrical infrastructure,
chair-lift installation, lift passes, the impact on a fragile environment and the
initial outlay of personal clothing and equipment for
the human pleasure of simply skiing down a snow-covered slope?
When people’s values and beliefs are compared, debate often arises. These
Table 10.2
valuable discussions are interesting, as they enable people to hear a variety of
A variety of ethical
points of view and to develop and justify their own well thought-out ethical issues in outdoor
stance on the topic. recreation
Should areas be set What is the point of saving that part of Yes, as it is the only way to prevent humans from destroying
aside as human free? the environment if nobody can use it the environment, and extreme measures are needed in very
or see it? sensitive areas.
Should 4WDs be banned No, as everybody has the right to visit We need to consider the use of different recreational areas
from some recreational recreational areas and 4WD tracks can on an individual basis, taking into account the access,
areas? provide rescue access to other users. environment impact and needs of users.
Should dogs be allowed Yes, because correctly trained dogs No, as native animals see dogs as predators and the lasting
in National Parks? on a leash provide no threat to native scent of a dog can easily scare away animals. In addition,
animals. dogs’ faeces can carry diseases harmful to native wildlife.
Should toilet paper be It’s only paper, it will get wet and It should be carried out, as that is the only way of completely
buried, burnt or carried break down naturally. reducing the impact of human waste.
out after it is used?
Figure 10.5
Navigational skills A walking track affected
by erosion
The ability to accurately read maps and navigate using a compass are
important foundational skills for many outdoor activities. Whether it is
planning an extended mountain bike ride, sailing to a remote island or even
driving to the trail head the night before you start bushwalking, the ability to
navigate can not only save you time, but it is also an important safety skill in
outdoor recreation.
The map (or maps) you bring with you on any trip in the outdoors should
match the journey that you have planned. The type of map(s) you will need
will depend on the type of trip you are going on. For a long-distance cycle-
touring adventure, a road map may be appropriate; while for a sea-kayaking
trip around Jervis Bay, nautical maps will be required. For many journeys in
the outdoors, you will need topographic maps.
Topographic map a A distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the shape of the
detailed and accurate graphic Earth’s surface is shown by contour lines. These contour lines are imaginary
representation of cultural and
natural features on the ground.
lines that join points of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or
below the mean sea level. Contour lines enable the three-dimensional terrain
Contour lines lines that join to be represented on a two-dimensional piece of paper. They make it possible
points of equal elevation.
to identify the height of mountains, depths of the ocean bottom and steepness
of slopes. An example of how contour lines work can be seen in figure 10.6.
200
30 0
40 0
50 0
A 60 0 60 0 B
200 300 400 500 600 600 600 600 500 400 300 200
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
Horizontal scale – 1cm : 1000m
Vertical scale – 1cm : 100m
100 100
VE = 10
B B
Figure 10.6 Initially, contour lines look confusing; however, if we break down the
The relationship between concept, there are five main features that cover many of the situations seen on
a three-dimensional world topographic maps. These five features can be seen in table 10.3
and a two-dimensional map
Topographic maps also combine the natural features shown with contour
lines with manmade structures such as roads, buildings, powerlines and
established walking tracks. All of the features shown on topographical maps
are described in the map legend. The legend explains the meanings of all the
symbols, lines and colours used on the map. Most of the symbols on maps are
standardised, but they may vary depending on the country and the company
that publishes the map. It is worthwhile examining a map’s legend to ensure
you are not making assumptions based on the symbol usage of other maps.
Table 10.3
Feature When standing What it looks like What it actually The five main features
on it … on a map looks like shown by contour
lines on topographic
maps
Hill, knoll or
600
570
all sides are lower
mountain top
0
60
0
57
0
60
560
converge together 60 0
0
57
The map legend also gives the scale of the map. The scale refers to the Scale the ratio between
relationship between distance on a map and the corresponding distance distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on
on the ground. The map’s scale is given as a ratio that relates to a unit of the ground.
measurement on the map to some number of the same units
of measure on the Earth’s surface. For example, a map with
sealed unsealed
a scale of 1:10 000 indicates that 1 unit of measure (like Principal road; Built up area; Locality
a centimetre) represents 10 000 of the same units on the Secondary road; Bridge; Causeway
Earth’s surface. On a large-scale map, such as one of the Minor Road; Embankment; Cutting
world, a large scale of 1:10 000 000 would be required. Most Vehicle track; Gate; Stock grid
22
topographic maps in Australia are drawn to a much smaller Dual carriageway; Distance in kilometres
scale and are either 1:25 000 or 1:50 000. On a map with a Route Marker: National, State 1 5
scale of 1:25 000, 1 centimetre on the map equals 25 000 Airport; Landing ground; Heliport H
centimetres on the Earth or 250 metres. Multiple track railway; Station or siding
Single track railway; Bridge; Tunnel
Power transmission line
Homestead; Building/s; Ruin
Fence; Levee; Open cut mine
GN
The legend on a topographic map also indicates
which way the map is aligned, that is, which way
TN MN
it is pointing. This is displayed with a declination
diagram, which looks like a series of arrows, as shown
in figure 10.8.
Grid convergence
1.3° True north (TN or *) indicates the direction of
Grid/Magnetic angle
13.5°
the Earth’s North Pole. Magnetic north (MN) is the
direction a compass needle points. The reason that
this is different from true north is because true north
True North (TN), Grid North (GN) and Magnetic and magnetic north are not in the same spot. Magnetic
North (MN) are shown diagrammatically for the north is located northwest of Hudson Bay in Canada,
centre of the map.
about 800 kilometres from the Earth’s true North
MN is correct for 1997 and moves easterly by Pole. The difference between true north and magnetic
less than 0.1° in 10 years.
north is known as magnetic declination. It ranges
from about 5 degrees west of true north in Western
Figure 10.8 Australia to about 15 degrees east of true north in eastern Australia. Because
A declination diagram the position of the north magnetic pole moves slightly from year to year, the
showing the different magnetic angle and magnetic declination will vary by a small amount each
north points shown on a
topographic map
year. When using a map for accurate navigation, magnetic variation can be
important, particularly if the map is several years old.
Grid north (GN) is the direction of the vertical gridlines on a topographic
map. The angular difference between grid north and true north is known as
grid convergence. This also varies across the country, although its magnitude
and direction east or west of true north is usually less than 2 degrees.
Another main feature shown on topographic maps are gridlines. Gridlines
are the black lines intersecting at right angles that form squares on the
map. The longitudinal lines are vertical lines that run down the globe. The
meridian (zero degrees) runs through Greenwich in the United Kingdom and
longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds either east or west
from this meridian. Longitude numbers (also known as eastings) run along
the bottom and top of a map. The latitudinal lines are the horizontal lines that
circle the globe. The equator is the most famous line and is the zero degree
meridian. Latitude numbers (or northings) are measured in degrees, minutes,
and seconds either north or south from the equator. These numbers are
on the sides of maps. Using these imaginary lines that make up a grid around
the Earth, it is possible to indicate an exact location on a map by means of
grid references.
Grid references
A grid reference states a unique position on a map. A four-figure grid
reference is used to identify which grid square a feature is located in. A
six-figure grid reference is used to locate more specifically the feature to an
accuracy of one tenth of the grid interval.
To work out a four-figure grid reference, you need to know the eastings
and northings on the map. Remember, the eastings are located on the top and/
or bottom of the map, while the northings are located on the sides. The first
two numbers of the grid reference refer to the easting (the vertical line) to the
left of the point of interest. The second two numbers refer to the northing (the
horizontal grid line) below the point of interest. For example, Spot Height 345
in the middle map of figure 10.9 is located at grid reference 91 66. Remember
to always read the eastings first, then the northings.
Figure 10.9
60˚N
Prime meridian
60˚N How the latitude and
longitude lines around
30˚N 30˚N
the world can be used to
0˚ + 60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ = 60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ describe a unique position
W W E E W W E E
30˚S 30˚S
60˚S 60˚S
LATITUDE LONGITUDE EARTH’S GRID
68
67
345
66
66
90 91 92 93 94 95
9
8 The reference of spot height 345 is...
7 4 Figure - 91 66
6 6 Figure - 916 668
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Map reading
Figure 10.10
The features on a 1:25 000 Using a combination of the symbols shown on topographic maps with the
topographic map scale, contour lines and gridlines, it is possible to read maps accurately.
342 Corroboree
Flat 226
29
254
200
Eu
re
a k
28
377
276
Cree
k
Ca
pt
ain
27
358
Sp
ur
30
0
Clarke Saddle
Reynolds Saddle
26
300
405
423
25
04 05 06 07
Magnetic compasses
A magnetic compass and a map are designed to complement each other.
While they are both useful tools on their own, when matched together they
can be extremely valuable, even life saving.
While there are numerous types of compasses, they all rely on the
principle that a magnetised needle will point towards the magnetic North
Pole. The most common type of compass for bushwalking is known as a
baseplate compass. Baseplate compasses, like the one shown below, have a
transparent base with a direction of travel arrow and orienting lines marked
on a rotating housing, which enables it to be used as a protractor to record
line of site bearings, to measure grid bearings, or to orientate a map.
To orientate a map with the ground, place the compass on it so that the
side edges of the baseplate are parallel with the vertical longitudinal lines
(or eastings). Turn the rotating housing so that zero is in line with the index
Figure 10.11
pointer, then rotate the map, with the compass sitting on top of it, until the
The features of a baseplate
red magnetic needle points to whatever the magnetic declination is in that compass
location—approximately 12 degrees in NSW. Now the map will actually be
pointing north and features on the map will correspond with the ground.
Compass housing
with degree dial
Baseplate 80 10 0
12
60 0
E
Orienting lines
14
40
0
Read Bearing Here
160
20
180
360
N
Orienting arrow
20 0
340
22
20
0
3
24
W
0
30 0
Direction of 280 260
Index line
Grid bearing
To take a grid bearing, place a compass on a map with the long edge of the
compass along the desired line of travel. Ensure that the direction of travel
arrow is parallel to your desired line of travel and pointing the way you wish
to go as shown in figure 10.12.
Figure 10.12
Taking a grid bearing—
step 1
Destination
PH
Starting
point
280 30 0
32
309 26
0 0
34
0
0
24
360
N
220
20
200
40
180 S
60
0
16
80
E
140 10 0
120
Then turn the rotation housing until the orienting arrow points towards
north on the map. The orienting lines in the housing should be parallel
to the vertical longitudinal lines (or eastings). The number on the rotating
housing that is at the index pointer shows the grid bearing. Finally, you need
to adjust the grid bearing to allow for the magnetic declination, shown in the
declination diagram. If magnetic north is left of map north, add the degrees
of the declination to your compass bearing. If magnetic north is right of map
north (as it is in NSW), subtract the degrees of the declination from your
map heading.
Figure 10.13
Taking a grid bearing—
step 2
PH
360 20
309 340 N
0 40
32
Bearing
0
60
30
280
80
W E
10 0
260
12
0
24
14
0 0
22
20 0 S 160
180
E
Taking a grid bearing—step 3
60
30
N
280
80
Magnetic bearing
260
10 0
0
12
S
To work out a magnetic bearing, you need to select a
24
0
0 14
W
visible feature and, holding the compass level, point 22 0
160
20 0 180
Figure 10.15
Taking a magnetic bearing
Measuring distance
Measuring the distance to be covered on the map is
difficult to do precisely; however, there are a number
of ways to estimate the distance to be covered. One of
the most popular ways is to use a piece of string. Place
one end of the string at the starting point on the map. 360 20
340
Then carefully lay the string out along the intended 32
0 N 40
0
60
30
E
280
80
possible. When the destination is reached, simply mark
260
10 0
the finishing point on the string, straighten the string out W
0
12
24
0
and measure it against the map scale. 0
22
20 0 180
S
160
14
0
School School
5 6
1 2
0
My house My house
Natural navigation
Besides using a compass for navigation, it is also possible to find directions
using other means, including the stars and the Sun.
The stars in the southern hemisphere can easily be used to find an
approximate location of the South Pole. The first step involves locating the
Southern Cross. Once you have done this, there are three similar ways to
locate the South Celestial Pole and subsequently, the South Pole. It is worth
understanding all three ways, as debate on how to do it often arises around
campfires. Use figure 10.17 to explore each method.
The first way involves extending the long axis of the Southern Cross from
the bottom star four and a half times. This will give you the approximate
location of the South Celestial Pole. From there simply drop a straight line
down to the horizon to locate the South Pole.
The second way to locate the South Pole using the Southern Cross is
to extend the long axis of the cross below the cross. Then draw another
imaginary line starting half-way between the two pointer stars and at 90
degrees to a line joining the pointer stars together. Where the first and second
lines cross is, again, roughly the South Celestial Pole.
The last way to find the South Pole using the Southern Cross is to draw
a straight line between the bottom star in the cross and Achernar (the ninth
brightest star in the whole sky).The South Celestial Pole is approximately
half-way along this line.
The Sun can also be used to locate a bearing. All you need is an analogue
watch (or a drawing of the face of watch with the correct time on it) and,
using the Sun, you will be able to locate north. All you need to do is point the
12 o’clock mark to where the Sun is. Then north lies half-way between the
hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark. (Note that this only works in the southern
hemisphere).
Figure 10.18
North is halfway between Using a watch and the sun
the ‘12’ and the hour hand Sun Point 12
to locate the North Pole in
N to the sun
the southern hemisphere
12
9 3
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation refers to the human body’s ability to keep its core temperature
within certain boundaries. In normal environments, this temperature is
approximately 37 degrees Celsius; however, in hot or cold weather and with
exercise or illness, this temperature can change. If the body’s temperature
increases or decreases by even a few degrees, serious illness, or worse, can occur.
Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia, and illness brought about by a drop
in the body’s temperature is called hypothermia. For a full description of these
conditions, please refer to chapter 7.
In the outdoor environment, it is important to be aware of these conditions
and to take precautions to prevent them from happening. Precautions include
wearing the appropriate clothing, staying hydrated, and keeping an eye on
each other for signs and symptoms so they can be treated early.
Snake bite
Australia has many different types of poisonous snakes. Although some
snake bites can be fatal, the number of people who actually die from them is
relatively low, especially if they receive the correct first aid.
As mentioned in chapter 7, the signs and symptoms of a snake bite will
vary depending on the type of snake and the amount of venom injected.
However, in Australia the treatment remains the same until experienced
Table 10.4 medical help is found. An overview of the signs and symptoms can be seen
Signs, symptoms and
primary management below. The table also outlines any possible considerations you may make in
of snake bites a wilderness setting.
• Intense pain at the site • Follow the DRABCD action plan, • If you can’t find a PIB you can make one
• Burning feeling where bitten as outlined in chapter 7 out of strips of clothes—be sure to keep
• Local swelling • Lie or sit the patient down the strips broad so they do not act as a
• Apply a Pressure Immobilisation tourniquet
• Swollen eyelids, lips, neck and face
Bandage (PIB) • Never remove the PIB
• Vomiting or nausea
• Ensure the casualty does not move • Minimise all movement of the patient
• Bite, scratch or fang marks
• Reassure the patient • Consider bringing a vehicle to the patient
• Sweating
• Monitor for shock and/or allergic or carrying the patient to the vehicle
• Blurred vision
reactions • Do not be afraid of asking the authorities
• Headache for a helicopter evacuation
• Call 000
• Muscle weakness
• Drowsiness
• Pain or tightness in chest
• Difficulty breathing
• Unconsciousness
Bushfire procedures
It is generally considered unwise to go bushwalking on extreme or even
high bushfire warning days, and it is certainly not wise to go into an area
where bushfires are burning nearby. If, however, you find yourself caught in a
bushfire, the NSW Fire Brigades recommend the following procedures:
Seek shelter in your vehicle or a large body of water—but never climb into
any type of water tank.
Never run uphill to escape a fire (bushfires spread more quickly uphill).
Try to find an open space such as a previously burnt-out area or rocky
ground, or clear litter away from around you and shelter behind your
backpack or a fallen log.
Stay low to the ground for fresh air and cover up exposed skin for
protection from radiant heat.
Never attempt to run through a bushfire unless it is small with flames less
than 1 metre in height (this should only be done as a last resort).
Use your mobile phone or CB radio (if working) to dial triple zero (000) to
notify the emergency services and the National Parks and Wildlife Service
of your situation and location.
Remember when camping to notify the National Parks and Wildlife Service
rangers of your location and obey fire restrictions.
Flooded rivers
When you are out in the wilderness, you will generally have an idea of whether
the rivers are going to be flooded, as it will be raining or may have just finished
raining. However, sometimes it is possible that a rainstorm has passed upstream
from you and that a river you planned on crossing may now be flooded.
If you come across a flooded river, you need to ask yourself if you really
need to cross it and put yourself and your group in danger. Would it be better
to walk out another way, cross in another place, or even wait until the river
levels drop? Surely it would be better to be hungry and late rather than put
yourself in danger.
Table 10.5
The specific skills
Canoeing Abseiling
needed for canoeing Forward stroke Site selection
and abseiling
Reverse stroke Anchor selection
Sweep stroke Linking of anchors
Draw stroke Knot tying: • figure of eight (on a bight) • Italian hitch
Sculling strokes • figure of eight (retrace) • double fisherman
Emergency stop • clove hitch • tape knot
• prussic knot
‘J’ stroke or rudder
Various belay techniques
Self rescue
Self-rescue
‘T’ Rescue
Partner rescue
Leadership styles
Whenever there is a group situation, there is a need for leadership. Whether
it is a captain of a sporting team, a principal of a school, a prime minister of a
country or an organiser on a weekend bushwalking trip, a good leader makes
a significant difference to the wellbeing of the group and the outcome of the
task. All leaders, including the ones listed above, have different styles and
ways of achieving their goals. A good leader will not only be able to identify
their natural leadership style, but also be able to modify their style to suit the
situation. Given the fact that the outdoors is a dynamic environment where a
situation can change quickly, the ability of a leader to modify and adjust their
style is even more important.
The four main leadership styles identified in outdoor recreation are:
Democratic
Democratic leadership is generally considered the most effective leadership
style. Democratic leaders offer advice and guidance to the group members.
They also listen to their group members and encourage their input when
group decisions are being made. Individuals in a democratically led group
often feel important and valued, resulting in increased motivation levels.
A weakness of democratic leadership is that it takes time to make
decisions, and input from inexperienced group members can be incorrect.
In addition, conflict may arise when different points of view are aired.
Laissez-faire
A laissez-faire leadership style is characterised by a very casual leader who
is often disorganised and leaves decisions to chance. This style can promote
leadership opportunities for group members, as they may feel forced to take
charge. This leadership style may be effective when group members are
skilled in the area of expertise; however, it often leads to poorly defined roles
and lack of motivation. It can also result in a dangerous situation developing,
as there may be a lack of guidance when required, for example, at the top of a
cliff or when crossing a river.
Autocratic
Autocratic leaders provide clear instructions for their group members, telling
them what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be
done. With autocratic leaders, there is a clear distinction between leaders and
followers. These leaders make decisions independently of the group, often
allowing little or no input from the group. This style of leadership is often
required in potentially dangerous situations, where accurate decisions need to
made, and made quickly.
In an autocratically led group, members may feel as though the leader is
bossy or controlling, and that thoughts and input from other are not wanted.
This could possibly lead to frustration and conflict.
Strategic non-intervention
Strategic non-interventional leaders actively observe their group members
and step in when dangerous situations or valuable learning opportunities
arise.
This style of leadership, if used correctly, can promote group decision making,
teamwork and leadership within the group. If, however, the leader delays in
stepping in, or does not identify the need to step in, a dangerous situation
can arise.
Stage 1: forming
During this initial stage, individuals gather for the first time to form a group.
People are generally trying to be accepted by others in the group and avoid
controversy or conflict. Serious issues are often avoided and people tend to
concentrate on routine things such as deciding who does what and when.
This is generally a comfortable stage to be in.
Stage 2: storming
During the second stage of group development, individuals begin questioning
one another as important issues start to be addressed. Some people in the
group may lose patience and minor confrontations usually arise. These often
relate to the workings of the group itself, or to roles and responsibilities
within the group. Some people believe it is good to air their thoughts, while
others may suppress them, however, they may still be there under the surface.
Stage 3: norming
As the second stage progresses, certain rules for the group become established
and the roles and responsibilities within the group become clearer. People in
the group learn to understand each other and appreciate each others’ skills,
and they begin to feel part of a cohesive, effective group.
Stage 4: performing
This stage occurs after a group has been together for a while, but not all
groups get to this stage. During this stage, everyone knows each other well
enough to be able to work together. They trust each other and can change roles
and responsibilities almost seamlessly. This cohesiveness allows the group to
direct all its focus towards achieving the task.
Stage 5: adjourning
The final stage of group development is about completion and disengagement
from the task and the group itself. This is where the group ‘un-forms’ and the
group members go their separate ways and move on.
Figure 10.19
Good teamwork requires
practice, work and a leader
Conflict resolution
With an understanding of group dynamics and of how groups form, it is
possible to see that an important and healthy part of group development is
conflict. Knowing and understanding that conflict happens, means that group
leaders and group members can be aware of it and can put procedures in
place to resolve any conflict quickly. This enables the group to move on
and become more effective.
Team building
Teamwork is a large component of outdoor recreation, and being able to build
effective teams successfully and quickly is an important skill that outdoor
leaders and group members should work towards attaining. It is a skill that
can be constantly refined and perfected as every group situation is different.
Cooperation
The ability to cooperate within a team setting is a skill that does not just
happen, it is learnt and requires practice. It involves knowing how to
communicate tactfully, knowing when to offer suggestions and when to listen
to others. It also requires that members support group decisions, even if they
are not in total agreement with them.
1 Discuss why the extra ‘obstacles’ were included to make the trek harder for the players—
what benefit would this have had?
2 Participating in adventure training activities, like walking the Kokoda Trail, has certain risks,
for example, sprained ankles, malaria, and so on. Debate whether elite sporting teams
should face these risks prior to a long season—is adventure training worth the risks?
3 Using the stages of group dynamics, outline a series of situations that may have occurred
on the Kokoda Trail with the Hawthorn players.
Facilitation skills
Group work plays an important part in many outdoor recreational activities,
and being able to facilitate a group experience is an important skill that group
leaders and members should have. A good facilitator will be able to enhance
the effectiveness of a group by developing the processes that groups go
through. This typically includes improving how a group identifies and solves
problems, as well as how a group makes decisions. A good facilitator will
have excellent communication and decision-making skills and have a flexible
approach when dealing with groups.
Communication skills
Good communication involves being able to effectively transfer thoughts,
opinions and information between group members and to other people.
This may sound easy, but like all skills, excellent communication
Decision making
Encountering problems is, for many people, often an enjoyable part of many
outdoor activities. For others, the decision-making process surrounding
problems can be quite daunting. However, it need not be if you follow certain
steps. The steps involved in the decision-making process are:
1 Identify the exact problem and when it needs to be solved, i.e. is it
important and/or urgent.
2 Gather all the information and facts associated with the problem.
3 Brainstorm possible solutions.
4 Consider and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each solution.
5 Select the best solution.
6 Explain the decision to all involved, and implement it.
7 Reflect on the process afterwards and identify what can be learnt from it.
Flexibility
Being flexible in the outdoors does not just involve altering plans if weather
conditions change, or if a group member becomes ill. It also involves
flexibility on the leader’s part to select appropriate group management styles
and approaches. For example, a leader might decide before they meet a
group to take a democratic approach to leadership, however, when the leader
realises that the group is extremely confident and capable they might be
flexible and decide to take a strategic non-intervention approach.
Participant readiness
Ensuring that a participant is ready to undertake various outdoor activities
is an important ethical decision that group leaders and individual group
members need to consider. Taking a direct approach and forcing people to do
activities that they may not wish to do can result in negative consequences.
However, giving group members the opportunity to challenge themselves
by letting them decide whether they participate in various activities or not
can be beneficial as it gives the individuals ownership of their decision and
responsibility of their actions.
Another important consideration when looking at participant readiness is
selecting an appropriate activity for that participant. That means considering
the age, fitness, prior expertise and maturity levels of all group participants
when deciding which type of recreational activity is going to be performed,
and where the activity should be conducted. Matching these skills with an
appropriate activity is vital if a safe and enjoyable, yet challenging experience
is to be had.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is commonly referred to as the belief in one’s capabilities to
achieve a goal or an outcome. For example, a person who cannot ride a horse
would probably have a poor self-efficacy with regard to horse riding. A person
who is a competent rider and who knows that they are skilled in this area
would have a high self-efficacy with regards to horse riding.
A well-planned and directed outdoor recreation experience, with a strong
leader, will have a positive effect on a person’s self-efficacy.
chapter review
Recap
Outdoor recreation can be defined as a wide range of leisure, sport or recreational
activities that are undertaken outside.
People participate in outdoor recreation for a number of different reasons. These can
include, but are not limited to, stress management and relaxation, enjoyment, the
challenge and excitement offered, social interaction, appreciation of the environment or
for health and fitness reasons.
In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need to realise
that a number of skills are needed. These include sport-specific skills like kayaking
strokes and map reading, as well as overarching environmental and emergency
management skills.
The environment plays an important part in any outdoor activity. The venue should match
the skill level of the group, and the weather should be monitored before and during
any trip.
A risk management plan should be developed before any trip, as it can help in identifying
any potential risks as well as any actions or precautions that could be taken to minimise
the risks.
The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer system, as this will
allow for maximum heat retention and cooling efficiency. The system involves a base
layer to wick moisture away from your skin, a middle layer to capture the heat from your
body, and an outer layer to stop the wind and rain.
‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ procedures are two educational programs
that have been introduced to help preserve the environment from people who participate
in outdoor recreation.
Finding your way in a wilderness setting involves both compass- and map-reading
skills. Using a topographic map, one should know how to read grid references, take grid
bearings and identify land features. Using a compass, one should know how to orientate
a map, take a grid bearing and follow a bearing.
Understanding what to do if you are lost, caught in a bushfire or stuck in a thunder storm
is an essential emergency management skill that everyone who participates in outdoor
recreation should know.
Many factors affect the success of a group participating in outdoor recreation. Knowing
and understanding these factors can help to control them and potentially influence the
success of the group.
The Outdoor Recreation www.oric.org.au Information about the outdoor industry in NSW
Industry Council
Exam-style questions
Imagine you and three of your friends are about to embark on a three-day walk along
a remote section of the NSW South Coast. As leader of the group, you need to:
1 Outline three specific procedures that you will adopt to help protect the
environment during your journey. (3 marks)
2 Identify five possible risks you may encounter during your journey and
explain ways to manage these risks. (5 marks)
3 Identify and discuss four potential situations you may encounter on the
journey where a different approach to leadership may be required to
increase the safety or improve the dynamics of the group. (12 marks)
Suggested answers
CHAPTER 1
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
Your answer could include:
• The name of each of the five dimensions of health—physical, mental/emotional,
cognitive/intellectual, spiritual and social.
• A brief description of each dimension, for example, the physical dimension of
health includes the functioning of the body, and things relating to this such as
physical activity and nutrition; the mental/emotional dimension of health refers to
our ability to cope and be resilient, and to recognise our emotions and so on.
• A statement about how each dimension of health relates to the other and if one
area of health is compromised this may have an affect on the other dimensions. (4 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, to make the relationships between things
evident or to say why and/or how. Your answer could include:
• A brief description of what a person’s perceptions are—an individual’s picture of
what health means, how it looks and what they recognise as good or poor health.
• Our perceptions of health are formed or put together as a result of social
influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends.
• These perceptions will shape how we value health and what meanings we give to it.
• You will need to include an example to show your understanding of how our
health perceptions are socially constructed. You could use the examples of young
people’s behaviour in cars, their relation to body image or their attitudes to
smoking, as mentioned in this chapter, or you can develop your own example
to illustrate your answer. (6 marks)
3 To identify means to recognise and name. To investigate means to plan, inquire into
and draw conclusions about. Your answer could include the following:
• Choose one health issue relating to young people from the list provided.
• List a number of risk and protective behaviours that are related this health
issue. You can find the risk and protective behaviours for each health issue in
this chapter but the lists provided are not definitive. Try to come up with other
behaviours for this issue.
• Look at the relationship between the different risk and protective behaviours. If a
person is able to include more protective behaviours in their lives in relation to
this health issue, does that counteract the risk behaviours and vice versa?
• Provide an example to show your understanding. For example, concerning mental
health, if a young person is feeling depressed and isolated and is beginning to
engage in risky activities or thinking about self-harm (risk behaviours), the risk can
be reduced if they:
• are aware of places they can go to seek help and to talk
• have supportive friends and family
• can possibly write about their feelings and emotions
• have some good coping skills such as problem solving (protective behaviours).
Alternatively, a young person’s coping skills could be poor and they do not have
a support network, which increases the impact that risk behaviours can have on
the person’s health and wellbeing. (10 marks)
CHAPTER 2
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main
features. Your answer could include the following points:
• The media is well placed to influence the health of individuals, as it is such a
prominent part of society.
• The media can have a positive or negative influence on health.
• The media can provide explicit messages and educate individuals about positive
health behaviours that they can incorporate into their life.
• The media can sometimes provide inaccurate information or misinformation
about health issues. (3 marks)
In your answer, the analysis should link the determinants to one another and to how
they combine to influence a person’s health behaviours. Each of the examples should
then explain how this will impact upon the person’s health status. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 3
1 In order to answer this question you should consider:
• Health promotion uses a variety of settings such as homes, schools and
workplaces to improve the health of individuals.
• Homes can improve the health of individuals by providing a safe and supportive
environment. This can be seen, for example, in chemicals and drugs being stored
in high locked cupboards; in parents assisting children to work through issues
rather than fighting; in providing healthy options at meal times and in participating
in physical activity together as a family.
• Schools provide various ways of improving the health of their community. Things
schools can do include providing counselling services to students to enhance
mental health, celebrating the school’s cultural diversity through multicultural
days, providing family breakfasts with a focus on healthy eating, bringing in police
as guest speakers in relation to safe partying and having canteens that provide
healthy food options.
• Workplaces provide various avenues by which staff and customers can improve
their health including:
• implementing policies that promote positive work habits, such as OH&S policies
on correct lifting of heavy materials and anti-bullying policies
• providing seminars on how to deal with stress
• providing flexible work hours to allow more family time
• participating in lunchtime sporting events
• conducting team-building activities to strengthen relationships. (3 marks)
• The state government has a responsibility to ensure parks, roads and schools
enable positive health behaviours. Maintaining roads to ensure they are
roadworthy for drivers and pedestrians is a responsibility of the state government.
Implementing laws and actions to combat speeding, such as impounding P-plate
cars for those drivers exceeding the speed limit by 30 kilometres per hour is a
way the state government takes responsibility for an individual’s health. Another
strategy is changing laws to combat drunkenness and violence through the
implementation of 2 am curfews at certain venues that assists in preventing
drunken violence.
• Local governments take responsibility for their local communities by addressing
the various health needs and issues, and by implementing programs and events
to enable and empower individuals. Events such as Battle of the Bands at Ryde
during Youth Week celebrations allow young people to come together in a drug-
free environment to play music and feel connected. Providing activities for people
from non-English speaking backgrounds creates a sense of community for those
new to the area.
• While the various governments are responsible for the health of the populace
through the development of policies and environments conducive to positive
health, individuals also play a role in adopting these measures to enhance their
own health. (5 marks)
3 In order to answer this question, you should discuss concepts such personal skills,
strengthening community action, creating supportive environments, reorienting
health services and building healthy public policies in relation to your chosen
campaign. Using food habits and physical activity, for example, your answer
could show:
• The Australian government has developed a health-promotion campaign targeting
unhealthy food habits and lack of physical activity. The campaign ‘How do you
measure up?’ aims to provide society with the tools and knowledge to make
healthy lifestyle choices. The campaign uses a variety of strategies to assist people
to make these choices.
• This campaign works collaboratively with the federal, state and territory
governments to implement a national approach towards improving the health
of individuals.
• The campaign uses a variety of strategies to develop personal skills in individuals.
The campaign website provides individuals with a quiz to see how healthy they
are, which is an effective tool for assessing their current health status. If, after
completing the quiz, the results come back negative, the website also provides
information, recipes, recommended serves and helpful tips on improving your
health. The use of television commercials and advertisements further enhances
the skills of individuals to improve their health. These commercials visually show
individuals the effect of a lack of physical activity on a person’s health and provide
contact details for further assistance. The inclusion of these strategies makes this
healthy-promotion campaign effective.
• The campaign aims to strengthen community action through a variety of measures.
Including materials in various languages addresses different sub-communities,
encouraging different nationalities to take notice and adopt the strategies. Using top
chefs from various ethnic backgrounds to launch the campaign in a healthy cook-off
is an effective measure to engage the community in the program. The use of chefs
from a variety of cultures is effective, as individuals can see ways to make their own
cuisine healthier. To enhance the effectiveness of this campaign, communities could
run free cooking classes for adults, to show them how simple it is to cook healthy
and nutritious meals.
CHAPTER 4
1 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:
• Bones can be classified based on their shape and size. There are five ways to
classify bones.
– Bones that are elongated and long in length are called long bones. They are
made of compact bone and contain spongy tissue on the inside; for example,
the humerus.
– Bones that are cube-like and mostly made of spongy tissue are short bones.
A thin layer of compact bone, which gives them shape, covers them. The tarsals
are an example.
– Flat bones are usually thin, flat and protect organs; for example, the skull.
– Bones that are usually complicated in shape and do not belong to one of the
other categories are called irregular bones; for example, vertebrae.
– Bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint; for example, in the
foot, knee and hand are sesamoid bones. (3 marks)
• Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen around the body. They
pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport the oxygen through red blood cells to
various body tissues. If red blood cells did not carry the oxygen to working tissues,
these tissues would die and the body would stop functioning. Red blood cells are
also responsible for carrying waste products such as carbon dioxide to the lungs
for waste disposal. If these waste products are not expelled from the body, the
body would not be as efficient. If you participate in aerobic-based activities over
time, this can increase blood volume and therefore increase the amount of red
blood cells in the body. This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood.
• White blood cells are responsible for fighting infections. They attack and destroy
germs and infections in the body. If white blood cells were not present in the body,
infections would damage the body and make it less effective.
• Platelets are the clotting agents for the blood. When a blood vessel is broken,
platelets prevent excess bleeding as they stick to the damaged tissue. If platelets
were not present in the blood, uncontrollable bleeding would occur. (5 marks)
CHAPTER 5
1 Lactate response during a 1500-metre race:
a 1200 metres
b There is less oxygen available for the muscles; a reliance on anaerobic energy
sources for the sprint to the finish; and lactate is not being removed at the same
rate it was produced.
c An appropriate stategy would be active recovery consisting of jogging (as it uses
the same muscles) at a lower intensity to assist blood flow and removal of lactate.
d Heart rate will be elevated prior to the race, in anticipation. There will be a sharp
rise in heart rate during the early stages of the race. There will then be a more
gradual but linear rise in HR approaching maxHR by the end of the race. (5 marks)
3 The one-week training program using the FITT principle would need:
• Frequency—5 sessions per week
• Intensity—75 to 85 per cent maxHR
• Time—30–60 minutes
• Type—continuous, interval and circuit.
CHAPTER 6
1 a 12.8 m/s (1 mark)
b 4.3 s (1 mark)
c 3.0 m/s2 (2 marks)
d Velocity slowed rapidly during the final second. (2 marks)
2 Centre of gravity must be located above the base of support in order to be stable.
Stability can be increased by:
• widening the base of support so that more movement of the centre of gravity can
occur without the line of gravity moving outside the base
• lowering the centre of gravity so that the body can lean further from side to side
without the line of gravity moving outside the base
• if force is expected from a particular direction, the base of support should be
widened in the direction of the force and the centre of gravity moved towards
the edge in a direction towards the force. (4 marks)
3 The legs are relatively dense because of their bone structure, while the rest of the body
has relatively low density due to its air-filled lungs. Therefore, the centre of
buoyancy is located more towards the head than is the centre of gravity.
• When suspended in water, the body is pulled up by the buoyant force and down
by the weight force, and rotates until the two forces are aligned one above the
other. Achieving a horizontal float requires the two forces to be at the same
location between the head and toes.
• Bending the knees and raising the arms will move the centre of gravity up towards
the centre of buoyancy.
• Lifting the hands out of the water will move the centre of buoyancy down towards
the centre of gravity. (4 marks)
CHAPTER 7
1 To describe means to provide the characteristics and features of a head injury and
its management. Consider the following:
• Signs and symptoms can include—varying levels of consciousness, drowsiness,
confusion; slurred speech; vomiting and/or nausea; bleeding or fluid discharge
from ears, nose or mouth; a difference in size or shape of pupils; blurred vision
and loss of memory.
• Management of a head injury involves following DRABCD, while supporting the
casualty’s head and neck.
• Your answer should also include what to do if the person is conscious (place
in a comfortable position with head and shoulders raised) or unconscious
(place in the recovery position), and what to do if they are bleeding or have fluid
coming from the ear. (3 marks)
2 The term ‘distinguish’ asks you to note the differences between hyperglycaemia
and hypoglycaemia. You then need to make clear or plain (clarify) the management
of each condition. You answer should include the following:
• Hypoglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood sugar
levels become too low. It is generally caused by missing meals, eating too many
carbohydrate-rich foods, overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol.
• Hyperglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood
sugar levels become too high. It can be caused by sickness, infections, too many
carbohydrate-rich foods and/or not enough insulin.
• Management for hypoglycaemia involves getting the person’s blood sugar levels
up by giving them a quick source of carbohydrate, such as jelly beans, followed by
a longer acting carbohydrate. The person should be monitored and reassured. If
unconscious, follow DRABCD.
• Management for hyperglycaemia involves assisting the person to administer
insulin or other medication, giving them sugar-free drinks and seeking medical
assistance if necessary. If unconscious, follow DRABCD. (5 marks)
3 To explain means to discuss why and how. Your answer should include the following:
• Situational analysis—describe what should be looked for in a situational analysis.
• DRABCD—go through each step of the DRABCD Action Plan highlighting what it
means, what should be done at that step, why you do it and what should happen
next.
• STOP procedure—explain what would be done to assess a person who was
conscious and did not have serious or life-threatening injuries or illness.
• It is important to give information in your answer about why each step is included.
For example, you check for danger to ensure safety for yourself, the victim and
any bystanders; and you place an unconscious person in the recovery position to
maintain good head tilt and to ensure any fluids drain from the mouth and do not
block the airway. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 8
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
Your answer could include:
• Subjective appraisal is based on the impressions or feelings of the person who is
looking at a performance. For example, you could ask a group of people what they
thought about a dance performance. Subjective appraisal can vary from person to
person, as it is based on thoughts or opinion.
• Objective appraisal is a non-biased assessment of a performance against set
criteria, for example, the use of game statistics or using marking criteria to judge
a gymnastics routine. The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based
on facts. (2 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, and tell how. Your answer could include:
• A process is a series of steps that must be adhered to in order to create
movement.
• Every movement needs a starting point. To compose movement there needs to be
a purpose, which defines why the movement will occur.
• The purpose of movement will vary between mediums. You could give some
examples of movement purpose in your answer: such as to entertain, to score or
to communicate an idea.
• Purpose is more meaningful as there is motivation attached to it. Motivation
allows composers to be more creative.
• Once the purpose and motivation have been established, the composer needs to
decide what skills can be used that are relevant to the purpose of the movement;
for example, locomotor, non-locomotor, manipulative or a combination of these.
• During the process of creating movement, it is important to explore variations of
movement, for example, moving faster or slower.
• Improvisation is a part of creating movement, it provides different ways to
explore themes. (6 marks)
CHAPTER 9
1 • Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research, enhanced
technology and cultural trends.
• Current attitudes are based strongly around concerns related to obesity and costs
associated with chronic conditions that can be reduced with enhanced levels of
fitness, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.
• Previous eras have been defined by the growth of key trends such as jogging
and weight training (1970s), aerobics and celebrity-workout videos (1980s) and
personal training (1990s). (4 marks)
• Having existing members encourage friends and family to join the gym is a cost-
effective strategy that can be win–win. The member receives a reward in the form
of a reduced cost of their membership and they also have someone to exercise
with. The gym benefits from getting a new member.
• Celebrity role models are renowned for being a deciding factor in people choosing
to spend money on their own fitness and to spend it on a particular product or service. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 10
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
Your answer could include the following:
• Use fuel stoves instead of open fires, as this will reduce the likelihood of a
campfire turning into a bushfire.
• Carry out everything that you carry in. This means that all food scraps, wrapping
paper and so on will be taken out of the wilderness setting, therefore, reducing
our impact on the environment.
• Wash cooking utensils away from waterways to keep the water pure.
• Where possible, stick to tracks over headlands rather than make new tracks. (3 marks)
2 To identify means to list the risks and to explain means to provide reasons how or why.
Possible risks could include:
• Encountering flooded rivers—obtain weather forecasts and do not cross flooded
rivers.
• Being caught by rising tides—check tidal charts on rocky sections.
• Exposure to the sun, leading to heat stroke—wear appropriate clothing and follow
SunSmart rules. (5 marks)
3 To identify and discuss means to list and describe in detail. Your answer should include
the following:
• Democratic leadership—generally considered the most effective leadership,
although it can be time consuming.
• Laissez-faire leadership—a casual leadership style, but can be effective when
group members are skilled.
• Autocratic leadership—can be beneficial in potentially dangerous situations when
strong leadership is needed.
• Strategic non-intervention leadership—the leader observes from a distance
and steps in when valuable learning experiences occur, or when dangerous
situations arise. (12 marks)
Glossary
Abstinence means not partaking in a particular activity or behaviour, for example,
drinking alcohol or having sexual intercourse.
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. This is a similar concept to velocity
itself. While velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its position,
acceleration tells us how quickly it changes velocity.
Acceleration due is the rate of acceleration experienced by an object falling under the influence
to gravity of gravity. On Earth, acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2.
It varies slightly with latitude and height above sea level but the change is
very small, with gravity on top of Mount Everest being only 0.3 per cent less
than that at sea level. The value 9.8 will be correct to a single decimal place
anywhere on Earth.
Actin is a protein that aids cell movement; it is important in the contraction of
muscles.
Action is movement produced by a muscle.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the chemical compound found in the body that produces energy.
Adrenalin is a hormone that increases the body’s heart rate and blood pressure. It is
manufactured by the body but can also be produced synthetically.
Advocate means someone who argues for a cause as a supporter or a defender, in this
case, of positive health.
Aesthetically pleasing refers to when something is pleasing to look at; it has a sense of flow
and balance.
Agility is the ability to change direction rapidly with minimal loss of speed or balance.
Airway is the means by which the body gets air into the lungs. The airways consist of
the mouth, nose, throat and the bronchial tubes that lead to the lungs.
Anatomical position is a reference point within the body that is used to describe and locate
body parts.
Anatomy is the study of the body’s structures and how they interrelate.
Appendicular skeleton consists of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hipbones that attach
the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Archimedes’ Principle says that the size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water
displaced by the body. This means that to maximise the buoyant force,
as much of the body as possible should be kept below water.
Assessment is an evaluation of the situation.
Average acceleration can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity by time (like velocity,
acceleration can only be directly calculated as an average between two points
in time).
Average velocity of an object is measured by considering the change in displacement divided
by the time taken.
Axes is the plural of axis. An axis is a mathematical line used to describe
displacement as distance from some arbitrary zero position. If two or
three axes are used, these are located perpendicular to one another so that
displacement can be measured independently along each axis.
Axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage; it forms the long axis of
the body.
Binge drinking refers to the act of drinking heavily over a short period or drinking
continuously over a number of days or weeks. People who binge drink
tend to drink with the sole purpose of getting drunk.
Body fluids include blood, saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, tears, sweat, semen, vaginal fluid.
Buoyancy is an upward force on the body experienced when the body is immersed in
water. The effect of buoyancy is to reduce the apparent weight of the body by
opposing gravity.
Bystander is someone who is present at a particular event or situation but is not directly
involved—an onlooker.
Cardiorespiratory is the ability to perform strenuous exercise for a sustained time without
endurance fatigue.
Cardiovascular drift happens when cardiac output is kept constant in the latter parts of prolonged
exercise and is achieved by a slight increase in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though workload stays the same.
Cartilage is a tough, elastic, fibrous tissue found in the body; for example, between
joints, in the nose and in the ear.
Cavitation is resistance caused by an air pocket behind the object being sucked along in
its wake. This same effect also occurs in water, where fluid is dragged along
behind an object.
Centre of buoyancy is the point in the body where the amount of volume under the water is
equally distributed on either side. The centre of buoyancy tends to be higher
in your body than the centre of gravity, because of the effects of dense legs at
one end and low-density lungs towards the other end.
Centre of gravity is the point at which the weight of a body is balanced above, below and on
either side.
Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection, which can affect the penis,
cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, and throat; it can cause serious health problems,
such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility, if left untreated.
Compact bone is an external layer of tissue that forms the hard surface of a bone.
Conscious refers to a person being alert and awake.
Consequences are what may happen because of a particular action.
Construct is something that is formed or put together as a result of various ideas or
influences.
Context the circumstances surround a particular situation, the setting in which
something occurs.
Continuous training involves exercising non-stop for a minimum of 20 minutes up to several
hours.
Contour lines are lines that join points of equal elevation.
Conventions refer to the customary way that things are done.
Criteria are standards or principles by which something can be judged or decided.
Debilitating is something that is weakening; stopping a person from moving forward.
Demeanour is the way a person behaves or looks.
Density is calculated from the mass of an object divided by its volume. Water has a
density of 1 kg/L because 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. If an object is
less dense than water then it will float, as the weight of water displaced will
be greater than body weight; meaning the buoyant force will be larger than
body weight. An object denser than water will sink because the buoyant force
will be less than body weight.
Detrimental means damaging or making something worse.
Developing countries are those with lower-level economies whose citizens are mostly agricultural
workers.
Diabetic coma is where a diabetic is unconscious due to blood sugar levels being too low or
too high.
Displacement is the location of an object, measured with respect to some known point.
Distance is the path travelled by an object as it moves from one displacement to
another.
Drag is used interchangeably with ‘resistance’ in biomechanics. Drag increases
with the density of the fluid and in proportion to the square of velocity.
Other effects on total drag are best considered by referring to the individual
components: surface drag, form drag and wave drag.
Drink walking is walking whilst drunk. Drink walkers are likely to stagger onto the road, not
use pedestrian crossings, and may fall asleep or lay down on the road. These
factors increase their risk of being hit by cars and seriously injured or killed.
Dynamic means characterised by energy or effective action, active, forceful; the
opposite to static.
Elevate means raising the limb/s to reduce blood flow to the area.
Emergency means an unforeseen or sudden occurrence. Many emergencies involve
danger to the health and wellbeing of the people involved and demand
urgent attention.
Emergency services are the police, ambulance and fire brigade.
Empower means to give an individual the knowledge, skills and understanding to make
a difference.
Enable means to provide an individual with the skills or opportunity to make
decisions.
Epiglottis is an elastic cartilage that opens to allow air into the trachea and closes when
food goes to the oesophagus.
EpiPen is an auto-injector of adrenalin, which is used to treat anaphylactic shock.
A person diagnosed with anaphylaxis will carry an EpiPen.
Ethics is the study of morality, where morality refers to the ‘rightness’ or ‘goodness’
of matters.
Execution is the delivery of movement, the way it is performed.
Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities,
which can improve fitness.
Explicit is an idea or concept that is very clearly expressed.
Flexibility is the ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion.
Fluid resistance is a force that opposes movement through a fluid.
Form drag is determined by the size and shape of an object. Objects with lower form
drag have a narrower profile and a tapered shape at the back.
Friction is a force present between two objects that are sliding past, or tending to slide
past each other. Friction acts in the direction opposite to the movement of the
objects, tending to oppose the movement.
Frontal area is the area of the object viewed head on in the direction of movement.
Game strategies are set patterns of movement sometimes referred to as tactics or plays that
players in a team will use to help them achieve the best game outcome.
Haemoglobin are red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.
Health behaviour is any activity by an individual that aims to promote, protect or maintain
their health.
Health-enhancing are behaviours beneficial to a person’s health, such as healthy eating,
behaviours physical activity, communicating with others and not smoking.
Health promotion are measures taken to effect positive change in an area of health at both
interventions individual and community levels.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Holistic refers to viewing health as something that involves the whole person (mind,
body and spirit) rather than just looking at an illness or disease.
Holistic approach means that in addition to placing our focus on the physical dimensions
of health, we also emphasise mental, emotional and sometimes spiritual
dimensions with a view to supporting and aligning the dimensions of the
whole person.
Homogenous means alike or all the same.
Hyperventilation is an abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing.
Hypoventilation is abnormally slow and shallow breathing.
Hypoxia is a lack of oxygen in body tissues.
Immobilisation means reducing a patient’s movement as much as possible to reduce the risk
or further injury.
Immunisation means to make immune, especially by inoculation.
Implication refers to what might happen as a result of something else.
Implicit is an idea or concept that is implied rather than clearly stated.
Impulse can be calculated as force multiplied by time. For example, a force of 100
Newtons applied for a time of 2 seconds produces an impulse of 200 N s.
Incidental physical is unplanned movement that occurs normally within an everyday lifestyle,
activity such as walking to the bus stop instead of driving, or using the stairs instead
of an elevator.
Inertia is the resistance of an object to acceleration. If an object has a large inertia,
then it is difficult to accelerate. That is, a stationary object with large inertia
will be difficult to start moving, while a moving object with large inertia
will be difficult to stop. The inertia of an object is determined by its mass,
measured in kilograms.
Infrastructure is the basic framework of a community; the roads, railways, schools and other
permanent structures.
Acknowledgments
The authors and publisher would like to gratefully acknowledge the following
for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Photographs
Australian Associated Press/AP/AFP/Valerie Hache, 156; Getty Images/
Carl de Souza, 171 centre, /Jon Gray, 261 top left, /Jeff Gross, 142 top, /
Sajjad Hussain, 243 left, /JupiterImages, 166, 173 both, 288, /Manchan, 209, /
Marvin E Newman, 171 right, /Purestock, 10 bottom, /Brian Skerry, 171 left,
iStockphoto/Abejon Photography, 261 bottom left, /akurtz, 77, /allgord, 268, /
Keith Binns, 266, /claylib, 262, /elkor, 221 left, /forgiss, 287 bottom, /Liv Friis-
Larsen, 205 bottom, /Anton Gvozdikov, 286, /Kevin Jay, 284, /killerb10, 272, /
Rich Legg, 261, top right, /LisaFX Photographic Designs, 217, /Juan Monimo,
283, /monkeybusinessimages, 278, /Perderk, 17 bottom, /POBox, 265, /Daniel
Silva, 243 right, /splain2me, 205 top, /Sportstock, 313; /Alexander Yakovlev,
142 bottom; Laerdal Pty Ltd, 189 top; Long Reef Golf Club, 273; Newspix/Kym
Smith, 66; Photolibrary, 276, /Alamy Images 282, /Buzz Pictures Ltd, 287 top,
/Erik Isaksen, 235 bottom /Stock4B, 222; Peter Richardson, 297; Shutterstock/
Wolfgang Amri, 233 left, /Olga Besnard, 235 top, /Hannahmariah, 228 bottom,
/Alexander Kalina, 221 right, /Kzenon, 37, /Andre Nantel, 270, /Pete Niesen,
233 right, /Orange Line Media, 11 bottom, 54, /Kristian Sekulic, 11 top, /
Marek Slusarczyk, 10 top, /Tracey Whiteside, 38; Sport the Library/AAP
image, 128, /Delly Carr, 131 top, /B. Crockford, 138, /Jeff Crow, 132 right, 221
centre, /Lucie Di Paolo, 134, /Chris Elfes, 228 top, /Carlos Furtado, 141, /
Icon Sports Media, 223, /Tony McDonough, 132 left, /Photosport, 229, /Press
Sports, 140, /Tom Putt, 123, /Steve Robertson/ASP Australasia, 267, /Clifford
White, 261 bottom right.
Other material
Extract from website, The Advertising Standards Bureau, 280; article, ‘Brain
injury victims can seem ok, symptoms delayed’, The Associated Press,
19 March 2009, 195; images reproduced with permission of the Asthma
Foundation New South Wales, 60 bottom, 207; performance scoresheet,
Auscheer, 248; article, ‘Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes
online’, Ausport, 29 April 2009, 137; advertisement, ‘Give your kids the run
around’, used by permission of the Australian Government, 63; table data
from the Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing, 8, 13 both, 14 top, 16
both, 17 top, 27 top, 71, 74; logo, The Black Dog Institute, 61 top; screenshot,
‘Kids Helpline’, Boystown, 47; logo, Cancer Council New South Wales, 61
bottom; cartoon, CartoonStock.com, 50; Triple Zero logo, Commonwealth
Attorney General’s Department, 186; images adapted with permission,
Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia – Geoscience Australia, 2005,
299, 300, 302; sections from the ‘Bushwalkers’ Code’, The Confederation
of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc. 2004, 295–6; health promotion posters,
Department of Health & Ageing, 21, 39 bottom; data adapted from Eriksen et
al, 2009, American Journal of Physics, 77 (3): 224-228, American Institute
of Physics/Hans Eriksen, University of Oslo, Norway, 157 all; text extract,
Fitness Australia Code of Ethics, 279; screenshot, Fitness First, 271; diagram
adapted from The Health Promoting Schools Association, 76; logo, The
Heart Foundation, 60 top; article: ‘Affluence at the heart of long life’ by
Martin Laverty, The Australian, 4 April 2009, 42; article: ‘Trainer steers trek
to triumph; Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track’, by Cameron Leslie,
The Chronicle, 30 September 2008, 314; article: ‘Planning a Healthier
Environment’, by Anne Moroney, Australasian Leisure Management
Magazine, January/February edition, 82–3; image and text reproduced with
permission from The National Stroke Foundation, 204; graphs adapted
from The NSW Centre for Road Safety, 15 all; graphs adapted from The
NSW Department of Health, 14 bottom, 64, 208; graph from The Human
Body, edited by Ruth O’Rourke et al, 2007, Dorling Kindersley UK, 118;
table, Health Promotion International Vol 19, No 1, 123-130, March 2004,
Oxford University Press, 57; poster, Michael Jennings, Origin representative.
Poster created to promote the importance of testicular self-examination
among young men as part of looking after their reproductive and sexual
health. Developed by Penrith Panthers (penrithpanthers.com.au), Andrology
Australia (andrologyaustralia.org) and Family Planning NSW (fpnsw.org.au),
27 bottom; article: ‘On a mission to find the needy’, by Heather Quinlan, The
Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008, 80; article: ‘Fitness first: your stories’, by Arjun
Ramachandran and Erik Jensen, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 2008,
274–5; campaign image, Road Safety Marketing, Road Traffic Authority NSW,
39 top, 65; article: ‘Recapturing the active Australian’, by Julie Robotham,
The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 February 2009, 69; article: ‘Deadly danger of
dismissing shots’, by Kate Sikora and Clementine Cuneo, The Daily Telegraph,
12 March 2009, 72; illustration, South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service,
200; text extract, St Johns Australia, Australian First Aid, 2006, 189 bottom;
Visualcoaching® Pro software <www.visualcoaching.com>, 97 both, 100 all,
101 all, 102 all, 104, 107, 109, 131 centre and bottom; screenshot, Wakakirri
Performing and Visual Arts Festival, 240; graph adapted from Wilmore and
Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition, 1999, Human Kinetics,
149.
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
publishers tender their apologies for any accidental infringement where
copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a
suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.
Index
7-stage abdominal test 128–9 bearings 304–5
biomechanical principles
abdominal injuries 203 balance and stability 162–6
acceleration 160–1 fluid mechanics 167–72
due to gravity 173–4 force 173–80
actin 104 motion 155–62
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 108 bites and stings 209
administering first aid, see also first aid Black Dog Institute 61
infection control and protection bleeding 192
213–14 blood pressure 118–19, see also
legal and moral dilemmas 214–16 haemoglobin
physical environment 212–13 body
support following first aid 216–17 composition 134–7
adolescence 18–19, see also health of fat 136
young people fluids 187
adrenalin 207 image 23–4
advertising and fitness 277–80 mass index (BMI) 135
Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) 280 Boot Camp 270–1
advocacy 53 bowel cancer 74–5
aerobic brain injuries 195
fitness, see cardiorespiratory breast cancer 73–4
endurance breathing 188
training 145–8 buoyancy 167
aerobics 244, 253, 267 burn injuries 200–1
agility 140–1 bushfire procedures 309
airway 188
alcohol consumption camping 293
and abuse 84–5 cancer
and health of young people 48–50 bowel 74–5
alternate hand wall toss test 142 breast 73–4
anaerobic training 145–8 cervical 75
anaphylaxis 207–8 capillaries 116
anatomical position 91 cardiac output 150–1
anatomy 91 cardiopulmonary resuscitation 189–91
apparatus and equipment 236 cardiorespiratory endurance 120–7
appendicular skeleton 94–6 cardiovascular drift 148
appraising composing and performing cartilage 92
247–54 cavitation 170
aquarobics 267 centre
Archimedes’ Principle 167 of buoyancy 168–9
arm over and under test 133–4 of gravity 162–3
arteries 116 cervical cancer 75
asthma 21, 207 chest injuries 202
Asthma Foundation NSW 60 circuit training 268
Astrand submaximal test 124 circulatory system 114–20
Australian Government Department of cognitive dimension of health 4–6
Health and Ageing 62 community
Australian Institute of Health and action 80
Welfare (AIHW) 8, 12–13 facilities 273
axial skeleton 94–5 groups 58–9
health services 81
balance 142–3 compact bone 93
and stability 162–6 compasses, see magnetic compasses
base of support 164–6 composition and performance