RDB College of Arts and Science
UNIT-I: Introduction to File – Flat File – Advantage and disadvantage of Flat File – Introduction to Database - Types
of database structure: Hierarchical Data Base – Relational Data Base – Object Relational Data Base.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)
A database management system is a collection of
interrelated data and a set of programs to access those
data. Collection of data is referred to as a database.
A database is a collection of data elements stored in a
computer in such a systematic way that a computer
program can consult it to answer questions.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software
package to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a
computerized database.
DBMS CHARACTERISTICS
Real-world entity:
A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-
world entities to design its architecture.
Relation-based tables:
DBMS allows entities and relations to form tables.
Users understand the database architecture in the
table names.
Isolation of data and application:
Database system is entirely different from data.
A database is an active entity, whereas data is
passive entity, on which the database works and
organizes.
DBMS stores metadata (data about data), to ease
its own process.
Less redundancy:
DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which
splits a relation when its attributes is having
redundancy in values.
Normalization is a mathematically rich and
scientific process that reduces data redundancy.
Consistency:
Consistency is a state where every relation in a
database remains consistent.
There exist methods and techniques, which leaving
database in inconsistent state.
A DBMS can provide greater consistency as
compared to file-processing systems.
Query Language:
DBMS is equipped with query language, which
makes it more efficient to retrieve and manipulate
data.
A user can apply as many and as different
filtering options as required to retrieve a set of
data.
Traditionally it was not possible where file-
processing system was used.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
ACID Properties:
DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (ACID).
These concepts are applied on transactions, which
manipulate data in a database.
ACID help the database stay healthy in multi-
transactional environments and in case of failure.
Multiuser and Concurrent Access:
DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows
to access & manipulate data in parallel.
Though there are restrictions on transactions when
users attempt to handle the same data item, but
users are always unaware of them.
Multiple views:
DBMS offers multiple views for different users.
A user who is in the Sales department will have a
different view of database than a person working in
the Production department.
This feature enables the users to have a
concentrate view of the database according to
their requirements.
Security:
Features like multiple views offer security to some
extent where users are unable to access data of
other users and departments.
DBMS offers constraints while entering and
retrieving the data from database.
DBMS offers many different levels of security
features, which enables multiple users to have
different views with different features.
File Systems Versus Database Systems
− DBMS are expensive to create in terms of software,
hardware, and time invested.
− If we just keep all data in files, then we use word-
processors to edit the files (insert, delete, or update
data).
− As well as we write our own programs to query the
data. This solution is called maintaining data in flat
files.
− However, flat files have the following limitations.
• Uncontrolled redundancy • Inconsistent data
• Inflexibility • Limited data sharing
• Poor enforcement of standards
• Low programmer productivity
• Excessive program maintenance
• Excessive data maintenance
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ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF
FLAT-FILE SYSTEM
Advantage of File-oriented system:
1. Backup:
• It is possible to take faster and automatic back-
up of data stored in files of computer-based
systems.
• Computer systems provide back-up
functionalities. It is also possible to develop
specific application program for back-up.
2. Compactness:
• It is possible to store data compactly.
3. Data Retrieval:
• Computer-based systems provide enhanced
data retrieval techniques to retrieve data stored
in files in easy and efficient way.
4. Editing:
• It is easy to edit any information stored in
computers in form of files.
• Specific application programs or editing
software can be used for this purpose.
5. Remote Access:
• In computer-based systems, it is possible to
access data remotely.
• so, to access data for a user who not present at
location where these data are kept.
6. Sharing:
• Data stored in files of computer-based systems
can be shared among multiple users at a same
time.
Disadvantage of File-oriented system:
1. Data Redundancy:
• It is possible that the same information may be
duplicated in different files.this leads to data
redundancy results in memory wastage.
2. Data Inconsistency:
• Because of data redundancy,it is possible that
data may not be in consistent state.
3. Difficulty in Accessing Data:
• Accessing data is not convenient and efficient
in file processing system.
4. Limited Data Sharing:
• Data are scattered in various files. Also the
different files may have different formats and
may be stored in different folders of different
departments.
• So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to
share data among different applications.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
5. Integrity Problems:
• Data integrity means that the data contained
in the database in both correct and consistent.
For this purpose the data stored in database
must satisfy correct and constraints.
6. Atomicity Problems:
• Any operation on database must be atomic.
• This means, it must happen in its entirely or
not at all.
7. Concurrent Access Anomalies:
• Multiple users are allowed to access data
simultaneously.this is for the sake of better
performance and faster response.
8. Security Problems:
• Database should be accessible to users in
limited way.
• Each user should be allowed to access data
concerning his requirements only.
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to
interact with the system
Application programmers: They interact with system
through DML calls
Sophisticated users: They form requests in a
database query language
Specialized users: They write specialized database
applications that do not fit into the traditional data
processing framework
Naïve users: They invoke one of the permanent
application programs that have been written
previously E.g. people accessing database over the
web, bank tellers, clerical staff
Database Administrator
Database Administrator Coordinates all the activities
of the database system; he has a good understanding
of the enterprise’s information resources and needs.
Database administrator’s duties include:
a. Schema definition
b. Storage structure and access method definition
c. Schema and physical organization modification
d. Granting user authority to access the database
e. Specifying integrity constraints
f. Acting as relationship with users
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DATA:
Data is a collection of facts, figures and statistics
related to an object.
For example: Students fill an admission form when they
get admission in college. The form consists of raw facts
about the students. These raw facts are student's name,
father name, address etc.
INFORMATION:
Processed data is called information. OR The
manipulated and processed form of data is called
information.
For example: Data collected from census is used to
generate different type of information. The government
can use it to determine the literacy rate in the country.
Advantages of DBMS
1. Improved data sharing:
− The DBMS creates an environment in which end
users access more and better-managed data.
− Such access makes the end users got responses
quickly in their environment.
2. Improved data security:
− The more users access the data, the greater risk of
data security arises.
− A DBMS provides a framework for better
enforcement of data privacy and security policies.
3. Data integration:
− Wider access of well-managed data promotes an
integrated view of the organization’s operations.
− It helps to see how actions in one segment of the
company affect other segments.
4. Minimized data inconsistency:
− Data inconsistency exists when different versions
of the same data appear in different places.
− The probability of data inconsistency is greatly
reduced in a properly designed database.
5. Improved data access:
− The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick
answers to ad hoc queries.
− A query is a specific request to the DBMS for data
manipulation (to read or update the data).
− The DBMS sends back an answer (called the result
set) to the application query.
6. Improved decision making:
− Better-managed data and improved data access
quality, which are used for better decisions.
− Data quality is a comprehensive approach to
promoting the accuracy, validity, and timeliness of
the data.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
− While the DBMS does not guarantee data quality, it
provides a framework to facilitate data quality
initiatives.
7. Increased end-user productivity:
− The DBMS tools transform data into usable
information, so the end users make quick decisions
for success and failure in global economy.
8. Controlling Data Redundancy:
− In DBMS, all the data of an organization is
integrated into a single database.
− The data is recorded at only one place in the
database and it is not duplicated.
− In DBMS, the data redundancy can be controlled or
reduced but is not removed completely.
− Sometimes, it is necessary to create duplicate
copies of the same data items in order to relate
tables with each other.
− By controlling the data redundancy can save
storage space. Similarly, it is useful for retrieving
data from database using queries.
8. Backup and Recovery Procedures:
− The manual regular backup of data to protect the
valuable data from failures is time consuming.
− DBMS provide the 'backup and recovery' sub-
systems that automatically create the backup of
data and restore data if required.
Disadvantages of DBMS
1. Increased costs:
− Database systems require sophisticated hardware,
software and highly skilled person.
− The cost of maintaining the hardware, software,
and person can be extensive.
− Training, licensing, and regulation compliance
costs are often cared when database systems are
implemented.
2. Management complexity:
− Database systems interface with many different
technologies impact on a company’s resources
and culture significantly.
− The changes of database system must be
properly managed to ensure the company’s
objectives.
− Database systems are accessed from multiple
sources, so security issues must be assessed
constantly.
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RDB College of Arts and Science
3. Maintaining currency:
− To maximize the efficiency of the database
system, we must perform frequent updates and
security measures.
− Rapid personnel training costs tend to be
significant.
4. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles:
− DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their
products by adding new functionality.
− New software upgrade versions require hardware
upgrades.
− It also costs money to train database users and
administrators to properly use and manage the
new features.
5. Appointing Technical Staff:
− The trained technical persons such as database
administrator and application programmers etc
are required to handle the DBMS.
− We have to pay handsome salaries to these
persons. Therefore, the system cost increases.
Data Independence
Data independence means that any part of data is not
dependent on any other part of the data in the DBMS.
They are no way dependent upon their physical storage
and logical arrangements.
Logical data independence changes the
conceptual schema without changing the external
schemas.
Physical data independence changes the internal
schema without changing the conceptual schema.
DATA MODELS /DATABASE STRUCTURE
Data models are a collection of conceptual tools for
describing data, data relationships, data semantics and
data constraints. There are three different groups:
1. Object-based Logical Models.
2. Record-based Logical Models.
3. Physical Data Models
1.Object Based Logical Models:
− These models can be used in describing the data at
the logical and view levels.
− These models are having flexible structuring
capabilities classified into following types.
a) The entity-relationship model.
b) The object-oriented model.
c) The semantic data model.
d) The functional data model.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
2.Record Based Logical Models:
− These models can also be used in describing the
data at the logical and view levels.
− These models can be used for both to specify the
overall logical structure of the database and a
higher-level description.
− These models can be classified into,
1. Relational model.
2. Network model.
3. Hierarchal model.
3. Physical Models:
− These models can be used in describing the data at
the lowest level, i.e. physical level.
− These models can be classified into
1. Unifying model
2. Frame memory model.
Drawbacks of file systems
− Data redundancy and inconsistency
− Due to availability of multiple file formats,
storage in files may cause duplication of
information in different files.
− Difficulty in accessing data
− In order to retrieve, access and use stored data,
we need to write a new program to carry out-
each new task
− Data isolation
− To isolate data we need to store them in multiple
files and different Formats.
− Integrity problems
− Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0)
become part of program code which has to be
written every time. It is hard to add new
constraints or to change existing ones.
− Atomicity of updates
− Failures of files may leave database in an
inconsistent state with partial updates carried out
E.g. transfer of funds from one account to
another should happen either completely or
Partially.
− Concurrent access by multiple users
− Concurrent access of files is needed for better
performance and it is also true that Uncontrolled
concurrent accesses of files can lead to
inconsistencies
E.g. two people reading a balance and updating
it at the same time
− Several Security related problems caused in file
system.
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RDB College of Arts and Science Introduction to Oracle and SQL
DATABASE STRUCTURES
The relationships among the many individual records in databases are based on one of several logical
data structures or models.
DBMS are designed to provide end users with quick, easy access to information stored in databases.
Five fundamental database structures are:
Hierarchical Structure:
Early mainframe DBMS packages used the hierarchical structure, in which:
− Relationships between records form a hierarchy or tree like structure.
− Records are dependent and arranged in multilevel structures, consisting of one root record and any
number of subordinate levels.
− Relationships among the records are one-to-many, since each data element is related only to one
element above it.
− Data element or record at the highest level of the hierarchy is called the root element.
− Any data element can be accessed by moving progressively downward from the root and along the
branches of the tree until the desired record is located.
− Advantages
Ease with which data can be stored and retrieved in structured, routine types of transactions.
Ease with which data can be extracted for reporting purposes.
Structured and routine types of transaction processing is fast and efficiently.
− Disadvantages
Hierarchical one-to many relationships must be specified in advance, and are not flexible.
Cannot easily handle ad hoc requests for information.
Modifying a hierarchical database structure is complex. Great deal of redundancy.
Requires knowledge of a programming language.
Network Structure:
− Can represent more complex logical relationships, and is still used by many mainframe DBMS
packages.
− Allows many-to-many relationships among records.
− That is, the network model can access a data element by following one of several paths, because any
data element or record can be related to any number of other data elements.
− Advantages
More flexible that the hierarchical model.
Ability to provide sophisticated logical relationships among the records.
− Disadvantages
Network many-to-many relationships must be specified in advance.
User is limited to retrieving data that can be accessed using the established links between
records.
Cannot easily handle ad hoc requests for information. Requires knowledge of a programming
language.
Relational Structure:
− Most popular database structure.
− Used by most microcomputer DBMS packages, many minicomputer and mainframe systems.
− Data elements within the database are stored in the form of simple tables.
− Tables are related if they contain common fields.
− DBMS packages based on the relational model can link data elements from various tables to provide
information to users.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D., 5
RDB College of Arts and Science Introduction to Oracle and SQL
− Advantages
Flexible in that is can handle ad hoc information requests.
Easy for programmers to work with.
End users can use this model with little effort or training.
Easier to maintain than the hierarchical and network models.
− Disadvantages
Cannot process large amounts of business transactions as quickly and efficiently as the
hierarchical and network models.
Multidimensional Structure:
− It is a variation of the relational model that uses multidimensional structures to store data and
relationships between data.
− A major benefit of multidimensional databases is that they are a compact and easy-to-understand
way to visualize and manipulate data elements that have many interrelationships.
− Multidimensional databases have become the most popular database structure for the analytical
databases that support online analytical processing (OLAP) applications.
− Advantages
Compact and easy to understand way to visualize and manipulate data elements that have
many interrelationships.
Support OLAP applications in which fast answers to complex business queries are required.
− Disadvantages
Not currently developed for broad business application use.
Object-Oriented Structure
− It is considered to be one of the key technologies of a new generation of multimedia web-based
applications.
− In an object-oriented structure, an object consists of data values describing the attributes of an
entity plus the operations that can be performed upon the data.
− This encapsulation capability allows the object-oriented model to better handle more complex
types of data (graphics, voice, text) than other database structures.
− Supports inheritance, that is, new objects can be automatically created by replicating some or all
of the characteristics of one or more parent objects.
− Object-capabilities and inheritance have made object-oriented database management systems
(OODMS) popular in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.
− Designers can develop product designs, store them as objects in an object-oriented database, and
replicate and modify them to create new product designs.
− Multimedia web-based applications for the Internet and corporate intranets and extranets have
become a major application area for object technology.
− Advantages
Handles complex types of data (graphics, pictures, voice, and text) better than other
structures.
Relatively easy to use.
Key technology being used in multimedia web-based applications for the Internet and
corporate intranets and extranets.
Supports inheritance - new objects can be automatically created by replicating some or all of
the characteristics of one or more parent objects.
− Disadvantages
Not currently developed for broad business use.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D., 6
RDB College of Arts and Science
Hierarchical Data Model
The hierarchical data model, each record in the
database represented a specific parent/child
relationship.
Retrieving the data in a hierarchical database done
by navigating the records, moving up, down, and
sideways one record at a time.
One of the most popular hierarchical database
management systems was IBM's Information
Management System (IMS), 1968.
The advantages of IMS and its hierarchical
model are as follows:
Simple structure:
The organization of an IMS database was easy to
understand. The database hierarchy designed in
parallel which represents a company organization
chart or an organization family tree.
Parent/child organization:
An IMS database was excellent for representing
parent/child relationships, such as "A is a part of B"
or "A is owned by B."
Performance:
IMS stored parent/child relationships using physical
pointers, so the movement on the database was rapid.
IMS could place parent and child records close to
one another on the disk, minimizing disk
input/output.
IMS is widely used on IBM mainframes DBMS.
It performs high-volume transaction applications
such as processing bank ATM, verifying credit
card, and tracking the delivery.
The hierarchical database became critical when
the data became more complex structure.
This model is Similar to the network model and
the concepts are derived from the Information
Management System and System-200.
Organization of the records is as a collection of
trees, rather than arbitrary graphs.
Schema represented by a Hierarchical Diagram.
One record type, called Root, does not participate
as a child record type.
Every record type except the root participates as
a child record type in exactly one type.
Leaf is a record that does not participate in any
record types.
A record act as a Parent for number of records.
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
Hierarchical Databases (DBMS) :
♣ In the Hierarchical Database Model we have to
learn about the databases.
♣ It is very fast and simple. In a hierarchical
database, records contain information about there
groups of parent/child relationships, just like as a
tree structure.
♣ The structure implies that a record can have also a
repeating information.
♣ In this structure Data follows a series of records,
It is a set of field values attached to it.
♣ It collects all records together as a record type.
♣ These record types are the equivalent of tables in
the relational model, and with the individual
records being the equivalent of rows.
♣ To create links between these record types, the
hierarchical model uses these type Relationships.
Advantage:
Hierarchical database can be accessed and
updated rapidly because in this model structure is
like as a tree and the relationships between
records are defined in advance. This feature is a
two-edged.
Disadvantage:
This type of database structure is that each child
in the tree may have only one parent, and
relationships or linkages between children are
not permitted, even if they make sense from a
logical standpoint.
Hierarchical databases are so in their design. it can
adding a new field or record requires that the entire
database be redefined.
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RDB College of Arts and Science
RELATIONAL DATABASE
The relational database uses a collection of
tables to represent both data and the
relationships. Each table has multiple columns,
and each column has a unique name.
The data is arranged in a relation which is visually
represented in a two dimensional table.
The data is inserted into the table in the form of
tuples (which are nothing but rows).
A tuple is formed by one or more than one
attributes, which are used as basic building
blocks in the formation of various expressions
that are used to derive a meaningful information.
There can be any number of tuples in the table, but
all the tuple contain fixed and same attributes
with varying values.
The relational model is implemented in database
where a relation is represented by a table, a tuple is
represented by a row, an attribute is represented by
a column of the table, attribute name is the name of
the column such as ‘identifier’, ‘name’, ‘city’
etc., attribute value contains the value for
column in the row.
Constraints are applied to the table and form the
logical schema.
In order to facilitate the selection of a particular
row/tuple from the table, the attributes i.e. column
names are used.
All the relational algebra operations, such as Select,
Intersection, Product, Union, Difference, Project,
Join, Division, Merge etc. can also be performed on
the Relational Database Model.
Operations on the Relational Database Model are
facilitated with the help of different conditional
expressions, various key attributes, pre-defined
constraints etc.
In the relational databases are more reliable than
either the hierarchical or network database
structures.
Properties of Relational Tables:
Based on the set theory
No ordering among attributes and tuples
No duplicate tuples allowed
Value-oriented
All attribute values are atomic
No repeating groups
Dr. K.T.Senthilkumar M.C.A., M.Phil., M.Sc.-VES., Ph.D.,
Introduction to Oracle and SQL
KEYS:
A key is an attribute of a table which helps to identify
a row. There can be many different types of keys:
Super Key or Candidate Key:
− It is such an attribute of a table that can
uniquely identify a row in a table.
− Generally they contain unique values and can
never contain NULL values.
− There can be more than one super key or
candidate key in a table.
− Example within a STUDENT table Roll and
Mobile No can both serve to uniquely identify a
student.
Primary Key:
− It is one of the candidate keys that are
chosen to be the identifying key for the entire
table.
− Example although there are two candidate keys in
the STUDENT table, the college would obviously
use Roll as the primary key of the table.
Alternate Key:
− This is the candidate key which is not chosen as
the primary key of the table.
− They are named so because although not the
primary key, they can still identify a row.
Composite Key:
− Sometimes one key is not enough to uniquely
identify a row.
− Example in a single class Roll is enough to find a
student but in the entire school merely searching
by the Roll is not enough because there could be
10 classes in the school and each one of
them may contain a certain roll no 5.
− To uniquely identify the student we have to
say something like “class VII, roll no 5”.
− So a combination of two or more attributes is
combined to create a unique combination of
values such as Class + Roll.
Foreign Key:
− Sometimes we may have to work with an attribute
that does not have a primary key of its own.
− To identify its rows, we have to use the
primary attribute of a related table.
− Such a copy of another related table’s primary key
is called foreign key.
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