1.

Water Demand

Water demand is the required amount of water which is a necessity in a certain area, which becomes the
basis for the design capacity of a water supply facility. The water demand consists of the selection of

 design period
 estimation of the population
 estimation of the unit water use
 and estimation of variability of demand

Design period (design life) is the length of time that a facility is expected to meet the demand. It is somewhat
different to life expectancy because the latter is based on the wear and tear, meaning the facility will have a
reduced or unsatisfactory performance because of normal causes such as aging and continuous use. The
design period is mainly based many factors such as:

 regulatory constraints
 population growth rate
 interest rate for bonds
 useful life of structures and equipment
 ease or difficulty of expansion
 performance in early years of life under minimum hydraulic load

During the conceptualization of planning phase, there are requirements that are being applied in determining
the design period of a water supply facility. If there are missing data that are needed for the design, census
(inhouse) data may be used which consists of historic records used for developing prediction and forecasting
models for future usage. One good example of data is a population growth projection estimate.

Unit water use

Like as what was explained, when there is a proposed facility, the community’s historic records can be used
for estimating water use. It is best to determine the total demand from a unit water use, or usage of a single,
then multiplying the rate of that person to the total population to get the total demand. If the records are not
available in the community, they can use the data from the nearest facility. Sometimes, the community use
flow-reduction devices for conservation of water and energy. Together with other factors such as enumerated
below, this should be analyzed in the strategic planning phase.
  Climate – water demand is higher during dry seasons
 Industrial activity – average water demand increases because of industrial facilities
 Meterage – it imposes a sense of responsibility encouraging people to reduce water demand
 System management – water demand can be lesser if water distribution is well managed
 Standard of living – water demand increases depending on standard of living. Such example is that
water consumption in highly developed nations are higher than less developed nations.

Trivia: United State has estimated average daily household water use of 1,320 liters per day in 1999. This
would amount to 440 Lpcd for a family of three.

Variability of demand

Unit demand estimates are averages because it is hard to estimate the actual value of demand due to
consumption variability especially that it varies depending on season, days of the week, and hours of the
day. According to Recommended Standards for Water Works, the maximum day water demand in a year
shall be the basis for design if a water source. For pumps and distribution systems, the peak hour flow rate
should be used.

2. Water Source Evaluation

There are 2 general types of water sources, the surface water supply and groundwater supply. Those who
use surface water is estimated to be 150% of those who use ground water mainly because larger cities are
supplied by large surface water bodies while small communities use groundwater.

2.1 Groundwater as a source is more preferable because of the following factors (advantages)

 It is less subject to seasonal fluctuations and long-term droughts (kahit taginit, hindi naaapektuhan
ang groundwater supply unlike sa mga dams, di ba nauubos pag tagtuyot)
 Aquifer provides natural storage (unlike pag surface supply, kailangan pa magbuild ng structures
para sa water storage such as dams, spillways)
 Cost of transmission is reduced significantly (hindi na kailangan ng mga transferring equipment
para magtransfer ng water kasi available naman groundwater kahit saan)
 Protected from contamination (kasi may mga natural materials in the ground na nakakapagfilter ng
water)
Groundwater disadvantages

 Dissolves naturally occurring minerals (since tubig, hindi maiiwasan matunaw ung mga existing
minearls sa ilalim ng lupa)

Trivia: Yield is the average flow available over a long period of time which is the first thing to consider in
designing a water supply source.

2.2 Surface Water is to be designed base on the yield. Ito na yung mga water resource sa surface like dams,
reservoir, etc. The components for design are

 Determination of allowable withdrawal (kung hanggang ilan lang yung pwedeng iwithdraw na tubig
dun sa source para hindi maubos agad)
 Completion of a complete series of analysis
 Completion of an extreme-value analysis to determine the probable recurrence interval (return
period) of a drought

Complete Series (yield analysis) is used to construct flow-duration curves. Dito nirerecord yung flow rate
sa bawat araw sa actual, tapos cinocompare dun sa average na ginagamit ung recorded n tlga, para Makita
yung difference). Based on this, the percent of time is interpreted to predict whether the watershed will yield
a given flow over a long period of time. (See example 2-1)

Annual Series (extrem-value analysis, annual maxima/minima series) is a probability analysis of the
largest or smallest values in a data set. (kung may data set ng flow rate, inaanalyze ang ung pinakamataas
(maxima) or pinakamababa na value (minima)). October 1 to September 30 is considered as the hydrologic
year by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to break the record during low-water at the end of summer season
and to avoid breaking the record during the winter to eliminate computation difficulties during ice period. (See
example 2-2)

Partial-Duration Series. It often happens tat the second largest or second smallest flow-rate in a water year
is larger or smaller than the maxima or minima from a different hydrologic year. Because of this, partial-
duration series is done, which is almost the same with annual series but it considers all the values that are
higher than a certain threshold. (Sa annual kasi, yung pinakmaximum or pinakaminimum lang ang kinukuha,
unlike sa partial, kapag may value na mas mataas dun sa maxima or minima from other years, kinukuha nila,
bale kahit madami ok lang).
Low-flow duration is an important factor in design because it considers the worst scenario for a water supply
typically considered to be a 10 year period. (lalo na kapag drought, yun ung mga taon na talagang kulang sa
tubig yung country, edi kailangan yung iconsider sa pagdesign ng water demand para alam na alam kung
paano magtitipid ng tubig).

When to use each series?

o Complete series to determine the long-term reliability (yield) for water supply
o Annual minima series to determine the need for storage
o Partial-duration series to predict low-flow durations

Volume of reservoir. The techniques for determining the storage volume required for a reservoir are
dependent both on the size and use of the reservoir. The simplest procedure is the mass diagram or Rippl
method. But the disadvantage of that method is that hydrologic events are the same in the future years. (See
example 2.3)

2.1.1 Confined aquifer. It is an aquifer below the land surface that is saturated with water (kumbaga lupa na
may kasamang tubig). They are those aquifers in which an impermeable rock layer exists that prevents water
from seeping into the aquifer from ground surface above it. Tapos yung tubig dun, pumapasok sa loob ng
well, kaya nagkakaron ng tubig sa well

The components of the evaluation of the aquifer as a water supply are

 Depth of bottom of aquiclude

 Elevation of the existing piezometric surface
 Drawdown (pagbaba ng tubig) for sustained pumping at the design rate of demand
 Recharge and drought implications
Piezometric surface – it is an imaginary surface that defines the level to which water in a confined aquifer
would rise were it completely pierced with wells.

Aquiclude – ito yung rock surface na in between sa aquifer tsaka yung ground above, kaya hindi nakakapag
seep in yung tubig sa taa papunta sa aquifer.

Drawdown Estimation. The estimation of drawdown depends on the following assumption. (yung
drawdown, parang ito ung difference in height kapag naglalabas ng tubig ung well. Di ba kapag may outflow
dun sa well, edi mababawasan yung laman nun, ung height na mababawas un ung drawdown, yung yung s
dun sa figure, pati yung ibang part ng aquifer naaapektuhan).

 The well is pumped at a constant rate

 Flow toward the well is radial and uniform
 Initially the piezometric surface is horizontal
 The well fully penetrates the aquifer and is screened for the entire length
 The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, horizontal, and of infinite horizontal extent
 Water is released from the aquifer in immediate response to a drop in piezometric surface

Thiem Equation is used to estimate the maximum pumping rate that can be sustained by a single well in a
confined aquifer (See equation 2-6, page 2-20).
2.1.2 Unconfined aquifer. Are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above the
aquifer. (kumbaga dito, nabubuo yung aquifer kasi sinisipsip niya ung tubig sa ground surface sa taas niya,
unlike sa confined, kung ano lang ung tubig sa kanya, yung lang, di na siya sumisipsip pa sa iba).

The components of the evaluation of the aquifer as a water supply are

 Depth of the aquifer. The depth of the aquifer is measured from the initial (unpumped, static) water
level to the underlying impermeable layer. Kapag nareach na nung water level ung pinakailalim,
considered na siya as “Dried up or drys up” or tuyot na. pero hindi tlga
 Annual precipitation and resultant aquifer recharge
 Drawdown for sustained pumping at the design rate of demand

Aquifer recharge. Ito yung pag nagrerecharge yung aquifer, kasi syempre once na mabawasan ng tubig sa
ground, nagrerecharge yun pwedeng galling sa tubig ulan, or kahit saan. Kaya parang cinoconsider na din
na large reservoir yung aquifer.

2.3 Reclaimed wastewater. Another source of water is recycled or reclaimed water. Nangyayare to lalo na
dun sa mga country na kulang na kulang sa tubig like Hong Kong, ang ginagawa nirerecycle yung mga
nagamit nan a tubig, kahit galling pa sa banyo hekhek.
3. Water Quality

The following are 4 categories used to describe drinking water quality

1. Physical. Color, turbidity (transparency, gaano kaclear ung tubig dahil sa other particles ng lupa),
temperature, taste, and odor
2. Chemical. Chemical reactions of water to other elements (arsenic, chloride, fluoride, iron, lead).
Kunware yung mga may arsenic, chloride, pwedeng makasama sa tao, lalo na ung mga toxic wawi.
3. Microbiological. Microbiological agents are very important, kasi minsan they can treat diseases kaya
dapat pinagaaralan, meron naman ung bawal inumin kasi baka madami ng bacteria, viruses,
protozoa or generally speaking, sila yung pathogens. Example yung sa dumi ng hayop
4. Radiological. Kapag kasi ung tubig in contact with radioactive substance, such are uranium, apha
and beta particles.

Raw Water Characteristics

The quality of the raw water plays a large role in determining the unit operations and process required to treat
the water. A comparison of the source water quality with the desired finished water quality provides a basis
for selecting treatment processes. (Bale syempre may water quality yung source, pero syempre pwedeng
hindi pa yun perfect na talagang pwede ng inumin, edi may difference pa din, kaya cinocompare nila dun sa
talagang gusto nila na quality).

Water Quality Standards

Water quality standards are a crucial element in setting the design criteria for a water supply project. The
standards apply both the treatment plant and the distribution system.

 National Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was signed into law on Dec 16,1974
 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was directed to establish the maximum contaminant
levels (MCLs) for public water systems (pinagaarala nila ung magiging health effects ng water
resource). There are 2 types of public water supply defined by SDWA
 Community system. Residential, with population greater than 25 people or 15 living units
 Noncommunity system. Serves fewer than 25 individuals on an average daily basis. It is
either transient or nontransient.
 o Transient systems. They serve intermittent nonresidential users such as
campgrounds and restaurants
o Nontransient systems. They are nonresidential systems that routinely serve same
individuals such as schools and business offices.
 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (IPDWRs). These are 23 contaminants
regulated by EPA in drinking water supplied by public water systems.
 SDWA was amended on June, 1986, wherein the EPA was required to set maximum contaminant
level goals (MCLGs) and MCLs for 83 specific substances. It also included to regulate 25 additional
contaminants every three years beginning in January, 1991 and continuing for an indefinite period
of time.
 In June 1988, EPA issued proposed regulations to define MCLs and MCGLs for lead and copper,
MCLG proposed for lead is zero and 1.3 mg/L for copper.
 SDWA amendments forbid the use of pipe, solder, or flux that is not lead-free in installation and
repair of any public system providing for water consumption.

Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products (D-DBPs). The disinfectants used to destroy pathogens in
water and the by-products of the reaction of these disinfectants with organic materials in the water are of
potential health concerns. Some examples are trihalomethanes (THMs) which are formed when a water
containing an organic precursor is chlorinated. This formed the D-DBP rule (water must contain disinfectants).
Precursors are natural organic substances formed from the decay of vegetative matter such as leaves and
aquatic organisms. Maximum residual disinfectant level goals (MRDLGS) and maximum residual
disinfectant levels (MRDLS) were established for chlorine, chloramine, and chlorine dioxide.

In the D-DBP rule, the levels are established for precursor removal (inaalis or nililimit lang yung amount ng
precursor, kasi kapag sobra sobra, may bad effects din, parang yung chlorine). The amount of precursor
required to be removed is a function of alkalinity of the water and the amount of total organic carbon (TOC)
present. The D-DBP rule has 2 stages, in Stages 1 rule, the sample are averaged over four quarters of data
(16 data points needed for four samples per quarter), while in stage 2 rule, 1 from each quarter is needed
and then averaged. Each site must be below MCL, and this is referred to as locational running annual
average (LRAA).

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). SWTR and its companion rules, the Interim Enhanced Surface
Water Treatment Rules (IESWTR) and the Longterm Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rules (LT1ESWTR
and LT2ESWTR), set forth primary regulations requiring treatment of surface water supplies or groundwater
supplies under the direct influence of surface water area. They require treatment, filtration, or disinfection
techniques in lieu of establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)

Turbidity Limits. Treatment by conventional or direct filtration must achieve a turbidity level of less than 0.3
NTU in at least 95% of the samples taken each month. Turbidity measurements must be performed on
representative samples of the systems’ filtration every four hours by continuous monitoring. (turbidity yung
kung gano kaclear yung tubig ha, clear na free from soil or other particles)

Disinfection Requirements. Filtered water supplies must achieve the same disinfection as required for
unfiltered systems. In example for Giardia and viruses, contaminants yan, ngaun, they are fairly well
inactivated (pinapatay) by chlorine.

Total Coliform. (ito yung mga bacteria sa lupa na galling sa surface, such as human and animal wastes,
example is E. Coli, bacteria sa tae ng langaw hahahaha, naospital si ate mae dahil jan). Because of this,
EPA promulgated the revised National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDRW) for total coliforms.
(Nirevise kasi mas malakas yung contamination ng total coliform, mas malupet na method yung kailangan
para maalis tlga sila dun sa tubig).

EPA will accept any one of the following methods for determination of total coliforms

 Multiple-tube fermentation technique (MTF)

 Membrane filter technique (MF)
 Minimal media ONPO-MUG test (collier system) (MMO-MUG)
 Presence-absence coliform test (P-A)
 Colisure technique

Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCL). NSDWA also established additional set of standards
to prescribe maximum limits for contamination for those unusable water but has no public health effect. (tubig
na contaminated pero pwede naman magamit ng tao, pwedeng panligo lang ganun, basta wlaang magiging
effect sa health).

AWWA Goals. The primary and secondary MCLs are the maximum allowed, but a reasonable goal may be
much lower than the MCLs.
2.4 Evaluation of Process Options

In the design process, the data gathered which is typically based on those that are explained (ung mga
requirement sa water evaluation and water quality to) is sufficient to begin screening alternative supply and
treatment options.

2.5 Plant Sizing and Layout

Once the preliminary selection of water treatment unit operations and processes has been made (nadiscuss
sa chapter 1), rough calculations can already be done to determine the sizes to be used in examining
feasibility of site locations and costs. The following elements are to be considered.

1. Number and Size of process units. In general, minimum of 2 units is provided, and each shall be
capable of meeting the plant design capacity (dalawa yung dapat meron kahit isa lang ung kailangan,
para in case masira yung isa, may bakaabang na agad)
2. Number and size of Ancillary units. The ancillary units include admi bldg., laboratory space,
storage tanks, mechanical bldg., roads, and parkings. (Ito yung other facilities aside dun sa treatment
plant itself na nandon sa planta) The size of these facilities is a function of the size of the plant
(syempre kung gano kalaki yung treatment plant, ganun din dapat ung ibang facilities. Kapag maliit
lang naman ung kailangan na treatmentplant, kahit wala na ung ibang facilities).
3. Plant Layout. When space is not a constraint, a linear layout generally allows the maximum flexibility
for expansion. (Dapat yung location ng mga facilities sa planta interconnected or dapat may
organization din, hindi lang basta lagay ng lagay).

2.6 Plant Location

A comparison for alternatives of the plant layout design must be done thoroughly to have the best design or
layout of the proposed water treatment facility. (dapat may tradeoffs ka para dun sa design ng treatment
plant mo, para ianalyze niyo ano ba ung pinaka the best dun sa mga alternatives). There are several major
issues to be considered, such as cost, space for expansion, location, etc. (lalo na kapag binabaha ganun o
kaya mahina yung lupa dun sa area, factor din un sa design and layout).