LECTURE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
political, & economic change brought about by
COMPUTER HISTORY: BEFORE PERSONAL COMPUTERS
 Information Processing Cycle – collects
data(input), processing, storage, produces
information(output)
 Calculators – first computers of any kind; evolved
from mechanical to electronic digital
o Mechanical Calculators – earliest calculating
device is the abacus (China, 12th century),
which is a simple wooden rack holding parallel
rods on which beads are strung
 Earliest Computing Devices:
o Abacus
o Napier’s Bones – by John Napier; has 11 rods w/
numbers to obtain products & quotients of large
numbers
o Oughtred’s Slide Rule (17th century) – by William
Oughtred; has two rulers side-by-side
o Pascal’s Calculator (France, 1645) – by Blaise
Pascal; has series of wheels capable of addition
& subtraction
o Leibniz’s Calculator (1694) – by Gottfried Leibniz;
can add, subtract, multiply, divide, & extract
square roots
o Babbage’s Analytical Engine (19th century) – by
Charles Babbage
 Father of Modern Computer
 Developed the Difference Engine (1822)
 Developed the Analytical Engine – has the
Operation Card (for operations) & the
Variable Card (for actual data)
 Lady Ada Byron – countess of Lovelace; the
first programmer
o Hollerith’s Punched-Card Machine (1880s) – by
Herman Hollerith; used 3” x 5” punch cards
which holds the data; his company is the
forerunner of the IBM corporation
 Early Computers:
o Z1 Computer (1936) – by Konrad Zuse, Henschel
Aircraft Company, in Berlin, Germany; First
Binary Computer
o Z2 Computer (1939) – First Fully-Functioning
Electro-Mechanical Computer
o Z3 Computer (1941) – First Fully Programmable
Digital Computer
o Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-1942) – First
Electronic Digital Computer; by John Atanasoff
& Clifford Berry, in Iowa State University
o Mark-1 (1944) – Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator; by Howard Aiken; First
Automatic General-Purpose Computer
o ENIAC (1946) – Electronic Numerical Integrator
& Computer; First True General-Purpose
Electronic Computer; by Presper Eckert Jr. &
John Mauchly, University of Pennsylvania; nit a
stored-program computer
o EDVAC (1952) – Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer; First Stored Program
Computer; by Mauchly & Eckert
o EDSAC (May 1949) – Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator; Cambridge University,
England; used symbolic programming instead
of machine codes
o UNIVAC (1948) – Universal Automatic
Computer; based on EDVAC; UNIVAC I – was
usually regarded as the most successful
electronic data processor of its day
THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION
 Digital Revolution – an ongoing process of social,
digital technology
 Digitization – process of converting text, numbers,
sound, photos, & video into data that can be
processed by digital devices
DATA PROCESSING
 1980s – beginning of the digital revolution
 Data Processing – based on an input-processing-
output cycle
PERSONAL COMPUTING
 Model for the 2nd phase of the digital revolution;
characterized by small, standalone computers
powered by local software
o Local Software – refers to any software that is
installed on a computer’s hard drive
NETWORK COMPUTING
 3RD phase of the digital revolution; materialized as
computers became networked and when the
Internet was opened to public use
 Computer Network – group of computers linked
together to share data & resources
 Internet – global computer network originally
developed as a military project, & was then
handed over to the National Science Foundation
for research & academic use
 Web – a collection of linked documents, graphics,
& sounds that ca be accessed over the Internet
 1995 – 2010 – computing was characterized by
the Web, e-mail, etc.
CLOUD COMPUTING
 4th phase of the digital revolution; provides access
to info, apps, communication, & storage over the
Internet
 Convergence – several technologies w/ distinct
functionalities evolve to form a single product; it
created sophisticated mobile devices whose
owners demand access to the same services
available from full-size computers on their desks
 Social Media – cloud-based applications
designed for social interaction & consumer-
generated content
DIGITAL SOCIETY
 Digital Technologies & Communications Networks
– make it easy to cross cultural & geographic
boundaries
 Intellectual Property – refers to the ownership of
certain types of info, ideas, or representations
 Digital Technology – important factor in global &
national economies, affecting the economic
status of individuals; permeates the very core of
modern life
 Globalization – defined as the worldwide
economic interdependence of countries that
occurs as cross-border commerce increases and
as money flows more freely among countries
 Digital Divide – gap between people who have
access to technology and those who do not
COMPUTER BASICS
 Computer – multipurpose device that accepts
input, processes data, stores data, & produces
output, all according to a series of stored
instructions
 Computer Input – whatever typed, submitted, or
transmitted to a computer system
 Output – result produced by a computer
 Data – refers to the symbols that represent facts,
objects, & ideas
 Processing – computer manipulates data in many
ways; Central Processing Unit (CPU) &
Microprocessor
 Memory – area of a computer that temporarily
holds data waiting to be processed, stored, or
output
 Storage – area where data can be left on a
permanent basis when it is not immediately
needed for processing
 File – named collection of data that exists on a
storage medium
 Software – series of instructions that tells a
computer how to carry out processing tasks is
referred to as a computer program
 Stored Program – a series of instructions for a
computing task can be loaded into a computer’s
memory
o Allows you to switch tasks
o Distinguishes a computer from other simples and
less versatile digital devices
 Application Software – set of computer programs
that helps a person carry out a task; also called
apps
 Operating Systems (OS) – primary purpose of
system software is to help the computer system
monitor itself in order to function efficiently
COMPUTER TYPES & USES
 Personal Computer – microprocessor-based
computing device designed to meet the
computing needs of an individual
 Workstation
o Ordinary Personal Computer – connected to a
network
o Powerful Desktop – computer used for high-
performance tasks
 Server – serves computers on a network by
supplying them with data
 Mainframe Computer – a large & expensive
computer capable of simultaneously processing
data for hundreds or thousands of users
 Supercomputer – falls into this category if at the
time of construction, it is one of the fastest
computers in the world
o Compute-Intensive Problem – requires massive
amounts of data to be processed using
complex mathematical calculations
MICROCONTROLLERS
 Microcontroller – a special-purpose
microprocessor that is built into the machine it
controls; can be embedded in all sorts of
everyday devices
DATA REPRESENTATION BASICS
 Data Representation – the form in which data is
stored, processed, & transmitted
 Digital Data – text, numbers, sound, & video that
has been converted into discrete digits such as 0s
& 1s
 Analog Data – represented using an infinite scale
of values
 Numeric Data – binary number system
 Character Data – ASCII, EBCDIC, Extended ASCII,
Unicode
 Quantifying Bits & Bytes
o Bit – one binary digit
o Byte – 8 bits
CIRCUITS & CHIPS
 Integrated Circuit (IC) – super-thin slice of
semiconducting material packed with
microscopic circuit elements
 Motherboard – electronic components of most
digital devices are mounted on a circuit board
called a system board or main board
PROGRAMS & INSTRUCTION SETS
 Source Code – human-readable version of a
program created in a high-level language by a
programmer
 Compiler – converts statements written in a high-
level programming language into object code
that the processor can execute
 Interpreter – converts high-level statements one at
a time as the program is running
 Instruction Set – microprocessors are hard-wired to
perform a limited set of activities, such as addition,
subtraction, counting, & comparisons; has
sequences of 0s & 1s
 Machine Code – end product
 OP Code (operation code) – command word for
an operation such as add, compare, or jump
 Operand – specifies the data, or the address of
the data, for the operation
PROCESSOR LOGIC
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – part of the
microprocessor that performs arithmetic
operations; uses registers to hold data that is
being processed;
 Instruction Cycle – refers to the process in which a
computer executes a single instruction
AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOLS
 Protocol – any method that confirms a person’s
identity using something the person knows,
possesses, or something the person is
o Biometrics – a person’s identification, such as,
fingerprint, facial features (photo), or retinal
pattern
o User ID – series of characters – letters, numbers,
or special symbols – that become a person’s
unique identifier
o Password – series of characters that verifies that
you are the person you claim to be
PASSWORD HACKS
 Identity Theft – when someone gains unauthorized
access to your personal data & uses it illegally
 Dictionary Attack – helps hackers guess your
password by stepping through a dictionary
containing thousands of the most commonly used
passwords
 Brute Force Attack – uses password-cracking
software, but its range is much more extensive
than the dictionary attack
 Sniffing – intercepts information sent out over
computer networks
 Phishing – more sophisticated approach to
password theft
 Keylogger – software that secretly records a user’s
keystrokes & sends the info to a hacker
SECURE PASSWORDS
 Password Manager (keychain) – stores user IDs w/
their corresponding passwords & automatically
fills in login forms
LECTURE 2 – FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
WHO IS IN CONTROL OF PC SOFTWARE & HARDWARE?
 Microsoft – controls the OS used on PCs (software)
 Intel & AMD - controls & PC motherboard; supplies
vast majority of processors & motherboard
chipsets to other motherboard manufacturers
(hardware)
BASIC PC COMPONENTS
 Computer Case – provides protection & support
for the internal components; all PCs need a power
supply to convert AC to DC
o Contains the framework to support a
computer’s internal components while
providing an enclosure for added protection
o Form Factor – size & layout of a case
 Power Supply – converts AC power from wall
outlet to DC
 Motherboard – main printed circuit board;
contains the buses, or electrical pathways, found
in a computer; also known as the system board,
backplane, or main board
o Buses allow data to travel between the various
components that comprise a computer
o Accommodates the CPU, RAM, etc.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – computer’s brain;
processor; most calculations take place here;
most important elements of a computer system
 Cooling Systems
 CPU Fans – heat sink draws heat away from the
core of the CPU; a fan on top of the heat sink
moves the heat away from the CPU
 Graphics Card Cooling System – video adapter
cards produce a great deal of heat; fans are
dedicated to cool the graphics-processing unit
(GPU)
 ROM & RAM
o Read-only Memory (ROM) – located on
motherboard; contain instructions that the CPU
can access directly; stores basic instructions for
booting the computer and loading the OS
o Random-access Memory (RAM) – temporary
storage for data & programs that accessed by
the CPU; is volatile memory, contents are
erased when the computer is powered off
o SRAM – cache memory to store the most
frequently used data; gives the processor faster
access to the data than retrieving it from the
slower DRAM, or main memory
 Adapter Cards – increase a computer’s
functionality by adding controllers for specific
devices or by replacing malfunctioning ports
o Network Interface Cards (NIC) – connects a
computer to a network using a network cable
o Wireless NIC – connects a computer to a
network using radio frequencies
o Sound Adapter – provides audio capability
o Video Adapter – provides graphic capability
o Modem Adapter – connects a computer to the
Internet using a phone line
o SCSI Adapter - connects SCSI devices, such as
hard drive/tape drive, to a computer
o Raid Adapter – connects multiple hard drives to
a computer to provide redundancy & to
improve performance
o USB Port – computer to peripheral devices
o Parallel Port – computer to peripheral devices
o Serial Port – computer to peripheral devices
 Expansion Slots
o Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) – 8-bit/16-
bit; older & seldom used
o Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)
– 32-bit; older & seldom-used
o Microchannel Architecture (MCA) – IBM-
proprietary 32-bit; older & seldom used
o Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) – 32-
bit/64-bit; standard slot used in most computers
o Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) – 32-bit;
designed for video adapters
o PCI-Express – serial bus expansion slot
 Storage Drives – reads or writes info to magnetic
or optical storage media; store data permanently
or to retrieve info from a media disk
 Internal Cables – power cable & data cable
 Ports & Cables – I/O ports connect peripheral
devices, such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Input Devices – used to enter data/instructions
into a computer
 Output Devices – used to present info to the user
from a computer
LECTURE 3 – COMPUTER SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE CATEGORIES
1. System Software – designed for computer-centric
tasks
2. Application Software – designed to help people
accomplish real-world tasks
MUSIC SOFTWARE
 Offers many ways to work with music, sound
effects, & narration (iTunes & audio editing
software)
VIDEO SOFTWARE
 Provides a set of tools for creating video
productions from raw footage
 Consumer-level video editing software:
o Windows Movie Maker
o Apple iMovie
 DVD authoring software
GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
 Designed to help you create, manipulate, & print
graphics
o Paint software
o Photo editing software
o Drawing software
o 3-D graphics software
o CAD software
MAPPING & LOCATION-BASED SOFTWARE
 Mapping Application – Displays satellite, aerial, or
street maps used to locate places & get directions
(Google Maps)
 Location-based Software – accesses your current
location and uses it to show you the closest shops,
restos, & theaters, as well as info about each
location
BUSINESS & “NUMBER CRUNCHING” SOFTWARE
 Vertical Market Software – designed to automate
specialized tasks in a specific market/business
 Horizontal Market Software – generic software
that just about any kind of business can use
 o Payroll Software
o Accounting Software
o Project Management Software
 Businesses use it for planning & analysis.
o Statistical Software
o Mathematical Modeling Software
DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE
 Word processing  next level by providing
professional tools for producing typeset-quality
docs; available in consumer-level & prof-level
 Allows you to create a page using multiple frames
PERSONAL FINANCE SOFTWARE
 Money Management Software – variety of tools for
tracking cash flow & investments
 Personal Finance Software – like Intuit Quicken,
designed to keep track of income, expenses,
assets, & liabilities using simple checkbook-like UI
 Tax Preparation Software – specialized type of
personal finance software designed to help you
gather your annual income & expense data,
identify deductions, & calculate tax payments
UTILITY SOFTWARE
 Designed to help you monitor & configure settings
for your digital gear, its OS, or application software
 PDF Reader – like Adobe Reader, an essential that
displays documents stored in PDF files
 Adaptive Utilities – alter a device’s UI to create an
accessible environment (CC, text-to-text speech,
speech-to-text, or large screen text)
 System Utilities – track down and fix disk errors,
repair corrupted files, & give your device a
performance-enhancement tune-up
DEVICE DRIVERS
 Software that helps a peripheral device establish
communication with a computer
OFFICE SUITES
 Office Suite – collection of programs that include
word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, &
database modules
o Word Processing Software – replaced
typewriters for producing documents, etc.;
displays a work area, called a workspace, that
represents a blank piece of paper;
 Word Wrap
 Search & Replace
 Thesaurus
 Grammar Checker
 Spelling Checker
 Final Format:
» Page Layout – physical position of each
element on a page
» Paragraph Style – alignment of text within
the margins & the space between each
line of text
» Font – set of letters that share a unified
design
o Spreadsheets Software – uses rows & columns of
numbers to create a model or representation of
a real solution
 Formula – tells the computer how to use the
contents of cells in calculations
o Databases Software – collection of data; helps
you enter, find, organize, & etc. information
stored in database
 Structure Query Language – provides a set of
commands for locating & manipulating data
o Presentation Software – supplies the tools for
combining text, photos, clip art, & etc. into a
series of electronic slides that can be shown on
a computer screen or projector
INSTALLING SOFTWARE & UPGRADES
 Web Apps
o Software Installation – process that places a
program into a computer so that it can be
run/executed
o Web Application – software that is accessed
with a Web browser (i.e. cloud computing)
 Mobile Apps – designed for a handheld device
o Can be purchased from an app store
o Jailbreak – unauthorized change to the
device’s software
 Local Applications
o Contains a setup program that guides you
through the installation process
 Portable Software – designed to run from
removable storage
 Software Upgrades & Updates
o Software Update – small section of program
code that replaces part of the software you
currently have installed (i.e. service packs)
 Uninstalling Software
o Uninstall Routines – delete the software’s files
from the various folders on your computer’s HDD
BUYING SOFTWARE
 Consumer Basics
o System requirements specify the required OS &
minimum hardware capacities for a software
product to work correctly
 Copyright – form of legal protection that grants
the author of an original work exclusive rights (i.e.
copyright notice)
 Software Licenses – also called license
agreements, define the ways in which you may
use a computer program (i.e. EULA)
 Freeware – copyrighted software that is available
for free
 Product Activation – means of protecting
software from illegal copying by requiring users to
enter a product key or activation code before the
software can be use
o Hash Value – unique number derived from
encoding one or more data sets, such as
names, serial numbers, & validation codes
SECURITY SOFTWARE
 Designed to protect computers from various forms
of destructive software & unauthorizes intrusions
 Malicious Software/Malware – any computer
program designed to surreptitiously enter a
computer, gain unauthorized access to data, or
disrupt normal processing operations
 Rootkit – software tools used to conceal malware
& backdoors that have been installed on a
victim’s computer
 Virus Hoax – email message containing dire
warnings about a supposedly new virus on the
loose
 Security Suite – integrates several security
modules to protect against the most common
types of malware, unauthorized access, & spam;
costs less than purchasing standalone security
modules
 Antivirus Modules
o Antivirus Software – type of utility software that
looks for & eradicates viruses, etc.
o Virus Signature – section of program code, used
to identify a known malicious program
LECTURE 4 – POWER SUPPLY
CELL & BATTERY
 It is the fundamental source of electrical energy
develop through the conversion of chemical or
solar energy a battery.
 They have the advantage of being portable and
ripple-free.
 2 Major Divisions:
o Primary Cells
o Secondary Cells
POWER SUPPLY
 It is a device that converts the available power
source into a form that is suitable by a particular
system; converts AC signal to fixed DC (e.g.
unregulated & regulated)
o Unregulated - one whose dc terminal voltage is
affected significantly by the amount of load;
load draws more current, the dc terminal
voltage becomes less
o Regulated - is a dc power supply whose terminal
voltage remains almost constant regardless of
current drawn from it
 Transformer - either to step up or (mostly) step
down the ac supply voltage to suit the
requirement of the solid-state electronic devices
and circuit fed by the dc power supply; provides
isolation form the supply line-an important safely
consideration (e.g. transformer w/ center-tap &
without center-tap)
 Rectifier - is a circuit which employs one or more
diodes to convert ac voltage into pulsating dc
voltage
o Half-wave - the alternating secondary voltage
is applied to a diode connected in series with a
load resistor RL; let the equation of the
alternating secondary voltage be V s = Vsm
o Full-wave - both half-cycle of the input is utilized
with the help of two diodes working alternately
 Filter - is a circuit used to smoothen out the
voltage ripple or to minimize the ripple content at
the output of the rectifier
o Shunt Capacitor Filter - a suitable single
capacitor (C) is connected across the rectifier
and in parallel with the load to achieve filtering
action; the sole function of the diode is to
recharge C and the sole function of C is to
supply load current by discharge
 Voltage Divider - its function is to provide different
dc-voltages needed by different electronic
circuits; it consists of a number of resistors
connected in series across the output terminals of
the voltage regulator
 Bleeder Resistor – placed across the filter output
 Voltage Regulator - used to maintain constant DC
voltage level regardless to the change of input
voltage and load resistance
o Adjustable IC – allows the user to set the output
voltage to a preferred regulated value
LECTURE 5 – LINUX OS CONCEPTS
WHAT IS UNIX?
 A multi-task & multi-user OS
 Developed in 1969 at AT&T’s Bell Labs by Ken
Thompson (UNIX), Dennis Ritchie (C), & Douglas
Mcilroy (Pipes).
WHAT IS LINUX?
 A clone of Unix
 Developed in 1991 by Linus Torvalds (Finnish)
 Inspired & replacement of Minix
 Linus’ Minix became Linux
 Originally developed for 32-bit x86-based PC
OPERATING SYSTEM
 Program of software that governs the functioning
of other programs; interface between the User &
the Hardware; allocates resources for tasks,
allocates tasks to programs; manages space &
time; controls the devices
 Types:
o Tasks – Uni & Multi
o Users – Single & Multi
o Processing - Uni & Multi
o Timesharing
FREE OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE (FOSS)
 Free – means liberty, & not related to prices/cost
 Open-Source Code – available & anybody can
contribute to the development; organization-
independent
 4 Freedoms:
o Freedom to run the software anywhere
o Freedom to study how the programs work
o Freedom to redistribute copies
o Freedom to improve the software
KERNEL
 Core/nucleus of an OS
 Interacts with the hardware
 First program to get loaded when the system starts
& runs until the session gets terminated
 Different from BIOS, which is hardware-
dependent
 Software-dependent
 Types:
o Monolithic – OS-related code stuffed in a single
module; single file; adv: faster functioning
o Micro – OS components are isolated; supports
modularity; lesser in size
SHELL
 Program that interacts with kernel
 Bridge between kernel & the user
 Command interpreter
COPYLEFT
 Termed by Richard Mathew Stallman
 Liberates info from the proprietary legal
encumbrances associated with conventional
copyright
MULTICS (1964)
 Multiplexed Information & Computing Service
 Timesharing OS
 Last version shutdown on October 30, 2008
 Monolithic Kernel
UNICS (1969)
 Uniplexed Information & Computing System
 Renamed as UNIX
 Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie
 Multi-user, Multi-tasking, & Timesharing
 Monolithic Kernel
MINIX (1990)
 Minimal Unix
 Tanenbaum developed this OS
 Mainly for educational purpose
LINUX (1991)
 Developed by Linus Torvalds
 Multi-user, Multi-tasking, & Timesharing
 Monolithic Kernel
FREE SOFTWARE FOUNDATION
 Founded by Richard Stallman in 1983
 Organization that started developing copylefted
programs
 GNU Project – GNU Not Unix
BROWSERS
 Mozilla – first open source browser; released from
Netscape group
 Firefox – high performance, feature rich,
standards-based web browser
 Sea Monkey – integrated web application suite
derived from the mozilla source code
FILE MANAGEMENT COMMANDS
COMMANDS
 File management
o mkdir – creating directory
o rmdir – removing directory & its contents
o cd – change directory
o cp – copying files
o mv – moving/renaming files
o ln – creating links between files
 man, pinfo, info – help about commands
 cat – viewing file’s content
 Viewing users, processes
o who – lists all users
o who am I – lists the current user
o pstree – displays all processes running in the
system in tree format
o ps – displays processes owned by the current
user
 Changing file permission/owner
o chmod – changes file permission
o chown – changes file owner
 Listing files
o ls – lists all files in a directory
o ls—a – lists all files (including hidden files)
o ls—l – lists filesi n a directory along with the
owner info, permission, etc.
 Terminal Emulator
o xterm – generates a terminal
o xterm —fg color | —bg color | —rightbar –
generates a terminal with the specified
background & foreground color & a scroll bar
on the right side
LECTURE 6 – OPERATING SYSTEMS & FILE
MANAGEMENT
OPERATING SYSTEM BASICS
 Operating System Tasks
o Operating System – type of system software that
acts as the master controller for all activities that
take place within a computer system
o Multitasking – provides process & memory
management services that allow two or more
tasks, jobs, or programs to run simultaneously
o Multithreading – allows multiple parts, or thread,
to run simultaneously
o Multiprocessing – supports a division of labor
among all the processing units
o Memory Leak – when an app requests memory
but never releases it; causes an app not to
function properly
 The Boot Process
o The operating system is loaded into RAM; the
kernel provides essential OS services
 User Interfaces
o Combination of hardware & software that helps
people & computers communicate with each
other
o Menus, submenus, & dialog boxes
TODAY’S OPERATING SYSTEMS
 iOS – OS for the Apple iPhone & was derived from
the Mac OS X code
 Android – a mobile OS that is a popular platform
for tablet computers, smartphones, & e-book
readers
 UNIX & Linux
o UNIX (1969) – at AT&T’s Bell Labs; dependable in
multiuser environments
o Linux – OS distributed along with its source code
under the terms of a General Public License
(GPL)
 Linux Distribution – download that contains
the Linux kernel, system utilities, GUI, apps, &
and installation routine
 BlackBerry OS – proprietary OS produced by RIM;
key feature: ability to work with corporate e-mail
software systems produced by Microsoft & IBM
FILE BASICS
 File Names & Extensions
o File-naming Conventions:
 Case-sensitivity
 Maximum Length
 Spaces Allowed
 Numbers Allowed
 Characters Not Allowed
 File Names Not Allowed
o File Extensions – provide clues to the file
contents
 File Directories & Folders
o File’s Location – first specify the device where
the file is stored; main HD is referred to as drive
C; macs do not use drive letters
o Disk Partition – section of hard disk drive that is
treated as a separate storage unit; partitions –
can be assigned drive letters & are not the same
as folders
o Directories:
 Root Directory
 Subdirectory – depicted as folders
o File Specification/Path – computer’s file location
 File Formats
o File Format – organization & layout of data that
is stored in a file
 Usually includes a header, data, & possible an
end-of-file marker
  File Header – section of data at the beginning
of a file that contains info about a file
 File Extension – doesn’t really define the
format of a file
FILE MANAGEMENT
 File Management Metaphors
o File Management Utility – helps you manage
files in your OS
o Storage Metaphors – help you visualize &
mentally organize the files on your disks & other
storage devices (logical storage models)
 File Explorer – makes it easy to drill down through
the levels of the directory hierarchy to locate a
folder/file; helps you manipulate files & folders
 Physical Storage Model – describes what
happens on disks & in the circuits
o Formatting – prepares the surface of a disk to
hold data in storage areas called sectors
o File System – keeps track of the names &
locations of files
 NTFS
o Fragmented Files – stored in non-contiguous
clusters & decrease performance
o Defragmentation Utilities – rearrange files so that
they are stored in contiguous clusters
BACKUP SECURITY
 Backup – stores the files needed to recover data
that’s been wiped out by operator error, viruses,
or hardware failures
 Synchronization – compares the content of files
on two devices & makes them the same
 Time Machine – supplied with Mac OS X is a good
example of synchronization software
 Windows Backup – windows 8 has a
synchronization utility called File History
o Full System Backup – includes a copy of every
file stored on your computer’s hard drive
o Boot Disk – removable storage medium
containing the OS files needed to boot your
computer w/o accessing the hard disk
o Recovery Disk – bootable CD, DVD, or other
media that contains a complete copy of your
computer’s hard disk as it existed when the
computer was new
o Recovery Partition – located on the computer’s
hard disk & contains the necessary files to
restore a computer to its original state
o Windows Registry – important group of files used
by the Windows OS to store configuration about
all the devices & software installed on a
computer system
o Restore Point – snapshot of your computer
settings
 Backup Software – set of utility programs designed
to back up & restore some or all of the files on a
computer’s primary storage device
o Full Backup – a backup made by copying all
the files to a backup device
o Differential Backup – makes a backup of only
those files that were added/changed since
your last full backup
o Incremental Backup – backup of the files that
were added/changed since the last backup –
not necessarily the files that changed from the
last full backup
o Bare-metal restore – restores the computer in a
single step
o Disk Image – bit-by-bit copy of the data from all
sectors of a disk
EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT #1
1. Which type of memory transfers data twice as fast
as SDRAM & increases performance by
transferring data twice per cycle? DDR-SDRAM
2. Which type of video connector has a 24-pin or 29-
pin female connector & provides compressed
digital output to a monitor? DVI
3. How many universal serial bus (USB) devices can
be connected to a USB port? 127
4. What is the purpose of a heat sink installed on a
processor? To cool the processor
5. Which device is designed specifically to protect
computers and electrical devices from excess
electrical voltage? Surge Protector
6. Which condition refers to a sudden and dramatic
increase in voltage, which is usually caused by
lighting? Spike
7. A technician is installing a new power supply in a
computer. Which type of power connector
should be used to connect to a CD-ROM? Molex
8. A technician is installing a new power supply in a
computer. Which type of power connector
should be used to connect to an ATX
motherboard? 20-pin connector
9. When installing adapter cards in a computer, how
should a technician properly secure the card?
Install the card, and secure it to the case with a
screw
10. Which connector is used to external peripherals?
USB
EXPERIMENT #2
1. You are installing Windows XP Professional on a
system. The first step in the installation process is:
Start the computer from CD/USB
2. In Windows XP, which disk properties can you view
with Disk Management EXCEPT? Compression
that’s been applied to the drive
3. Identify the functions you can perform with the
Task Manager. Identify processes associated with
an application
4. Which of the following statements characterize
the Standby power consumption options? The
operating system continues to run
5. Certain services on a computer running Windows
XP Professional will not load when the computer
boots. You would like to track the progress of the
boot process. How should you do this in Windows
XP Professional? Enable Boot Logging on the
Advanced Boot Options page accessed through
F8 at startup
6. One of your users is visually impaired and requires
assistance with his display. What Windows XP
Professional option can you offer this user? Use the
Accessibility Wizard to configure the Magnifier
option for this user
7. You are working on a computer that will not boot
normally. You try to boot into safe mode, but the
computer is still unable to start. At this point, how
can you diagnose the computer? Run the
recovery console from CD to diagnose the
computer
8. You wish to set the compression state of a file in
Windows XP Professional. How would you
accomplish this? Open the Properties of the file. In
 Advanced Attributes, select the option to 9. What PowerShell command would you use to
compress/decompress the file activate a sideloading product key? Slmgr /ipk
9. You wish to convert a FAT32 file system to NTFS <sideloading product key>
after you’ve installed Windows XP Professional. 10. Apps that are installed in the Windows image are
Identify the ways in which you can do this. Use the called _____. These apps are staged in the image
CONVERT command and are scheduled to be installed for every user
10. Which partition type is available on a basic disk? of the Windows image at first logon or the next
Primary Partition logon, if the user account is already created.
11. Support program files for PC application often Provisioned apps
have a(n) _____ extension. .dll
12. A service pack _____. Provides updates to the
operating system
13. A security suite will typically include all of the
following EXCEPT _____ software. Browser
14. During product activation, you must _____. Enter
a product key
15. _____ is typically available as a trial version.
Demoware

EXPERIMENT #4
1. What command is used to count the total number
of lines, words, & characters contained in a file?
wc
2. What command is used to remove files? rm
3. How would you switch to virtual terminal 1? Ctrl +
Alt + F1
4. To display information about the processor itself –
display the contents of which file? /proc/cpuinfo
5. What is the purpose of the following operator? It
appends data to a file without overwriting it
6. How do you create a crontab entry? crontab –e
7. Every command in Linux is a executable program
8. What is the shortcut to the login directory? cd +
enter key
9. Which command is used to find data files,
programs, directories that match the search
argument? Locate
10. Which of the following Linux commands could be
used to find what processor was detected on
boot, when a laptop system is slow? POST

EXPERIMENT #5
1. Software can be removed and installed through
control panel
2. You want to create a Family group in Windows 10
and add adults & children. Which of the following
must you have to create this group? Microsoft
account
3. Which of the following is a Windows feature that
enables the computer to use a USB flash drive as
a memory expansion device? ReadyBoost
4. The Windows 10 Store app is linked to which of the
following? The user’s Microsoft account
5. Which feature works with both Microsoft Explorer
& Microsoft Edge & monitors websites, pages, &
downloads for known issues? Blocker
6. By default, Windows 10 automatically turns the
Battery Saver feature on when the battery charge
of a laptop falls below which of the following?
20%
7. _____ is a part of the operating system that relies
on the UEFI specification’s secure boot
functionality to help prevent malicious apps from
loading during the system start-up process.
Trusted Boot
8. Windows 10 has a Refresh recovery option that
helps you recover a PC that isn’t behaving well.
Using this recovery option, you keep your personal
files such as Music, Photos, etc. but which of these
will you lose? User installed apps