Elements of Music

Pitch – register (high or low); Organization of pitches with a pattern of intervals between them
creates scales; Words we might use to describe scales: major/minor, chromatic, gapped,
pentatonic.

Rhythm – the time element of music. A specific rhythm is a specific pattern in time; we usually
hear these in relation to a steady pulse, and mentally organize this pulse
or tempo into meter (sometimes called a "time signature"). Meter organizes beats into
groups, usually of two or three; beats can be divided into small units usually 2, 3 or 4
subdivisions

Melody, or musical line, is a combination of pitch and rhythm (some say "duration"). Sometimes
a melody is considered to be the theme of a composition. We might characterize melody
by its contour (rising or falling) and the size of the intervals in it. A melody that uses
mostly small intervals (or scale steps) and is smooth is said to be a conjunct
melody. Not surprisingly, a melody that uses large intervals is called a disjunct
melody. A motif (or motive) is either a very short melody or a distinctive part of a
longer melody. I might describe the opening four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony
as a "motific cell."

Timbre – sound quality or tone color; timbre is the characteristic that allows us to distinguish
between one instrument and another, and the difference between vowel sounds (for
example, long "a" or "ee"). Terms we might use to describe timbre: bright, dark, brassy,
reedy, harsh, noisy, thin, buzzy, pure, raspy, shrill, mellow, strained. I prefer to avoid
describing timbre in emotional terms (excited, angry, happy, sad, etc.); that is not the
sound quality, it is its effect or interpretation. Rather than describe the timbre of an
instrument in other terms, it is often more clear just to describe the timbre by naming the
instrument, once we have learned the names and sounds of a few instruments.

Dynamics – loud or soft. A composition that has extremely soft passages as well as extremely
loud passages is said to have a large or wide dynamic range. Dynamics can change
suddenly or gradually (crescendo, getting louder, or decrescendo, getting softer.)

Texture – monophonic (one voice or line),

polyphonic (many voices, usually similar, as in Renaissance or Baroque counterpoint),
homophonic (1. a melody with simple accompaniment; 2. chords moving in the same
rhythm (homorhythmic))
heterophony – “mixed” or multiple similar versions of a melody performed
simultaneously (rare in European music; possibly used in Ancient Greece)
collage – juxtaposition & superimposition of extremely different textures or sounds

KINDS OF MUSIC

 PROGRAM MUSIC-any music which is connected on poem or story more on literature

Example: An Alpine Symphony by Richard Strauss
 FOLK MUSIC – tradition music of people, race, generation which is past pass from one generation to
another
Example: Tinikling, Singkil, Itik-Itik
 ART MUSIC – normally accompanied by piano. The most sophiscated of all.
Example: Serenade by Franz Schubert
 JAZZ MUSIC – exciting form of music where melody and rhythm blend harmoniously.
Top 10 Most Famous Classical Music Composers

foreign

1. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

2. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
3. udwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
4. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901
5. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
6. Frederic Chopin (1810-1849)
7. Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
8. Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924)
9. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
10. Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)

Filipino

1. Nilo Alcala (born 1978)

2. Ogie Alcasid (born 1967)
3. Jonas Baes (born 1961)
4. Ely Buendia (born 1970)
5. Rico Blanco (born 1973)
6. Lito Camo
7. George Canseco (1934–2004)
8. Ryan Cayabyab (born 1954)
9. Levi Celerio (1910–2002)
10. Julián Felipe (1861–1944)

Dance History - Dance Origins

History of dance is filled with interesting events that shaped its foundations, inventors that created new styles,
periods of time when dance and music were put in the forefront of innovations, which all enabled it to become the
popular social pastime of today.

History of Dance

History of dance closely follows the development of human race. Since the earliest times of our existence, far before
the creation of first modern civilizations, dance served as an irreplaceable way of expressing human thought and
emotion. As our civilization traveled through millennia, dance was modified to the point of being popular means of
expression, health, communication and competition.

KINDS OF DANCES

FOLK DANCE. It pertains to traditional dance for example tinikling,and Carinosa.

SOCIAL DANCE. It is a kind of dance that we perform in small gathering for example ballroom dance, Cha Cha,
Rumba, Waltz, and sway.

MODERN DANCE. Based on natural expressive movements by which means the dancer expresses a wide range of
emotions for example Solo, Gourp dance, and Interpretative dance.
ETHNIC DANCE. Used to perform their rituals example Pagdiwata of the Tagbanwa of Palawan.

THEATRICAL DANCE. Perform in order to convey drama or play for example Opera, Myme, and Classical dance.

List of Philippine Folk Dances

The Itik-Itik
The best description of the Itik-Itik is that the steps mimic the way a duck walks, as well as the way it splashes water
on its back to attract a mate. According to popular tradition, the dance was created by a lady named Kanang who
choreographed the steps while dancing at a baptismal party. The other guests copied her movements, and everyone
liked the dance so much that it has been passed along ever since.

The Tinikling
The Tinikling is considered by many to be the Philippines' national dance. The dance's movements imitate the
movement of the tikling bird as it walks around through tall grass and between tree branches. People perform the
dance using bamboo poles. The dance is composed of three basic steps which include singles, doubles and hops. It
looks similar to playing jump rope, except that the dancers perform the steps around and between the bamboo poles,
and the dance becomes faster until someone makes a mistake and the next set of dancers takes a turn.

The Sayaw sa Bangko

The Sayaw sa Bangko is performed on top of a narrow bench. Dancers need good balance as they go through a
series of movements that include some impressive acrobatics. This dance traces its roots back to the areas of
Pangapisan, Lingayen and Pangasinan.

The Binasuan
The Binasuan is an entertaining dance that is usually performed at festive social occasions like weddings and
birthdays. Dancers carefully balance three half-filled glasses of rice wine on their heads and hands as they gracefully
spin and roll on the ground. The dance originated in Bayambang in the Pangasinan province, and though it's usually
performed alone, it can also become a competition between several dancers.

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw

The Pandanggo sa Ilaw is similar to a Spanish Fandango, but the Pandanggo is performed while balancing three oil
lamps - one on the head, and one in each hand. It's a lively dance that originated on Lubang Island. The music is in
3/4 time and is usually accompanied by castanets.

The Pandanggo Oasiwas

The Pandanggo Oasiwas is similar to the Pandanggo sa Ilaw, and is typically performed by fishermen to celebrate a
good catch. In this version, the lamps are placed in cloths or nets and swung around as the dancers circle and sway.

The Maglalatik
The Maglalatik is a mock war dance that depicts a fight over coconut meat, a highly-prized food. The dance is
broken into four parts: two devoted to the battle and two devoted to reconciling. The men of the dance wear coconut
shells as part of their costumes, and they slap them in rhythm with the music. The Maglalatik is danced in the
religious procession during the fiesta of Biñan as an offering to San Isidro de Labrador, the patron saint of farmers.

The Kuratsa
The Kuratsa is described as a dance of courtship and is often performed at weddings and other social occasions. The
dance has three parts. The couple first performs a waltz. In the second part, the music sets a faster pace as the man
pursues the woman around the dance floor in a chase. To finish, the music becomes even faster as the man wins over
the woman with his mating dance.
La Jota Moncadeña
The La Jota Moncadeña is adapted by the Filipinos from an old Spanish dance. It's a combination of Spanish and
Ilocano dance steps set to Spanish music and castanets. A more solemn version of this dance is sometimes used to
accompany a funeral procession, but it is also performed at celebrations.

The Kappa Malong-Malong

The Kappa Malong-Malong is a Muslim-influenced dance. The malong is a tubular garment, and the dance
essentially shows the many ways it can be worn. There are men's and women's versions of the dance since they wear
malongs in different ways.

The Habanera Botolena

The Habanera Botolena is a strongly flamenco-influenced dance that comes from Botolan, Zambales. It combines
Filipino and Spanish steps, and is a popular dance at weddings. It is also considered a courting dance in some
situations.

The Pantomina
Also known as the Dance of the Doves, the Pantomina mimics the courtship between doves and is often also a
courtship dance between the couples that perform it. This dance is an important part of the Sorsogon Kasanggayahan
Festival held each October, where it is mainly performed by the elders of the community.

The Cariñosa
The Cariñosa is a dance made for flirting! Dancers make a number of flirtatious movements as they hide behind fans
or handkerchiefs and peek out at one another. The essence of the dance is the courtship between two sweethearts.

The Surtido
Surtido literally means "assortment," and this square dance combines influences of French, Spanish and Mexican
dance. Traditionally the Surtido is performed by a head couple accompanied by two other couples who lead all the
dancers through various formations that resemble an old-fashioned quadrille.

The Singkil
The Singkil is a dance traditionally performed by single women to attract the attention of potential suitors. Dancers
perform a series of graceful movements as they step in and out from between bamboo poles which are rhythmically
clapped together. Fans and scarves are often used to enhance the dancers' movements.

The Polkabal
The Polkabal shows some European influence in its steps. The dance is composed of nine different steps which
include various movements such as fluttering, stepping heel-to-toe, a reenactment of a bull fight, and even a
leisurely walk.

The Magkasuyo
The Magkasuyo is a variation of the balse - the one-two-three graceful triple meter that Filipino traditional dance
borrowed from the Spanish waltz. It is a formal series of close-step-close movements with a couple facing each
other in a courtship configuration. Balse incorporates German and Spanish influence, but the Magkasuyo is the
specific invention of Quezon province, a large farming and fishing region southeast of Manila with a rich tradition
of outside influences, including Spanish, Malay, and Muslim. A popular song Magkasuyo Buong Gabi (Lovers for
the Night) expands on the romantic nature of the dance.

The beginnings of literature

Sangam literature, Sumerian literature, Ancient Egyptian literature, and Babylonian literature

Literature and writing, though connected, are not synonymous. The very first writings from ancient Sumer by any
reasonable definition do not constitute literature—the same is true of some of the early Egyptian hieroglyphics or the
thousands of logs from ancient Chinese regimes. Scholars have often disagreed concerning when written record-
keeping became more like "literature" than anything else; the definition is largely subjective.
Moreover, given the significance of distance as a cultural isolator in earlier centuries, the historical development of
literature did not occur at an even pace across the world. The problems of creating a uniform global history of
literature are compounded by the fact that many texts have been lost over the millennia, either deliberately, by
accident, or by the total disappearance of the originating culture. Much has been written, for example, about the
destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 1st century BC, and the innumerable key texts which are believed to
have been lost forever to the flames. The deliberate suppression of texts (and often their authors) by organisations of
either a spiritual or a temporal nature further shrouds the subject.

The elements of literature:

1. CHARACTER

There are two meanings for the word character:

1) The person in a work of fiction.
2) The characteristics of a person.

Persons in a work of fiction - Antagonist and Protagonist

o One character is clearly central to a story with all major events having some connection to this character;

o She/he is the PROTAGONIST.

o The character in opposition to the main character is called the ANTAGONIST.

The Characteristics of a Person

In order for a story to seem real to the reader, its characters must seem real. Characterization is the information the
author gives the reader about the characters themselves. The author may reveal a character in several ways:
a) his/her physical appearance
b) what he/she says, thinks, feels and dreams
c) what he/she does or does not do
d) what others say about him/her and how others react to him/her

Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated and life-like (resemble real people)

Characters are...
1. Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities.
2. Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change (for better or worse) by the end of the story.
3. Static – Stereotypes; they have one or two characteristics that never change and are often over-emphasized.

2. THEME

What exactly is this elusive thing called theme?

The theme of a fable is its moral. The theme of a parable is its teaching. The theme of a piece of fiction is its view
about life and how people behave.

Here are some ways to uncover the theme in a story:

o Check out the title. Sometimes it tells you a lot about the theme.

o Notice repeating patterns and symbols. Sometimes these lead you to the theme.
 o What allusions are made throughout the story?

o What are the details and particulars in the story? What greater meaning may they have?

Remember that theme, plot and structure are inseparable, all helping to inform and reflect back on each other. Also,
be aware that a theme we determine from a story never completely explains the story. It is simply one of the
elements that make up the whole.

3. PLOT

A plot is a causal sequence of events, the "why" for the things that happen in the story. The plot draws the reader
into the characters’ lives and helps the reader understand the choices that the characters make.

What Goes into a Plot?

Narrative tradition calls for developing stories with particular pieces -plot elements - in place.

1. Exposition is the information needed to understand a story.

2. Complication is the catalyst that begins the major conflict.
3. Climax is the turning point in the story that occurs when characters try to resolve the complication.
4. Resolution is the set of events that bring the story to a close.

It's not always a straight line from the beginning to the end of story. Sometimes, there is a shifting of time and this
is the way we learn what happened and why; it keeps us interested in the story. But, good stories always have all the
plot elements in them.

4. POINT OF VIEW

Remember, someone is always between the reader and the action of the story. That someone is telling the story
from his or her own point of view. This angle of vision, the point of view from which the people, events and details
of a story are viewed, is important to consider when reading a story.

Types of Point of View:

Objective Point of View

With the objective point of view, the writer tells what happens without stating more than can be inferred from the
story's action and dialogue. The narrator never discloses anything about what the characters think or feel, remaining
a detached observer.

Third Person Point of View

Here the narrator does not participate in the action of the story as one of the characters, but lets us know exactly how
the characters feel. We learn about the characters through this outside voice.

First Person Point of View

In the first person point of view, the narrator does participate in the action of the story. When reading stories in the
first person, we need to realize that what the narrator is recounting might not be the objective truth. We should
question the trustworthiness of the accounting.

Omniscient and Limited Omniscient Points of View

A narrator who knows everything about all the characters is all knowing, or omniscient.
A narrator whose knowledge is limited to one character, either major or minor, has a limited omniscient point of
view.

5. SETTING.

Setting is created by language. How many or how few details we learn is up to the author. Many authors leave a lot
of these details up to the reader's imagination.

a) place - geographical location. Where is the action of the story taking place?
b) time - When is the story taking place? (historical period, time of day, year, etc.)
c) weather conditions - Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
d) social conditions - What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local colour (writing that
focuses on the speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?
e) mood or atmosphere - What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and cheerful or dark
and frightening?

6. CONFLICT

Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we encounter can usually be identified as one of four
kinds.

History of theatre

Performer playing Sugriva in the Koodiyattam form of Sanskrit theatre

Hannah Pritchard as Lady Macbeth and David Garrick as Macbeth at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in April 1768

The history of theatre charts the development of theatre over the past 2,500 years. While performative elements are
present in every society, it is customary to acknowledge a distinction between theatre as an art formand
entertainment and theatrical or performative elements in other activities. The history of theatre is primarily
concerned with the origin and subsequent development of the theatre as an autonomous activity. Since classical
Athens in the 6th century BC, vibrant traditions of theatre have flourished in cultures across the world. [1]

Origins
Theatre arose as a performance of ritual activities that did not require initiation on the part of the spectator. This
similarity of early theatre to ritual is negatively attested by Aristotle, who in his Poetics defined theatre in contrast to
the performances of sacred mysteries: theatre did not require the spectator to fast, drink the kykeon, or march in a
procession; however theatre did resemble the sacred mysteries in the sense that it brought purification and healing to
the spectator by means of a vision, the theama. The physical location of such performances was accordingly
named theatron.[2]
According to the historians Oscar Brockett and Franklin Hildy, rituals typically include elements that entertain or
give pleasure, such as costumes and masks as well as skilled performers. As societies grew more complex, these
spectacular elements began to be acted out under non-ritualistic conditions. As this occurred, the first steps towards
theatre as an autonomous activity were being taken.[3]

The Basic Elements of Theatre

Script/Text, Scenario, Plan:

 This is the starting point of the theatrical performance. The element most often considered as the
domain of the playwright in theatre. The playwright’s script is the text by which theatre is created. It
can be simplistic, as in the 16th century, with the scenarios used by the acting troupes of the Commedia
dell’ arte, or it can be elaborate, such as the works of William Shakespeare. The script, scenario, or
plan is what the director uses as a blue print to build a production from.

The Process:

This is the coordination of the creative efforts usually headed up in theatre by the director. It is the pure
process by which the playwright’s work is brought to realization by the director, actors, designers,
technicians, dancers, musicians, and any other collaborators that come together on the script, scenario,
or plan. This is the works in progress stage.

The Product:

This is the end result of the process of work involved. The final product that results from all of the
labors coming together to complete the finished work of script, scenario, and plan, in union with all of
the collaborators in the process to create the final product. This is what the audience will witness as
they sit in the theatre and view the work.

The Audience:

Theatre requires an audience. For all of the arts public is essential. The physical presence of an
audience can change a performance, inspire actors, and create expectations. Theatre is a living
breathing art form. The presence of live actors on the stage in front of live audiences sets it apart from
modern day films and television.

Steps of the Playwright’s Work

Playwriting and creating drama for each playwright is distinctively different. Plays can develop out of any
combination of starting points and patterns. The processes by which drama is created for each playwright can be
varied in the steps used to create the text. Below is a simple list in a progressive order, but order can change
depending on each playwright’s characteristic style and preferences for writing.

The basic steps involved in the development of drama include:

1. Coming up with Thought/Theme/Ideas to be expressed through the work.

2. Determine the Genre and Style of the work

3. Outlining Basic Action of the work and Creating Plot.

4. Establish the Structure of the Play and Overall Framework

5. The Development of Characters presented in the work.

 6. The Creation of Dialogue and the Language of the Characters.

7. Creating Music: This can involve the Rhythm of the Language or actual Music Composition
and the Lyrics of the songs.

8. Establishing Spectacle: The visual and Environmental elements of the work.

9. Research of Subject Matter and Relevant issues presented in the play.

Elements of Drama
Most successful playwrights follow the theories of playwriting and drama that were established over two
thousand years ago by a man named Aristotle. In his works the PoeticsAristotle outlined the six elements of drama
in his critical analysis of the classical Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex written by the Greek playwright, Sophocles, in the
fifth century B.C. The six elements as they are outlined involve: Thought, Theme, Ideas; Action or Plot; Characters;
Language; Music; and Spectacle.

1. Thought/Theme/Ideas
What the play means as opposed to what happens (the plot). Sometimes the theme is clearly stated in the title. It
may be stated through dialogue by a character acting as the playwright’s voice. Or it may be the theme is less
obvious and emerges only after some study or thought. The abstract issues and feelings that grow out of the dramatic
action.

2. Action/Plot
The events of a play; the story as opposed to the theme; what happens rather than what it means. The plot must have
some sort of unity and clarity by setting up a pattern by which each action initiating the next rather than standing
alone without connection to what came before it or what follows. In the plot of a play, characters are involved in
conflict that has a pattern of movement. The action and movement in the play begins from the initial entanglement,
through rising action, climax, and falling action to resolution.

3. Characters
These are the people presented in the play that are involved in the perusing plot. Each character should have their
own distinct personality, age, appearance, beliefs, socio economic background, and language.

4. Language

The word choices made by the playwright and the enunciation of the actors of the language. Language and dialog
delivered by the characters moves the plot and action along, provides exposition, defines the distinct
characters. Each playwright can create their own specific style in relationship to language choices they use in
establishing character and dialogue.

5. Music

Music can encompass the rhythm of dialogue and speeches in a play or can also mean the aspects of the melody and
music compositions as with musical theatre. Each theatrical presentation delivers music, rhythm and melody in its
own distinctive manner. Music is not a part of every play. But, music can be included to mean all sounds in a
production. Music can expand to all sound effects, the actor’s voices, songs, and instrumental music played as
underscore in a play. Music creates patterns and establishes tempo in theatre. In the aspects of the musical the
songs are used to push the plot forward and move the story to a higher level of intensity. Composers and lyricist
work together with playwrights to strengthen the themes and ideas of the play. Character’s wants and desires can be
strengthened for the audience through lyrics and music.

6. Spectacle

The spectacle in the theatre can involve all of the aspects of scenery, costumes, and special effects in a
production. The visual elements of the play created for theatrical event. The qualities determined by the playwright
that create the world and atmosphere of the play for the audience’s eye.

Tragedy
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude. The tragedy is presented
in the form of action, not narrative. It will arouse pity and fear in the audience as it witnesses the action. It allows
for an arousal of this pity and fear and creates an affect of purgation or catharsis of these strong emotions by the
audience. Tragedy is serious by nature in its theme and deals with profound problems

Comedy
Comedy should have the view of a “comic spirit” and is physical and energetic. It is tied up in rebirth and renewal,
this is the reason most comedy end in weddings, which suggest a union of a couple and the expected birth of
children. In comedy there is absence of pain and emotional reactions, as with tragedy, and a replaced use of mans
intellect. The behavior of the characters presented in comedy is ludicrous and sometimes absurd and the result in
the audience is one of correction of behaviors.

Melodrama

Melodrama is drama of disaster and differs from tragedy significantly, in that; forces outside of the protagonist
cause all of the significant events of the plot. All of the aspects of related guilt or responsibility of the protagonist
are removed. The protagonist is usually a victim of circumstance. He is acted upon by the antagonist or anti-hero
and suffers without having to accept responsibility and inevitability of fate.

Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is the most life like of all of the genres. It is non-judgmental and ends with no absolutes. It focuses on
character relationships and shows society in a state of continuous flux. There is a mix of comedy and tragedy side
by side in these types of plays.

Style/Mode/ “ism’
The shaping of dramatic material, setting, or costumes in a specific manner. Each play will have its own unique and
distinctive behaviors, dress, and language of the characters. The style of a playwright is shown in the choices made
in the world of the play: the kinds of characters, time periods, settings, language, methods of characterization, use of
symbols, and themes.

The basic Characteristics of the cause to effect arrangement are:

 Clear exposition of situation

 Careful preparation for future events
  Unexpected but logical reversals
 Continuous mounting suspense
 An obligatory scene
 Logical resolution

Point of Attack
The moment of the play at which the main action of the plot begins. This may occur in the first scene, or it may
occur after several scenes of exposition. The point of attack is the main action by which all others will arise. It is
the point at which the main complication is introduced. Point of attack can sometimes work hand in hand with a
play’s inciting incident, which is the first incident leading to the rising action of the play. Sometimes the inciting
incident is an event that occurred somewhere in the character’s past and is revealed to the audience through
exposition.

Exposition
Exposition is important information that the audience needs to know in order to follow the main story line of the
play. It is the aspects of the story that the audience may hear about but that they will not witness in actual scenes. It
encompasses the past actions of the characters before the play’s opening scenes progress.

Rising Action
Rising action is the section of the plot beginning with the point of attack and/or inciting incident and proceeding
forward to the crisis onto the climax. The action of the play will rise as it set up a situation of increasing intensity
and anticipation. These scenes make up the body of the play and usually create a sense of continuous mounting
suspense in the audience.

The Climax/Crisis
All of the earlier scenes and actions in a play will build technically to the highest level of dramatic intensity. This
section of the play is generally referred to as the moment of the plays climax. This is the moment where the major
dramatic questions rise to the highest level, the mystery hits the unraveling point, and the culprits are revealed. This
should be the point of the highest stage of dramatic intensity in the action of the play. The whole combined actions
of the play generally lead up to this moment.

Resolution/Obligatory Scene
The resolution is the moment of the play in which the conflicts are resolved. It is the solution to the conflict in the
play, the answer to the mystery, and the clearing up of the final details. This is the scene that answers the questions
raised earlier in the play. In this scene the methods and motives are revealed to the audience.

Categories of Plot Structure

Climatic vs. Episodic
Climatic Structure
I. Plot begins late in story, closer to the very end or climax
II. Covers a short space of time, perhaps a few hours, or at most a few days
III. Contains a few solid, extended scenes, such as three acts with each act comprising one long scene
IV. Occurs in a restricted locale, one room or one house
V. Number of characters is severely limited, usually not more than six or eight
VI. Plot in linear and moves in a single line with few subplots or counter plots
 VII. Line of action proceeds in a cause and effect chain. The characters and events are closely linked in
a sequence of logical, almost inevitable development

Episodic Structure
I. Plot begins relatively early in the story and moves through a series of episodes
II. Covers a longer period of time: weeks, months, and sometimes years
III. Many short, fragmented scenes; sometimes an alternation of short and long scenes
IV. May range over an entire city or even several countries
V. Profusion of characters, sometimes several dozen
VI. Frequently marked by several threads of action, such as two parallel plots, or scenes of comic
relief in a serous play
VII. Scenes are juxtaposed tone to one another. An event may result from several causes, or no
apparent cause, but arises in a network or web of circumstances

Outline of Playwriting
Along with the basic understanding of these qualities the playwright must take the aspects of unity into
great consideration. At the center of every play there should be unity. Unity in playwriting means harmony among
the component parts. Included in the next section of this project is an informative outline that can help a perspective
playwright achieve unity in their work. It also aids in the process of starting the initial development of a play and
adds credibility to the work. Some of these important aspects and considerations listed in the outline have been
covered in some detail thus far, but others should be strongly considered before a playwright puts pen to paper or
hands to keys.

These important aspects include the following:

I. Research and Knowledge of:

a. Themes and Subject Matter Explored

b. Unity in the Genre/Form and Clarity of Style/Mode of the Intended Work

c. Knowledge of the Time Period Presented

d. Research of Any other Relevant data presented in the play

II. Inspiration:

a. Painting/Photo that encapsulates the World of Play

b. Metaphor that describes the themes at work in a single sentence

c. Any other Relevant Ideas of inspiration

III. Concepts:

a. Questions you should be able to answer:

i. What does the play represent? What is its theme? Why is it important?
Why does it deserve to be witnessed? What is the moral? What universal truth does it
illustrate? What excites you, the playwright, about the work? What aspects of the drama
fires your imagination? What makes you feel zealous and impassioned? What moves
 you? What about the material gives you a deep feeling of satisfaction? What in the play
makes it worthy of an audience’s attention? Why is it compelling?

IV. Predominant Elements: What is the leading element in your dramatic work?

a. Theme- Waiting for Lefty by Clifford Odets is a thesis play directly promoting the theme that
the common man will continue to be oppressed until he succeeds in organizing into unions. It is
nearly a propaganda play. Character and dialogue serve the theme exclusively. The spectacle is
limited to a bare stage. The language is didactic to the point of preachiness.

b. Plot-The Tavern by George M. Cohan is a play in which the predominant element is almost
exclusively plot. The action hurls itself relentlessly at the audience. Character is continuously
subservient to plot. The theme, crime does not pay, is apparent from the beginning, and the
spectacle requires on an upstage door and a winter wind (example of Music) so powerful it drives
all the players to the wall.

c. Character-All the plays of Chekhov have the predominant element of character. One could
barely choose plot as the secondary element. It is also unlikely that one would choose language,
because language in Chekhov is intentionally commonplace. There is Theme in Chekhov, but it is
subservient to character, it lays quiet and low in the play and rises gracefully and gently to the
surface.

d. Spectacle-Barnum by Mark Bramble and Michael Stewart won a number of prizes in New York,
despite the fact that it has no plot, no characters of consequence, and no significant language; its
theme, at best, could be stated, A circus causes sweat. The sheer intensity and speed of the
spectacle, the unrelenting energy, the nonstop sensation of movement, sound, and color; the
surprises, the acrobatic feats, dances, magic, and razzmatazz overwhelmed and gratified
audiences.

e. Language-Under the Milk Wood by Dylan Thomas is subtitled “A Play for Voices.” It is a
demonstration of the most miraculous parade of words in the spoken English. It is poetry at its
most dazzling. The theme is vague at best. As for plot, it is a patchwork of incidents involving
sixty-four characters in a tiny Welch town in the course of a summer day. The characters are
sketched, not developed. The predominant element in this play is clearly the most radiant
language ever assembled. Spectacle would ruin this work.

f. Mixtures-Most commonly you will find that the majority of plays have mixtures of all of the
elements of drama. The examples cited above are plays demonstrating one predominant element
almost to the exclusion of the others. Many playwrights tend to utilize a bit of all the
elements. One of the greatest exceptions and examples of incredible use of all the elements is the
plays of Shakespeare. The reason his plays tower above all others is that he fuses the elements of
theme, plot, character, spectacle, and language so magnificently. In Shakespeare we can marvel at
the great skill with which these elements have been united.

V. Outlining: Beginning, Middle, and End

a. Beginning:
 i. Prologue and or start of play with introduction of characters, date, place,
time, setting, and exposition and inciting incident introduced

ii. Point of attack, introduce primary conflict and central dramatic question

b. Middle:

i. Characters pursue objectives and encounter obstacles

ii. Answers sought; goals of characters conflict with other characters

iii. Characters attempt to overcome obstacles and challenges

iv. Characters plan tactics, succeed, fail, attack, retreat, surprise, and are
surprised, encounter major reversals and a crisis is reached

c. End:

i. Characters engage in final conflict (climax of play)

ii. Characters main objective achieved of lost

iii. Central dramatic question is answered, theme or ideas of play

confirmed. Resolution where order is established

Conclusion
Artistic consideration in playwriting requires selection and arrangement. Art is skill acquired by
experience, study, and clear observations. Playwrights must consciously set about making choices with a competent
plan and creative imagination. Only then than we consider the playwrights work as a viable start to the theatrical
process. Before anyone begins to write a play it is important to understand the medium for which you intend on
writing. Writing for the stage demands an understanding of two fundamentals: the essence of drama and the nature
of theatre.

Steps in play production

1. 1

Find a script. You, the producer, are the very first person to start the process of creating a play. Before anything
else can happen, you (and/or your staff) need to decide which play to produce. You may decide to put on a theatrical
classic, like Les Miserables, Death of a Salesman, Ms. Saigon, or A Raisin in the Sun - well-known plays like these
frequently receive stage productions decades after their debuts. However, you may also decide to debut a new play.
If this is the case, you should make a point to seek out quality scripts from talented writers, who may be found in a
variety of places, including college campuses, theater companies, or via an agent or publisher.
 Note that plays are intellectual property and, as such, will often require royalty fees for their use. Be sure to contact
the playwright, his or her agent, or the rights owner if the script you've chosen isn't public domain.

Find a director. The director is the "boss" of the play as far as creative decisions are concerned. S/he directs the
actors as they rehearse, has the final say on aesthetic decisions like prop and set design, and, ultimately, will receive
much of the glory (or derision) that the play garners upon its reception. The producer is responsible for finding a
director who will be a good fit for the play - this can be a friend or professional partner or a promising newcomer.
Keep in mind, however, that the director can always decline the invitation to direct or attempt to negotiate for a
higher fee. As a producer, it is your job to find replacement directors and/or participate in negotiations as necessary.

 Some producers take on the role of director as well. This puts an enormous amount of responsibility on one person's
shoulders, so be cautious about tackling this double-role unless you have plenty of experience.

Secure funding. One of the producer's most important functions is to pay for the play. If you are wealthy enough to
pay for the play on your own, you may choose to be its sole financial backer. However, many plays are financed by
a group of investors - wealthy individuals hoping to claim a slice of the play's profits. In this case, it's your job as the
producer to "pitch" the play to investors, whether they're personal friends or rich strangers, in an attempt to get them
to agree to pay for the play.

 It's also your job to keep these investors happy and up-to-speed throughout the production, notifying them of
production changes, new sales projections, and the like.

Find a venue. Plays need a physical space for rehearsal and performance purposes. As the producer, it's your job to
secure this space for your production. The venue should accommodate the technical aspects of your production (in
terms of stage size, lights, sound systems, etc.) and should be large enough to fit your projected audience. Other
aspects you may want to consider are:

 The cost of using the venue - different venues will have different profit-sharing rules for ticket sales and so on
 Whether or not the venue provides its own front of house staff (ticket takers, etc.)
 Whether or not the venue provides liability insurance
 The aesthetic and acoustic qualities of the venue
 The history of the venue

Schedule auditions. Every play needs a cast - even one-man shows do. If you're well-connected, you may have
certain actors in mind for certain parts in your production, in which case you can contact them directly to offer them
parts. If not, you should schedule auditions. Be sure to promote these auditions so that prospective actors will know
where and when to be for a shot at a role in your production.

 Focus your promotion efforts on places where actors are likely to be, like theater companies, art schools, etc. and
groups they're likely to be in contact with, like talent agencies.

Hire support staff. Actors are far from the only people who work on a play. Stagehands, light and sound
technicians, costume designers, choreographers, and countless more support staff collaborate to make a successful
production. As a producer, you'll need to oversee the hiring of the support staff, though you won't necessarily direct
them in their day-to-day duties, as this is usually delegated to various managers.

 Note that, while many venues provide their own front of house staff, some don't, and, in these cases, you'll need to
hire your own in addition to the other crew members.

Cast your play. Generally, the director has the final say when it comes to casting, as s/he is the person who will
ultimately work with the actors to create the finished product. However, depending on your relationship with the
director, you may still have some input on the casting process,especially if you have previously worked on the
creative aspects of theatrical production.

Classifications of visual arts

People are more inspired by the powerful arts because some arts reflect the life of a person. Second, so much of
what we practice can be known and recollect rapidly with one picture. Powerful arts represent thousand words and
the last one our brains are well trained and think different way when we are using the powerful paintings.
Appreciated Visual arts can be classified into:

Painting
Carving

Photography

Painting is the two dimensional art: This art contains of, prints, drawings, paintings and photographs, that vary from
each other mainly in the system of their execution. Oils are most famous paintings in painting media they remained
developing from fifteenth century. The artist’s comprehensive variety of color possibilities, they present more
selections for textural operation. physical medium like print, drawing, and painting. That shows the characteristics
the last work of painting.

Drawing and painting are two procedures of visual art that include making images on flat surface, drawing paper,
painting, the side of structure. Painter normally uses brush to apply the on standard surface; there are plenty of
options available for artist. Painter picks pastels, oils and watercolors .Along with artists other painters are also
specialized in making imaginaries on flat surface contain animators, comic book artist, caricaturist and children’s
book illustrators

Carving: The performance of using tools to design something from a solid by rasping way portions of that
substantial. This technique can be used on any material it holds a form when pieces are removed from it and soft
portions can be scraped with existing tools. Carving can be created by making sculpture it is different from other
methods using malleable and soft materials like melted glass. So it can fit into any shape. Carving needs more work
than approaches using malleable resources. There are different types of carvings named bone carving, ivory carving,
wood carving, and stone carving and so on.

Photography: is the science and art, creating tough imaginaries by electromagnetic radiation or recording light, even
its possible in both ways by resources of light subtle such as photo graphic film. The output of electronic photo is
charged electrically at every pixel. This automatically processed and kept in digital copy.

I wish artist should have a insurances for their arts there are different types of insurances like life insurance, vehicle
insurance, PPI claims, home insurance etc. There are loans for insuring antique art and you could go for one if your
work is really special.

Elements Of Visual Art

Line is the path of a moving point through space. It may indicate direction, texture, coutours, or movement.

Shape is the area enclosed by a line or other shapes. Shapes may be geometric (triangle, rectangle, circle...) or have
an organic or natural character (trees, leaves, rocks, puddles...).

Color is defined by hue, value, and intensity. It is the range of visual light in the spectrum and properties of the
pigments used in making visual art.

Hue is the name given to different wave lengths of light from the visual spectrum.

Value is the degree of lightness or darkness.

Intensity is the amount of pigment or saturation. The bright a color the more pigment it contains.
Form is three dimensional (length, height, and depth of volume) shapes.

Space is the area occupied by an object or the area formed by the absence of an object(s).

Rhythm is patterned organization of colors, lines, textures, or combinations of art elements that create a pleasing
effect. A visual rhythm will lead the eye from one area to another in a rhthmical and orderly manner.

Balance is the perception of equilibrium between the elements in the piece of art.

Emphasis is the focal point of interest in a piece created by accenting or exaggerating a specific area or art element
to create greater interest.

Contrast is the comparison of two elements that appear different (values of light and dark, hues...). Strong contrasts
are the most disimilar examples of an art element (dark - light, black - white).

Unity is the perception of the parts of a piece and their relationship with the dominant or unifying element.

Chiaroscuro technique of using light and shade/ dark in art/ pictorial representationi (see The Tale of Despereaux).

The 7 principles of design

1. Emphasis
—

Poster design by miai313 for Handel’s Messiah Rocks

Say you’re creating a poster for a concert. You should ask yourself: what is the first piece of information my
audience needs to know? Is it the band? Or the concert venue? What about the day and the cost of attending?

Make a mental outline. Let your brain organize the information and then lay out your design in a way that
communicates that order. If the band’s name is the most essential information, place it in the center or make it the
biggest element on the poster. Or you could put it in the strongest, boldest type. Learn about color theory and use
strong color combinations to make the band name pop.

Like writing without an outline or building without a blueprint, if you start your composition without a clear idea of
what you’re trying to communicate, your design will not succeed.

2. Balance and Alignment

—

Poster design by Shwin for Rumspringa

Never forget that every element you place on a page has a weight. The weight can come from color, size, or texture.
Just like you wouldn’t put all your furniture in one corner of a room, you can’t crowd all your heavy elements in one
area of your composition. Without balance, your audience will feel as if their eye is sliding off the page.

Symmetrical design creates balance through equally weighted elements aligned on either side of a center line. On
the other hand, asymmetrical design uses opposite weights (like contrasting one large element with several smaller
elements) to create a composition that is not even, but still has equilibrium.
Symmetrical designs are always pleasing, if not occasionally boring. Asymmetrical designs are bolder and can bring
real visual interest and movement (more on that later!) to your composition.

3. Contrast
—

Poster design by Daria V. for Mama J

Contrast is what people mean when they say a design “pops.” It comes away from the page and sticks in your
memory. Contrast creates space and difference between elements in your design. Your background needs to be
significantly different from the color of your elements so they work harmoniously together and are readable.

If you plan to work with type, understanding contrast is incredibly essential because it means the weight and size of
your type are balanced. How will your audience know what is most important if everything is in bold?

As you seek out examples of really strong, effective design, you’ll notice most designs only feature one or two
typefaces. That’s because contrast can be effectively achieved with two strong fonts (or even one strong typeface in
different weights). As you add fonts, you dilute and confuse the purpose of your design.

4. Repetition
—

Poster design by robbyprada for Zoom.de

If you limit yourself to two strong typefaces or three strong colors, you’ll soon find you’ll have to repeat some
things. That’s ok! It’s often said that repetition unifies and strengthens a design. If only one thing on your band
poster is in blue italic sans-serif, it can read like an error. If three things are in blue italic sans-serif, you’ve created a
motif and are back in control of your design.

Repetition can be important beyond one printed product. Current packaging design is heavily embracing
beautiful illustrated patterns. Anyone thinking about a startup knows one of the first things you need is a strong logo
to feature on your website, business cards, social media and more. Brand identity? Another term for repetition.

5. Proportion
—

Poster design by Mahuna

Proportion is the visual size and weight of elements in a composition and how they relate to each other. It often
helps to approach your design in sections, instead of as a whole.

Grouping related items can give them importance at a smaller size—think of a box at the bottom of your poster for
ticket information or a sidebar on a website for a search bar. Proportion can be achieved only if all elements of your
design are well-sized and thoughtfully placed. Once you master alignment, balance, and contrast, proportion should
emerge organically.

6. Movement
—

Poster design by Stefanosp for Great American Music Hall

Going back to our concert poster. If you decided the band was the most important piece of information on the page
and the venue was the second, how would you communicate that with your audience?

Movement is controlling the elements in a composition so that the eye is led to move from one to the next and the
information is properly communicated to your audience. Movement creates the story or the narrative of your work: a
band is playing, it’s at this location, it’s at this time, here’s how you get tickets. The elements above—especially
balance, alignment, and contrast—will work towards that goal, but without proper movement, your design will be
DOA.

If you look at your design and feel your eye get “stuck” anywhere on it—an element is too big, too bold, slightly
off-center, not a complimentary color—go back and adjust until everything is in harmony.

7. White Space
—

Poster design for pmoretti

All of the other elements deal with what you add to your design. White space (or negative space) is the only one that
specifically deals with what you don’tadd. White space is exactly that—the empty page around the elements in your
composition. For beginning designers it can be a perilous zone. Often simply giving a composition more room to
breathe can upgrade it from mediocre to successful.

White space isn’t sitting there doing nothing—it’s creating hierarchy and organization. Our brains naturally
associate ample white space around an element with importance and luxury. It’s telling our eyes that objects in one
region are grouped separately from objects elsewhere.

Even more exciting, it can communicate an entirely different image or idea from your main design that will reward
your audience for engaging with it. The logo above uses active negative space to communicate multiple ideas in one
fun, creative design.

How to use the principles of design

—

A design doesn’t have to strictly follow these rules to be “good.” Some absolutely mind-blowing designs ignore one
or more of them in order to create an eye-catching and effective work.

The Bed Moved by Rebecca Schiff. Designed by Janet Hansen for Knopf

Consider the cover of “The Bed Moved” by Rebecca Schiff, designed by Janet Hansen. This was one of the most
lauded book covers of 2016.

But did you immediately read the first line as “Theeb?” Did your eye jump to the bottom line where the M from
“Moved” is isolated on a different line than the rest of the word? The design is clearly breaking the two rules of
movement and alignment. But! Because of the designer’s confident use of a bold contrasting color scheme and a
repetitive structure, your eye is easily guided to the title and author of the book.

The important information is communicated. That jarring moment of slight confusion is what makes this design so
revolutionary and rewarding.

The elements of a design should be viewed as moving parts which combine to tell a story. As you approach your
design project you must first familiarize yourself with these principles of design. Only then will you be able to break
the rules to create your own signature style.
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

Cement: c.200 BC

Builders in Greek cities on the coast of Turkey (and in particular

Pergamum) evolve cement in about 200 BC as a structural material, in
place of weaker mortars such as gypsum plaster (used in Egypt) or
bitumen (in Mesopotamia). The secret of the new material is the lime
which binds sand, water and clay.

The Romans subsequently use finely ground volcanic lava in place of

clay, deriving it mainly from the region of Pozzuoli. Their cement,
known for this reason as pozzolanic, is the strongest mortar in history
until the development of Portland cement. When small fragments of
volcanic rubble are included, the result is concrete - making possible
the great arches and aqueducts of Roman architecture, and playing its
part in Roman roads.

Vitruvius: late 1st century BC

A Roman architect sets out the principles of his craft in ten volumes. He
deals with all aspects, from general principles to materials, and from
the Orders of architecture to stucco work, painting, aqueducts and
machinery. Written well before the greatest achievements of the Roman
builders, this treatise is the most influential text in the entire history of
architecture.

The architect is Vitruvius and the book De architectura ('On

architecture'). Its precepts subsequently guide the classical revival in
the Renaissance. Since then the proportions and theories of Greek and
Roman architecture - as enshrined by Vitruvius - have remained the
basis of architectural tradition.

Arch, vault and dome: from the 1st century BC

The greatest achievement of Roman architecture and technology lies in

the development of these three architectural forms. The dome has long
been a familiar concept (appearing dramatically in the passage grave on
the Île Longue or in the tholos at Mycenae), but nothing has been
made of it in the major architectural traditions. The spectacular temples
of Egypt or Greece are exclusively trabeate, using flat horizontal lintels
to span open spaces.

The arch has far greater capabilities than the lintel, for it can combine
many smaller units (of stone or brick) to make a greater whole. In
Greek architecture a single vast stone lintel can reach between columns
at most 7 yards apart. A Roman brick arch can span 50 yards.

The arch, the vault and the dome are all applications of the same
concept. The vault, or open-ended tunnel, is only an exceptionally deep
arch. The dome is in effect a collection of arches all sharing the same
centre. In each case the pressure of gravity on the material forming the
arch will hold it together as long as the outward thrust is contained by
buttresses.

The Roman achievement in all these forms is greatly assisted by their

development of concrete. An arch or dome bonded into solid form by a
strong inner layer of concrete sits as one unit, exerting its weight
downwards rather than outwards. This makes possible such miracles as
the 1st-century Pont du Gard or the 2nd-century dome of
the Pantheon.

The Pont du Gard: AD c.20

The scale of Roman architectural ambition is superbly seen in the great

aqueduct at Nîmes, known as the Pont du Gard ('bridge of the Gard').
Constructed in about AD 20, this gigantic structure is purely practical.
It is a section of a channel bringing water from the river Eure to the
new Roman town of Nîmes.

The water flows gently downhill for a distance of almost 50 km. The
Pont du Gard, with its three towering tiers of arches, carries it over the
deep valley of the river Gard - in itself a source of water nearer to
Nîmes, but too low-lying to reach the town by gravity.

Roman bridges: 1st - 2nd century AD

Bridges are as much part of the Roman architectural achievement

as aqueducts, and they present even greater constructional problems.

Some of the most impressive Roman bridges are over ravines. A fine
surviving example, built for Trajan in AD 105, spans the Tagus in
Spain, at Alcántara. Its two massive central arches, 110 feet wide and
210 feet above the normal level of the river, are made of uncemented
granite. Each wedge-shaped block weighs 8 tons. During construction
these blocks are winched into place by a system of pulleys, powered
perhaps by slave labour on a treadmill. They are supported on a huge
timber structure standing on the rocks below - to be removed when the
arch is complete.

An equally remarkable feat of Roman construction is the building of

bridges across rivers where no rock or island emerges from the water to
carry the piers. An example survives in Rome - the Sant'Angelo bridge,
built for Hadrian in AD 134 as an approach to his great circular
mausoleum, now the Castel Sant'Angelo.
The building of such bridges is made possible by the Roman perfection
of cement and concrete, and by their invention of the cofferdam.

The Pantheon: AD c.120

The roof of the Pantheon in Rome is the most remarkable example of

the Roman genius in the most impressive of architectural forms, the
span of a large dome. In an extra touch of flamboyance, the centre of
this one is open to the sky - a detail which adds no great architectural
complication but provides a visual thrill. The interior of the building is
circular (placing round dome on square base is the next stage of
sophistication).

The Pantheon, built by Hadrian in about AD 120 (demolishing an

earlier pantheon, or temple to all the gods, on the site), has been in
continuous use as a place of worship for nearly 2000 years. For most of
that time it has been a Christian church, dedicated in 609 as Santa
Maria Rotunda.

TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE

1- Residential Architect

Residential buildings have come to be seemingly identical after the standardization that followed the industrial
revolution in the past century. However, some neighborhoods still enjoy the merits of beautifully customized
residences, and this where Residential Architects work. They deal with clients who would like to have their own
customized houses designed. They take note of their spatial and functional requirements; then they start to design
the plans, layouts, and elevations. They estimate the costs of materials and services, as well as the time needed to
complete the construction and finishing.

2- Commercial Architect

A well-designed building is aesthetically pleasing as well as functional, and the functionality varies according to the
type of space that is being designed. A successful design of a commercial or public building is highly dependent on
a flowing and self-guiding circulation that optimize the experience for the building users. For example, a well-
designed shopping mall lets the buyers find their way and get what they need easily, without getting lost or walking
more than they should. Commercial Architects are supposed to make that happen. They specialize in non-residential
buildings, and this specialization requires engineering, construction, and artistic skills. It also requires full awareness
of building codes, safety regulations, and construction costs.

3- Interior Designer
Designing and styling the interior of an apartment, an office, or a restaurant requires artistic sense and technical
knowledge. Interior Designers have deep knowledge of materials, fabrics, colors, and basics of furniture design.
Some architects prefer to work on the large scale and not to get involved with such details, while others, like the
pioneer Frank Lloyd Wright, prefer to do the interior design for their own projects.

4- Green Design Architect

With the recent changes in climate and the remarkable decline in non-renewable energy resources, the role of Green
Design Architects has become essential.
Green Design Architects are responsible for making eco-friendly and energy efficient architectural designs. They
continuously work on innovating effective green design methods that leave a minimal impact on the environment.
These architects should be knowledgeable in fields like aerodynamics, sun and shading, as well as properties of
materials.

5- Landscape Architect

Landscape architecture is concerned with the outdoor spaces like parks, gardens, neighborhoods, campuses, and
public spaces. Landscape architects design these spaces to be efficient, engaging, and harmonious with the
environment. They decide the locations for buildings, walkways, greenery, and other hardscape elements
accordingly. Landscape architects also choose the materials for the walkways and the types of trees and shrubs for
the green areas, and so they need to have a background in the science of urban horticulture. They should be aware of
the suitable materials and plants for different climates and uses.

6- Urban Designer

Urban Design is a broad subject that employs other specializations like building architecture, landscape design, and
green design. It deals with the scales of neighborhoods, districts, and cities. Urban designers are in charge of
grouping buildings, designing nodes, paths, and street networks. So, they give the city its shape and sense of order.
They can design cities from scratch or develop existing ones. Urban designers additionally face a wider range of
issues that have to do with the economy, politics, and culture. They, also, have to be in touch with the communities
they serve who are their actual clients.

7- Industrial Architect

The architecture of an industrial facility can be vital to its functionality. They need a suitable envelope that aids the
flow of the industrial process taking place inside, and that is what Industrial Architects specialize in. They fully
understand the different industrial processes, and accordingly, design efficient and functional buildings that can hold
them

Architects

FOREIGN
 1. Daniel Libeskind

2. Richard Meier

3. Sir Norman Foster

4. Renzo Piano

5. Santiago Calatrava

FILIPINO:

1. Leandro Locsin
2. Ildefonso P Santos
3. Pablo Antonio
4. Juan Nakpil
5. Francisco Mañosa

The History of Sculpture

For thousands of years sculpture has filled many roles in human life. The earliest sculpture was probably made to
supply magical help to hunters. After the dawn of civilization, statues were used to represent gods. Ancient kings,
possibly in the hope of making themselves immortal, had likenesses carved, and portrait sculpture was born. The
Greeks made statues that depicted perfectly formed men and women. Early Christians decorated churches with
demons and devils, reminders of the presence of evil for the many churchgoers who could neither read nor write.

Prehistoric Sculpture

Sculpture may be the oldest of the arts. People carved before they painted or designed dwellings. The earliest
drawings were probably carved on rock or incised (scratched) in earth. Therefore, these drawings were as much
forerunners of relief sculpture as of painting.

Only a few objects survive to show what sculpture was like thousands of years ago. There are, however, hundreds of
recent examples of sculpture made by people living in primitive cultures. These examples may be similar to
prehistoric sculpture.

Sculpture in the Ancient World

The earliest civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China gradually developed forms of writing
about 3000 B.C. The people of these civilizations, like their prehistoric ancestors, also expressed deeply felt beliefs
in sculpture.
Egypt

Egyptian sculpture and all Egyptian art was based on the belief in a life after death. The body of the Egyptian ruler,
or pharaoh, was carefully preserved, and goods were buried with him to provide for his needs forever. The
pyramids, great monumental tombs of Giza, were built for the most powerful early rulers. The pharaoh and his wife
were buried in chambers cut deep inside the huge blocks of stone.

Mesopotamia

The "land between the rivers," Mesopotamia, had a much less stable society than Egypt and lacked Egypt's vast
amounts of stone for monumental sculpture. Its cities were often destroyed by floods and invading armies.

The earliest examples of sculpture in this region were formed of light materials: baked and unbaked clay, wood or
combinations of wood, shells, and gold leaf. A group of stone figures from Tell Asmar depicts gods, priests, and
worshipers in a way very different from Egyptian sculpture. These figures are cone-shaped, with flaring skirts, small
heads, huge, beaklike noses, and large, staring eyes.

Stone sculpture from such heavily fortified city palaces as Nineveh, Nimrud, and Khorsabad reveal the aggressive,
warlike character of later (10th-century B.C.) conquerors of this region, the Assyrians. At the entrances of their
palaces the Assyrians placed huge symbols of the king's might and majesty in the form of colossal guardian
monsters--five-legged, winged bulls with human heads. Slabs of stone carved in relief with scenes of hunts, battles,
victory banquets, and ceremonial rituals were placed along the lower walls inside the palaces.

Aegean Civilization

Just a few examples of sculpture remain from the colorful Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. Ivory and
terra-cotta; small statuettes of snake goddesses, priestesses, and acrobats; and cups with such scenes in relief as a
bull being caught in a net or harvesters returning from the fields give lively suggestions of Minoans in action.

Just a few examples of sculpture remain from the colorful Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. Ivory and
terra-cotta; small statuettes of snake goddesses, priestesses, and acrobats; and cups with such scenes in relief as a
bull being caught in a net or harvesters returning from the fields give lively suggestions of Minoans in action.

Greek Sculpture

Around 600 B.C., Greece developed one of the great civilizations in the history of the world. Sculpture became one
of the most important forms of expression for the Greeks.

The Greek belief that "man is the measure of all things" is nowhere more clearly shown than in Greek sculpture. The
human figure was the principal subject of all Greek art. Beginning in the late 7th century B.C., sculptors in Greece
constantly sought better ways to represent the human figure.

The Greeks developed a standing figure of a nude male, called the Kouros or Apollo. The Kouros served to depict
gods and heroes. The Kore, or standing figure of a draped female, was more graceful and was used to portray
maidens and goddesses. The winged female figure, or Nike, became the personification of victory.

Etruscan and Roman Sculpture

Greek sculpture and Greek art had been exported to Italy long before Romans ruled the land. By the 7th and 6th
centuries B.C. the Etruscans were firmly settled in Italy. Hundreds of objects have been and are still being found in
vast Etruscan cemeteries. Some of the sculpture and many vases are Greek, while others are lively Etruscan
translations of Greek forms. Many small bronze figures of farmers, warriors, or gods show the great talents of the
Etruscans as metalworkers and sculptors.

Rome profited from the double artistic inheritance of Greek and Etruscan sculpture. The inventiveness of Roman
sculptors added to this heritage. The most important contributions of the Roman sculptors were portraits.

The development of Roman sculpture was the reverse of that of Greek sculpture. Instead of progressing from fairly
simple, abstract forms to more natural and realistic statues, Roman sculpture, once realistic, became far more simple
and abstract.

Early Christian Sculptur

Early Christian sculpture resembled the art of Rome. Sarcophagi (burial chests) found in Italy are all Roman in type,
although they are given a special meaning by subjects, signs, or symbols important for Christians.

Sculpture, however, was not a natural form of expression for the early Christians. This was because one of the Ten
Commandments forbids the making of graven (carved) images. Many early Christians interpreted this
commandment, just as the Hebrews had, to mean that it was wrong to make any images of the human figure.
Eventually church authorities decided that art could serve Christianity. It was only the making of idols (false gods)
that was regarded as a breach of the commandment.

In the 5th century A.D. the western half of the Roman Empire fell to invading Germanic tribes from northern and
central Europe. These peoples soon became Christians and spread the religion throughout Europe. Unlike the
Romans, the Germanic peoples had no tradition of human representation in art. Their art consisted mainly of
complex patterns and shapes used for decoration. It influenced Christian art as much as Greco-Roman art did.

There are relatively few examples of sculpture made in the first 1,000 years of Christianity. Among these rare
examples are portable altars, reliquaries (containers for the remains of Christian saints and martyrs), chalices, and
other objects used in the services of Christian worship. These were shaped with great care and were often made of
precious materials. Sculptors used the fragile and lovely medium of ivory in many ways. They carved it in relief for
small altars or as covers for the Gospels, the Bible, or prayerbooks. Small, freestanding figures represented the
Madonna and the Christ Child, angels, or Christian saints.

Romanesque Sculpture

A new and brilliant chapter in Christian art began after the year 1000. For the next three centuries sculptors,
architects, masons, carpenters, and hundreds of other craftsmen created some of the most impressive Christian
churches ever built.

These artists worked on a bolder and larger scale than had been possible for hundreds of years. For their ideas they
looked to the best examples of great structures they knew—Roman buildings. The term "Romanesque" suggests the
Roman qualities of the art of the 11th and 12th centuries. Important changes were made by these later artists.
German Romanesque churches differ from Italian ones, and Spanish from French ones. Ideas of carving, building,
and painting circulated freely, for people often went on pilgrimages to worship at sacred sites in different countries.
An early 11th century example of Romanesque sculpture shows the way Roman ideas were translated. The bronze
doors of the Cathedral of Hildesheim have ten panels with scenes from the Bible. The placing, purpose, and
arrangement of these large doors clearly recall the 5th-century doors of Santa Sabina in Rome. But the details are
different. Small figures twist and turn freely. Their heads and hands are enlarged and stand out from the surface of
the relief.

Gothic Sculpture

Sculpture after the 12th century gradually changed from the clear, concentrated abstractions of Romanesque art to a
more natural and lifelike appearance. Human figures shown in natural proportions were carved in high relief on
church columns and portals.

As Gothic sculptors became more skilled, they also gained greater freedom and independence. Later Gothic figures
are depicted much more realistically than those made during the Romanesque and earlier Gothic periods. The faces
of the statues have expression, and their garments are draped in a natural way. Hundreds of carvings in the great
Gothic cathedrals all over Western Europe presented aspects of the Christian faith in terms that every Christian
could understand.

The great era of building drew to a close by the early 14th century. A series of wars and crises prevented the
building of anything more than small chapels and a few additions to earlier structures. One finds only small
statuettes and objects, used for private devotions, instead of the great programs of monumental sculpture that in the
13th century had enriched such cathedrals as those at Amiens, Paris, Rheims, Wells, Burgos, and Strasbourg.

Renaissance Sculpture

Jutting into the Mediterranean Sea, the Italian peninsula, at the crossroads of several worlds, had been the heart of
the Roman Empire. Rome was the center of the western Christian world. Later, northeastern Italy--especially
Venice--became the gateway to the Near East and the Orient. Italian artists never completely accepted the Gothic
styles that dominated art in Western Europe. The reason is that Italian artists were surrounded by the remains of the
Classical Age and exposed to the Eastern influence of Byzantine art. (The article Byzantine Art and Architecture can
be found in this encyclopedia.)

As early as the 13th century the Italians planted the seeds of a new age: the Renaissance. Although the elements of
medieval and Byzantine art contributed a great deal to the formation of Renaissance sculpture, Italian artists were
interested in reviving the classical approach to art. ("Renaissance" means "rebirth.")

The most significant change in art that occurred in the Renaissance was the new emphasis on glorifying the human
figure. No longer was sculpture to deal only with idealized saints and angels; sculpted figures began to look more
lifelike.

The relief sculpture of Nicola Pisano (1220-84) forecast the new age. In the late 13th century Pisano carved nude
male figures on a church pulpit. (The nude figure had not been used in sculpture since the fall of Rome.) Although
Pisano obviously tried to copy the heroic figures of classical art, he knew little about human anatomy, and his work
was still proportioned like Byzantine and medieval sculpture.

Baroque Sculpture

Sculptors in the 17th century continued to deal with the same wide variety of sculptural problems as their
Renaissance predecessors, using the human figure as a form of expression. They reacted, however, against the
mannerism of late 16th century sculptors. They worked instead for a return to the greater strength of Michelangelo
and the energy and agility of 15th-century sculpture.
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) was, like Michelangelo, a gifted artist. In a long and productive career, he
easily became the dominating figure in his own country and one of the major artists in Europe during a brilliant,
creative period. Bernini's David reveals his admiration for Michelangelo and his own originality. It has the largeness
and strength of Michelangelo's David but is a much more active and less tragic figure. Bernini's figures stand in
dramatic poses--as though they were actors on a stage, reaching out to the observer. As a result, we feel drawn
toward them and their grace.

Rococo Sculpture

The basic qualities of 17th-century art were carried forward into the 18th century but were transformed for the taste
of a different generation. The term "rococo" suggests the preference for gayer, lighter, and more decorative effects in
sculpture and in all the arts.

Jean Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85) and Étienne Maurice Falconet (1716-91) show the same technical dexterity as
Bernini, but their figures are slight and cheerful. The skill revealed in their delicate work, with its tiny, sweetly
shaped figures and graceful movement, represents a marked change from the strong, religious intensity of Bernini's
work.

Statuettes and statues of small groups were designed as pleasant and often witty additions to lovely rooms. The
individual talents of the sculptors and their joint efforts created an ornamental effect. The same brilliance and skill
also created a group of superbly beautiful churches in southern Germany.

Neoclassic and Romantic Sculpture

The pendulum of taste swung in a new direction in the late 18th century while Clodion (1738-1814) and other
rococo sculptors were still active. This direction, called neoclassic to describe the deliberate return to classical
subject matter and style, lasted in strength for nearly a century. The change can be seen in the work of the
distinguished sculptor Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828). His statue of George Washington could be compared to a
portrait of a Roman emperor.

The most commanding figure of neoclassical sculpture was the Italian Antonio Canova (1757-1822). Canova was a
favorite of the kings and noblemen of Europe. His specialty was the monument in which a statesman or other
important figure was dressed in the robes and garlands of classical figures. Canova frankly imitated antique
sculptors. His Perseus and The Pugilists are exhibited in the Vatican with ancient classical sculpture.

Rodin

Although the Romantic movement was growing, many artists still preferred to work in the classical tradition
followed in the academies. In the 1860's a young sculptor named Auguste Rodin was turned away three times from
the École des Beaux-Arts, the academy in Paris. By the end of the century he was the most famous sculptor in
France and throughout most of Europe.

Although Rodin sought to copy nature, he used many new techniques. Both the hollows and raised portions of a
surface were important to Rodin. He experimented with the effects of light on the surface of forms, just as the
impressionists were doing in painting. He carved figures in shadow or emerging from an unfinished block. Whether
he praised the homely courage of the subjects in Burghers of Calais or the lovers in The Kiss—their heads
enshadowed—Rodin suggested the natural, unposed moments in life.

20th-Century Sculpture
The 20th century was an age of experimentation with new ideas, new styles, and new materials. Studies of the
human figure gave way to new subjects: dreams, ideas, emotions, and studies of form and space. Plastic, chromium,
and welded steel were used, as well as boxes, broken automobile parts, and pieces of old furniture.

Twentieth-century sculptors owed a great debt to Rodin. His tremendous output and variety inspired a new
generation of sculptors to express new thoughts in an art form that had been repeating old ideas for 200 years.
Although Rodin's successors tended to move away from both his realism and his literary subjects, his innovations
had an important influence. Aristide Maillol (1861-1944) rejected Rodin's rough surfaces. The smooth figures of
Maillol's stone and bronze works seem to rest in calm repose.

Material s in sculpture:

1. Plaster

2. Concrete

3. Found object

4. Clay

5. Wood

6. Wax

Types of Sculpture

The basic traditional forms of this 3-D art are: free-standing sculpture, which is surrounded on all sides by space;
and relief sculpture (encompassing bas-relief, alto-relievo or haut relief, and sunken-relief), where the design
remains attached to a background, typically stone or wood. Examples of relief work can be seen in megalithic
art such as the complex spiral engravings found at Newgrange (Ireland), on Trajan's Column in Rome, the Temple
of Zeus at Olympia, and the Parthenon. Gothic architectural reliefs appear on all major European Cathedrals of the
period: witness the Saints on the south trancept of Chartres cathedral, and the apostles on the north trancept of
Rheims cathedral.

It can also be classified by its subject matter. A statue, for instance, like the two versions of David by Donatello and
Michelangelo, is usually a representational full length 3-D portrait of a person, while a bust usually depicts only the
head, neck and shoulders - see the bust of George Washington(1788) by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1741-1828). A
statue of a person on horseback, such as the one by Giambologna (1529-1608) of Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, is
termed an equestrian sculpture. Perhaps the greatest ever equestrian statue is Falconet's Baroque-style Bronze
Horseman in Decembrist Square, St Petersburg: a monument to Tsar Peter the Great and a masterpiece of Russian
sculpture, albeit created by a Frenchman.