Lesson 4: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

I. Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on atoms.

II. Introduction
Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

III. Lesson Proper

The Indivisible Atom

Democritus
___________ of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500
B.C.) were Greek scholars who believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles
until such point where it can no longer be divided anymore. They became the first
proponents of the atomic theory. Their early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called ____atoms__, which come
from the Greek word atomos meaning uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible,
impenetrable, and unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the _universe__ as they are continuously moving in a “void” that
surrounds them, repelling each other when they collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid_____ which means that there is no void or empty space
inside that will make them prone to disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes____ and s_ize___.

These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but were
strongly opposed by others especially Aristotle_____.

Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms

Aristotle___, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the

existence of atoms proposed by Leucippus and Democritus. He did not believe that matter
is a collection of atoms. Instead, he believed that everything in the universe is made up of
the four elements, _air, water, fire,earth__. He stated that believing in atoms would mean
putting restriction on the gods, who have the power to divide elements smaller than the
atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the __Middle ages___ in Europe, where
Roman Catholics were strongly influenced by his ideas. They believed that ideas about
the atoms equated to Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was dismissed
for centuries. However, the Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments were
rediscovered in France at the start of the ___renaissance____ period. The theory of
Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and Leucippus' theory on the existence of
atoms was proven right.

IV. Explore!
Choose one digital photo and zoom in. Can you see a group of tiny squares? They are
called pixels. How can you relate them to atoms?
V. Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it into half as many times as you can. What do you notice?
How would you relate this activity to the concept of the atoms?

VI. What do you think?

Is the early idea of the existence of the atom true?

VII. Summing Up

 Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first proposed the idea of the
atom.
 Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
 They believed that the atoms are very small, have different shapes and sizes, are
continuously moving, and can combine with other atoms.
 Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of atoms, and that matter
can be made of air, fire, water, or earth.
 Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s argument
was proven incorrect.

Lesson 5: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles

I. Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the main ideas in the discovery of
the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles.

II. Introduction
In the previous lessons, you have learned that matter is composed of atoms.

What is the structure of the atom?

III. Lesson Proper

Greek philosophers _________ and _________ developed the idea that all matter is
composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. However, their atomic theory was
based only on a____________. It was not until the early _____s that experiments were
performed to develop models for the structure of the atom.

In 1803, _______________, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of

gases. He studied how the properties of individual gases affect the properties
of the mixtures of these gases. He developed the hypothesis that the sizes of
the particles making up different gases must be different. After several
experiments, he concluded that all matter is composed of s_________l atoms,
which cannot be broken down into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of
one element are i______l to each other but d________t from the atoms of another element.
Discovery of the Subatomic Particles

The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, ______________________, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model

known as the plum pudding model. His model consisted of n_______ charged
particles (plum) spread evenly throughout the p________ charged material
(pudding). The small, negatively charged particles are called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, ___________________, a New Zealand-born physicist, established
the planetary model which described the atom as small, dense, and has a positively
charged core called the __________. Inside the nucleus are positively charged particles
called the _________. The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles or
_________. The electrostatic attraction between electrons and nucleus mimics the
gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, _______________ proved the existence of the ________, which is also situated
in the nucleus together with the proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike the
latter, it has no _____________.

Recent Atomic Models

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which
according to the laws of physics, will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would
have electrons collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr solved
this problem by proposing that the _________ orbit around the nucleus in set energy
levels. An electron absorbs energy if it moves from lower to higher energy level, and it
emits energy if it returns to the lower energy level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a
________________ called orbitals. It explains that it is impossible to determine the exact
location of the electron at a given time, but one can find its probable location. It
incorporates the concept of Bohr’s model where the electrons move in one orbital to
another by absorbing or emitting energy.

IV. Explore!

Look around your house. Try to think of Bohr’s discovery of energy levels. What things
can you find in your house that use the same concept proposed by Bohr?

V. Try it!
Create a timeline on the discovery of subatomic particles and development of the atomic
theory. Who are the scientists who had important contributions in atomic theory?

VI. What do you think?

Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes an electron to move from one orbital to
another?

VII. Summing Up
 John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
 Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.
 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus. He, together
with his students, discovered the proton.
 Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
 James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
 In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
called orbitals.

Lesson 6: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contribution of J.J. Thomson,
Ernest Rutherford, Henry Mosely, and Niels Bohr

I. Objective

In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of Joseph John Thomson, Ernest Rutherford,
Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom.

II. Introduction
What are the contributions of Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and
Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom?

III. Lesson Proper

J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the _____________ by conducting a series of experiments using
a high-vacuum cathode-ray tube that was composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times
lighter than the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of positive charge for the overall neutrality
of the atom. He then proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model depicting a
sphere of positive charge (pudding) with negatively charged particles (plums) embedded all
throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged particles called
________. He advised his students, _____________ and ______________, to bombard a thin
sheet of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha particles would just pass straight
through the foil, meaning an atom has a void space. However, after the experiment, some particles
passed right through it, and some were deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The
atom contained an empty space, as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom had a
very dense center of positive charge. From these, Rutherford proposed the p_________ model.
He believed that the electrons moved around a ___________.

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of _______ in studying the structure
of the atom. During this time, a coherent structure of the atom was being developed, starting from
_____________ discovery of the electron to _____________ publication of his planetary model.
He published results of his measurements of wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some elements
that coincided with the order of their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up
Rutherford’s structure of the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also
justified that the atomic number of an element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since the electron
and the nucleus have opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus, making the
atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing that the electrons move in fixed energy
levels or _________ by absorbing or emitting energy.

IV. Try it!

Look at the periodic table. List down three elements with the lowest atomic number and three with
the highest atomic number. What does the low and high atomic numbers signify?
V. What do you think?

What is the importance of knowing the atomic number of elements?

VI. Summing Up
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the planetary model.
 Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the atom. The results of his
experiments supported Rutherford's model.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits.

Lesson 7: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements - The Nuclear Model
of the Atom

I. Objective

In this lesson, you should be able to describe the nuclear model of the atom and the
location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons).

II. Introduction

If you have lived during the time when the atom was discovered, how would you describe
its structure?

III. Lesson Proper

As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement in the atom were
developed. There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model, which he proposed after his
discovery of the electrons. Then there was Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model, proposed
after the discovery of the protons in the nucleus.

The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the _________ is small, dense, and located at the
center of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Overall, it is __________
charged. It contains nearly all the _____ of the atom. The _______ orbit around it.

The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by
R__________.

Geiger-Marsden Experiment

Under Rutherford's supervision, _____________,

his assistant, and ________________, an
undergraduate student, shot a narrow beam of
alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil and
measured the scattering pattern on a fluorescent
screen. It was observed that some particles
deflected, and others penetrated through the
sheet of gold foil.

There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the positively charged alpha
particles by a positively charged material. If this charge existed in a sphere with the same
size of the atom, the force should have been weak. This led to the assumption that the
charge was concentrated in a small space or sphere.

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were concentrated
in a small part of the total volume of the atom called the nucleus.

Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model

The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons remained in their orbit
without falling into the nucleus. Another problem is the electron's continuous centripetal
acceleration and the energy lost through electromagnetic radiation. This energy would
make it approach the nucleus while increasing the electrostatic force. The increase in force
would increase the acceleration and the emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus and the
electrons would collide with each other. This means that the atom would be unstable.

IV. Explore!

Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same magnetic poles (north to north poles
or south to south poles). When you try to put the magnets together, there is a force acting
upon them which makes it difficult to do so. The repulsion between the magnets
represents the forces between the alpha particles and the positively charged material in
the atom of the gold foil as presented in the Geiger-Marsden experiment of Rutherford
and his colleagues. What is the importance of this scenario in studying the structure of the
atom?
V. Try it!

Research on the succeeding studies about the nucleus and its characteristics.

VI. What do you think?

Rutherford postulated a neutral particle inside the nucleus. How did he come into this
conclusion?

VII. Summing Up

 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center
of the atom.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The
electrons orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.

Lesson 8: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements

I. Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks
on the elements.

II. Introduction

What were the early ideas of the Greeks on the elements?

III. Lesson Proper

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the question "What are the primordial
substances from which everything is made up of?" Some of them believed that there was
only one element that made up all materials. A__________
thought that it was air; H__________ supposed it was fire;
T__________ believed that it was water; and X__________
assumed it was earth.

E__________ proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and

earth, are the primordial substances. He called them roots.

P___________, the founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of higher
learning in the Western world), first used the term element. The word element came from
the Greek word “στοιχεῖον” (stoicheion) which means __________________.

Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named them Platonic solids. Air was an
____________; fire was a ____________; water was an ____________; and earth was a
cube. He also added a fifth one, a ____________, which was the shape of the Universe.
Aristotle, a student of Plato, described each element with two qualities.
He stated that air was _____ and _____; fire was _____ and _____;
water was _____ and cold; and earth was _____ and _____. He then
added a fifth element, aether. He thought aether was the finest of all
substances, the “quintessence,” associated with the heavenly realm. It
was neither hot nor cold and was neither wet nor dry.

IV. Try it!

Ancient Chinese, Japanese, and Indians also had their own lists of elements. Research
about their classical elements and their characteristics.

V. What do you think?

What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions of elements?

VI. Summing Up

 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was fire; Thales
believed that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the primordial
substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and
named them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He also
added a fifth element, aether.

Lesson 9: The Atomic Structure and the Chemical Elements

The Contributions of the Alchemists to the Science of Chemistry

I. Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the contributions of the alchemists to the
science of chemistry.

II. Introduction
Long before the fundamentals of chemistry were established, there was alchemy. Alchemy
was a speculative science with goals of finding the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone,
which could transform base metals into gold.

How did alchemy evolve into the science of chemistry?

III. Lesson Proper

Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Asia, Egypt, and Europe.

Asian Alchemy
Alchemy developed independently in India. Major accomplishments of Indian alchemists
included isolation of metallic zinc, the invention of steel, and use of flame to identify metals.

In China, alchemy was started by m_____. The creation of ______ was an aim, but the
ultimate goal was ____________________. While trying to find the elixir of life, the
Chinese were able to invent ____________. Also, through their experiments with sulfur,
mercury, and arsenic, they were able to create poisons such as mercuric sulfide.

In Baghdad, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, a famous Islamic alchemist, used controlled experiments
in his investigations. He was diligent in writing his activities and observations. His works
were the first to mention silver nitrate and red oxide of mercury (mercuric oxide). His
writings also described a handful of laboratory techniques — distillation, crystallization,
reduction, calcination, dissolution, and sublimation.

Egyptian Alchemy

Alchemy probably evolved from the Egyptian metallurgy, extending back to ______ B.C.
Some of the Egyptian documents on alchemy contained manufacturing of imitation
g______ and s______. They also contained recipes for dyes and procedures for making
artificial gemstones and fabricating pearls. The recipes and procedures were combined
with the knowledge of the classical elements, air, fire, water, and earth.

European Alchemy

Alchemy also thrived in Europe. One of the foremost alchemists was P__________, who
believed that the organs of the body worked alchemically. He proposed that the three
essentials or tria prima, s_____, _________, and s__________, should be balanced to
maintain health. He also treated diseases with alchemical approach. He used inorganic
salts, minerals, and metals to treat illnesses. He also created laudanum, an opium tincture
used as a painkiller.

The Death of Alchemy and the Beginning of Chemistry

As time passed by, the writings of alchemists became more and more cryptic. They used
unintelligible names for substances. They borrowed symbols and words from myths. Even
the simplest formula read like a magic spell. Even though they used common techniques,
alchemists had no standardized scientific practice.

By the ______ century, alchemy began to decline, as the scientific method was being
established. Although alchemists failed in their lofty goals, they left behind a rich
knowledge of chemical information. They contributed to the vast uses of chemicals such
as inks, paints, and cosmetics. They were able to create procedures to prepare liquors.
They developed porcelain material that became China’s most valuable commodity. Their
contributions had been valuable to advancing civilization.

Nonetheless, alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of Chemistry.

IV. Explore!

Imagine being an alchemist in the Ancient times. What would be your probable
contributions to alchemy?

V. What do you think?

One of the goals of alchemy was to transform a base metal (such as nickel or copper) into
gold. Why is it difficult with today’s technology?

VI. Summing Up

 Alchemy was a speculative science with goals of finding the elixir of life and
transforming base metals into gold.
 Alchemy was a protoscientific tradition practiced in Egypt, Asia, and Europe.
 Although alchemists failed in their lofty goals, they left behind a rich knowledge of
chemical information.
 Alchemy had been crucial in the development of the field of Chemistry.