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FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATERIALS
SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2
chapter
AND INTERATOMIC
BONDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
6 26
C Fe
12.01 55.85
BOHR AND WAVE-MECHANICAL ATOMIC MODEL
BOHR AND WAVE-MECHANICAL ATOMIC MODEL
WAVE-MECHANICAL ATOMIC MODEL
•Electrons have wavelike and particulate properties.
• This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a
probability.
• Each orbital at discrete energy level is determined by
quantum numbers.
QUANTUM NUMBERS
•Using wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is
characterized by four parameters called quantum
numbers
• n, principal quantum number (n=1, 2, 3 or K, L, M)
• l, subsidiary, (s, p, d, f) (0, 1, 2, 3)
• ml, magnetic (s=1, p=3, d=5, f=7) (-l to l)
• ms, spin moment (+½, -½)
RELATIVE ENERGIES OF THE ELECTRONS
FOR THE VARIOUS SHELLS AND SUBSHELLS
Energy
3p M-shell n = 3
3s
2p L-shell n = 2
2s
1s K-shell n = 1
Adapted from Fig. 2.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
•The electron Hydrogen
Helium
1
2
1s 1
1s 2 (stable)
configuration for Lithium
Beryllium
3
4
1s 2 2s 1
1s 2 2s2
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)
Adapted from Table 2.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
•Ex: Sodium 1s22s22p63s1
•Valence electrons are those
that occupy the outermost
shell. They are most available
for bonding and tend to
control the chemical
properties.
•Filled shells more stable.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
• ex: Fe - atomic #26 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 valence electrons
4d
4p N-shell n = 4
3d
4s
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
2p L-shell n = 2
2s
1s K-shell n = 1
Adapted from Fig. 2.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
HYBRIDIZATION
•Under special circumstances, the s and p orbitals
combine to form hybrid spn orbitals
THE PERIODIC TABLE
THE PERIODIC TABLE
inert gases
give up 1e-
give up 2e-
accept 2e-
accept 1e-
give up 3e-
H He
Li Be O F Ne
Electropositive Na Mg S Cl Ar Electronegative
elements: K Ca Sc Se Br Kr elements:
Readily give up Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Readily acquire
Cs Ba Po At Rn
electrons to Fr Ra electrons to
become (+) ions. become (-) ions.
Adapted from Fig. 2.6, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
•First Ionization
Energy – minimum
energy required to
remove the most
weakly bound electron
from an isolated
gaseous atom.
TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
•Electron
Affinity – energy
change associated
with an isolated
gaseous atom
accepting one
electron.
TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
•Atomic Radius –
distance between the
surrounding electron and
the nucleus.
TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Electronegativity – measure of an attraction an atom
has for electrons in a bond formed with another atom.
Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0.
Larger
Smaller
electro-
electro-
negativity
negativity
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the
Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
•As developed by Milliken, it is the average of the
ionization energy and the electron affinity.
𝐼𝐸 + 𝐸𝐴
𝜒=
2
•Widely used is the one developed by Linus Pauling
0.31(𝑛 + 1 ± 𝑐)
𝜒= + 0.5
𝑟
TYPES OF BONDS
• Electronegativity dictates how bonds are categorized, by
providing a measure of the excess binding energies between
atoms A and B.
∆𝐴−𝐵 = 96.5 𝜒𝐴 − 𝜒𝐵 2
• Excess binding energy is related to a measurable quantity,
the bond dissociation energy between two atoms.
1
∆𝐴−𝐵 = 𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐵 − 𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐸𝐵𝐵 2
• The greater the electronegativity difference, the greater the
binding energy.
PRIMARY BONDS
•Created when there is a direct interaction of
electrons between two or more atoms.
•The more electrons per atom involved in the
process, the higher the bond order.
PRIMARY BONDS (4 GENERAL CATEGORIES)
1. Ionic – occurs when electronegativity difference
between two atoms is greater than 2.0.
2. Covalent – occurs when electronegativity difference
between two atoms is less than 0.4.
3. Polar Covalent – occurs when electronegativity
difference between two atoms is between 0.4 and 2.0.
−0.25 𝜒𝐴 −𝜒𝐵 2
%ionic character = 100% × 1 − 𝑒
4. Metallic – electrons are decentralized and are shared by
the core of positive nuclei.
% IONIC CHARACTER
•Example:
Solve for the %ionic character of MgO
−0.25 𝜒𝐴 −𝜒𝐵 2
%ionic character = 100% × 1 − 𝑒
% IONIC CHARACTER
•Example:
Solve for the %ionic character of MgO
−0.25 𝜒𝐴 −𝜒𝐵 2
%IC = 100% × 1 − 𝑒
−0.25 3.44−1.31 2
= 100% × 1 − 𝑒
−0.25 2.13 2
= 100% × 1 − 𝑒
= 100% × 1 − 2.718282−1.134225
= 100% × 1 − 0.321671
= 67.83% ionic
SECONDARY BONDS
•Secondary or physical forces and energies are also
found in many solid materials
•They are weaker than the primary ones but
nonetheless influence the physical properties of
some materials
HOW DO BONDS FORM?
•Atoms approach each other only at
a certain distance.
•If a bond is formed, they maintain an
equilibrium separation distance
(bond length).
BOND FORMATION
FACTORS AFFECTING BOND FORMATION
1. Attractive Energy
2. Repulsive Energy
ro (Un-stretched length)
r
E0 = “bond energy”
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING
•Melting Temperature, Tm
Energy
ro
r Tm is larger if E0 is larger.
smaller Tm
larger Tm
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: a
•Coefficient of thermal expansion, a
length, L o
Energy
unheated, T1
DL unstretched length
r o
heated, T2 r
larger a
-Eo
coeff. thermal expansion -Eo smaller a
DL
Lo
= a (T2 -T1) a is larger if Eo is smaller.
IONIC, COVALENT,
AND METALLIC
PRIMARY BONDS
1. THE IONIC
BOND
PRIMARY BONDS
THE IONIC BOND
•Metal + Nonmetal
donates accepts
electrons electrons
•Dissimilar electronegativities
THE IONIC BOND
•Occurs between + and - ions.
•Requires electron transfer.
•Large difference in electronegativity required.
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron
Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
THE IONIC BOND
•ex: MgO
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4
[Ne] 3s2
+ - + - H H H H
secondary secondary
bonding bonding