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Sri chaitanya techno school

Biology Project

Name:- Swati K
Class:- XII A
Session:- 2019-2020
Introduction
Spring is a time of new growth and fresh beginnings. Days get longer,
the sun gets warmer, and flowers bloom in a magnificent show of color.
And as a result of these lovely blossoms everywhere, many of us find
ourselves in sneezing fits. In order for flowers to propagate every year,
they must be pollinated. And pollination sends millions of tiny pollen
grains through the air, many of which end up in our nose.

But pollen does not exist simply to make us miserable. Pollen grains
represent the male portion of the reproductive process in plants and
trees. These tiny bodies are swirling in the air and on the legs of insects
so that they can join the female part of the plant to create a new seed.
This important process is known as fertilization. As we will discover,
pollen plays a crucial role in the plant world.

Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains


which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male
gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of
sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their
movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the
male cone to the female cone of coniferous plants.

If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates,


producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing
the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to
require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called
palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology, paleontology,
archaeology, and forensics. Pollen in plants is used for transferring
haploid male genetic material from the anther of a single flower to the
stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this
process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower.
History
Giovanni Battista Amici first discovered pollen tubes which lead
to the discovery of pollen grains.

German chemist and botanist Carl Julius Fritzsche observed and


depicted these grains of pollen from flowering plants using a
microscope set at around 500x magnification. Fritzsche catalogued
pollen grains from different angles, trying to understand their
structure and published his findings in an 1837 book, Ueber den
Pollen(About Pollen)

In 1830, English opticist Joseph Jackson Lister developed a lens


that reduced an aberration that had previously plagued people
using microscopes. Fritzsche, who was then working in St.
Petersburg, Russia, was one of a group of scientist across Europe
who took advantage of these technological improvements to
advance studies in pollen morphology.

Fritzsche coined the terms exine (the outer wall of pollen grains
and spores ) and intine (the inner wall).
Reference

Parts of this project have been referred from foreign sources and
have been included in this project after editing.

The reference of the sources are as follows:-


 Biology NCERT Book Class 12th
 National Geographic Sources
 www.google.com
Description
A pollen grain is a microscopic body that contains the male reproductive
cell of a plant. It is crucial in a plant's fertilization process.

Pollen itself is not the male gamete. Each pollen grain contains
vegetative (non-reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering
plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative (reproductive)
cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen
tube, and the generative cell divides to form the two sperm cells.

Formation:-
Pollen is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or
other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower. Pollen
grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings
characteristic of the species. Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are
winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not (Myosotis
spp.),[which?] is around 6 µm (0.006 mm) in diameter.[citation needed]
Wind-borne pollen grains can be as large as about 90–100 µm.
In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a
mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially
differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, four groups of
sporogenous cells form within the anther. The fertile sporogenous cells
are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow into the wall of the
pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply
nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the
sporogenous cells.

In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are


produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen
mother cell or meiocyte), after meiotic division. After the formation of
the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the
development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken
down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in
size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer
wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is
what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of
microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In
simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed
prior to cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis
cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate
forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The
predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are
important exceptions.

During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo


mitosis and develop into mature microgametophytes containing the
gametes. In some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain may
begin even before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative
cell forming the two sperm cells.

Structure:-
Pollen grains are microscopic structures that vary in size and shape.
Some are tiny orbs, while others are egg-shaped. Although too small to
see individually, they can be seen by the naked eye in large quantities.
You have probably noticed a bright orange-yellow coating on your car
during springtime that closely resembles cheese powder from the
macaroni and cheese box.
Viewed through a microscope, a pollen grain hardly looks real. An
extremely durable body, it has a tough outer coating. This hardy coat
offers great protection from the harsh outdoor environment. This is
important because inside this tough shell lie two cells: the tube cell,
which will eventually become the pollen tube, and a generative cell,
which contains the male sperm nuclei needed for fertilization.

Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen
grain has a double wall. The vegetative and generative cells are
surrounded by a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose called the
endospore or intine, and a tough resistant outer cuticularized wall
composed largely of sporopollenin called the exospore or exine. The
exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the
character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus,
species, or even cultivar or individual.

The spines may be less than a micron in length (spinulus, plural


spinuli) referred to as spinulose (scabrate), or longer than a micron
(echina, echinae) referred to as echinate. Various terms also describe
the sculpturing such as reticulate, a net like appearance consisting of
elements (murus, muri) separated from each other by a lumen (plural
lumina). These reticulations may also be referred to as brochi.

The inside of the grain is made up of cytoplasm. This fluid medium


houses the aforementioned living cells, keeping them moist and alive.
The outer shell is made up of two layers. The inside layer is aptly
named the intine (think interior). It is composed partly of cellulose, a
common component in the cell walls of plant cells. The tough-as-nails
outer layer is known as the exine (think exterior). This highly
sophisticated and complex outer layer is rich in a compound known as
sporopollenin. Waterproof, resistant to deterioration and very stiff, this
shell is basically one of nature's most advanced polymers. It ensures
that the tender cells inside have a strong chance of survival.

In addition, often times the exine has folds, creases and spikes rising
from its surface. Like extra armor, these features add to the protective
nature of this layer. They also play an important role in the mobility of
the grains, making it more likely that they will stick to the legs of
insects as well as catch the wind.

The pollen wall protects the sperm while the pollen grain is moving
from the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from
drying out and solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with
waxes and proteins, which are held in place by structures called
sculpture elements on the surface of the grain. The outer pollen wall,
which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking and crushing the
genetic material during desiccation, is composed of two layers. These
two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the
intine. The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the
columella, which is composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is
constructed with a resistant biopolymer called sporopollenin.

Pollen apertures are regions of the pollen wall that may involve exine
thinning or a significant reduction in exine thickness. They allow
shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes in moisture
content. Elongated apertures or furrows in the pollen grain are called
colpi (singular: colpus) or sulci (singular: sulcus). Apertures that are
more circular are called pores. Colpi, sulci and pores are major features
in the identification of classes of pollen. Pollen may be referred to as
inaperturate (apertures absent) or aperturate (apertures present). The
aperture may have a lid (operculum), hence is described as operculate.
However the term inaperturate covers a wide range of morphological
types, such as functionally inaperturate (cryptoaperturate) and
omniaperturate. Inaperaturate pollen grains often have thin walls,
which facilitates pollen tube germination at any position. Terms such as
uniaperturate and triaperturate refer to the number of apertures
present (one and three respectively).

Additionally, gymnosperm pollen grains often have air bladders, or


vesicles, called sacci. The sacci are not actually balloons, but are
sponge-like, and increase the buoyancy of the pollen grain and help
keep it aloft in the wind, as most gymnosperms are anemophilous.
Pollen can be monosaccate, (containing one saccus) or bisaccate
(containing two sacci). Modern pine, spruce, and yellowwood trees all
produce saccate pollen.
Pollination:-

The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (pistil


in angiosperms) is called pollination. This transfer can be mediated by
the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally
wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of
very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering
seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous.
Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers.
Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is
relatively heavy, sticky and protein-rich, for dispersal by insect
pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are
specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores.

In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber,


located beneath the micropyle, underneath the integuments of the
ovule. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into the nucellus to
provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of
Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella, and are carried by the
pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many
flagella.

When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable


circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube, which grows
down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the
placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule.
The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as
does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it hasn't already) to
form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in
the tip of the pollen tube. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise
during pollen tube growth appear to be efficiently repaired in the
generative cell that carries the male genomic information to be passed
on to the next plant generation. However, the vegetative cell that is
responsible for tube elongation appears to lack this DNA repair
capability.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen to the female organs of seed plants.


In flowering plants (angiosperms, or "covered seeds"), immature seeds
(ovules) are located within carpels. In contrast, nonflowering seed
plants have uncovered ovules to which the pollen is transferred, making
these "naked seeds" (gymnosperms).

Types of Pollination:-

 Pollination by insects:-

Plants have developed adaptations to promote symbiotic relationships


with insects that ensure their pollination.Adaptations such as bright
colors, strong fragrances, special shapes, and nectar guides are used to
attract suitable pollinators.Important insect pollinators include bees,
flies, wasps, butterflies, and moths.Bees and butterflies are attracted to
brightly-colored flowers that have a strong scent and are open during
the day, whereas moths are attracted to white flowers that are open at
night.Flies are attracted to dull brown and purple flowers that have an
odor of decaying meat.Nectar guides, which are only visible to certain
insects, facilitate pollination by guiding bees to the pollen at the center
of flowers.Insects and flowers both benefit from their specialized
symbiotic relationships; plants are pollinated while insects obtain
valuable sources of food.

 Pollination by Bats:-

In the tropics and deserts, bats are often the pollinators of nocturnal
flowers such as agave, guava, and morning glory. The flowers are
usually large and white or pale-colored so that they can be
distinguished from their dark surroundings at night.The flowers have a
strong, fruity, or musky fragrance and produce large amounts of nectar.
They are naturally-large and wide-mouthed to accommodate the head of
the bat. As the bats seek the nectar, their faces and heads become
covered with pollen, which is then transferred to the next flower.

 Pollination by Birds:-

Many species of small birds, such as hummingbirds and sun birds, are
pollinators for plants such as orchids and other wildflowers. Flowers
visited by birds are usually sturdy and are oriented in a way to allow
the birds to stay near the flower without getting their wings entangled
in the nearby flowers. The flower typically has a curved, tubular shape,
which allows access for the bird’s beak. Brightly-colored, odorless
flowers that are open during the day are pollinated by birds. As a bird
seeks energy-rich nectar, pollen is deposited on the bird’s head and neck
and is then transferred to the next flower it visits. Botanists determine
the range of extinct plants by collecting and identifying pollen from 200-
year-old bird specimens from the same site.

 Pollination by Wind:-

Most species of conifers and many angiosperms, such as grasses,


maples, and oaks, are pollinated by wind. Pine cones are brown and
unscented, while the flowers of wind-pollinated angiosperm species are
usually green, small, may have small or no petals, and produce large
amounts of pollen. Unlike the typical insect-pollinated flowers, flowers
adapted to pollination by wind do not produce nectar or scent. In wind-
pollinated species, the microsporangia hang out of the flower, and, as
the wind blows, the lightweight pollen is carried with it. The flowers
usually emerge early in the spring before the leaves so that the leaves
do not block the movement of the wind. The pollen is deposited on the
exposed feathery stigma of the flower.

 Pollination by Water:-

Some weeds, such as Australian sea grass and pond weeds, are
pollinated by water. The pollen floats on water. When it comes into
contact with the flower, it is deposited inside the flower.
Pollination in Gymnosperms: -

Gymnosperms have simpler pollination as all transmit their pollen by


wind. In contrast, angiosperm have a wealth of pollination methods
involving many different agents to transfer pollen, including insects
(entomophily), birds (ornithophily), bats (chirophily), wind
(anemophily), and water (hydrophily). Attraction of animals usually
occurs through a conspicuous floral display, with color and scent
playing important roles. Yellow and blue flowers tend to attract bees,
red flowers attract hummingbirds, pink flowers attract butterflies, and
white flowers that stand out at night often attract moths and bats.
Animal-based pollination is efficient and usually associated with a food
reward to assure a continuing relationship. Frequently, this is a simple
symbiotic relationship; however, other plants seem to practice deceit.
For example, trap pollinators may hold insects hostage until a flower is
pollinated successfully, when they are released. A most unusual
mechanism are orchids that seemingly imitate the form and scent of
female wasps, attracting amorous male wasps to mount the flower,
inadvertently pollinating it. Aquatic plants frequently have filamentous
pollen, which is more easily captured in water, and may release male
flowers that float freely to their attached female counterparts.
Pollination in Angiosperms:-

When pollen is deposited on the stigma (in angiosperms) or the ovule (in
gymnosperms ), it germinates, forming a slender pollen tube through a
weakened area of the pollen wall. The pollen tube elongates through
"tip extension," penetrating between cells of the host parent. Within the
pollen tube, two nonmotile sperm cells are ultimately formed and are
conveyed through the tube, keeping pace with tip growth. The pollen
tube uses chemotropic signals to determine the final pathway to the egg
cell, deep within the ovule. In angiosperms, pollen tubes penetrate the
stigma, style, and ovary until they are amid the ovules. In
gymnosperms, pollen germinates directly on the ovule. Pollen tubes
enter ovules through a tiny pore called the micropyle and then elongate
into the female gametophyte (called the embryo sac in angiosperms). In
gymnosperms, the pollen tube directly penetrates the egg cell, but in
angiosperms, there are sterile cells in the embryo sac, called synergids,
that initially receive the sperm.

At this point, one sperm cell is discharged from the pollen tube and
fuses, with the egg cell to form the zygote (the immediate fusion
product) and subsequent embryo, which will become the offspring plant.
In angiosperms, the second sperm fuses with the central cell to form a
nutritive endosperm during double fertilization . The endosperm is
needed for successful embryo development.

During fertilization the male and female gametes : (1) contact one
another, (2) adhere, (3) cells fuse, and finally (4) nuclei fuse. The act of
fertilization triggers embryo development in all plants and endosperm
development in angiosperms.

Fertilization in Plants:-

Fertilization in plants occurs when haploid gametes meet to create a


diploid zygote, which develops into an embryo. In gymnosperms
(conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants), the meeting of the
gametes occurs in the following way: male gametes are enclosed in
pollen grains and are carried by wind or insects to the female
reproductive organs. The final product of fertilization--the embryo--is
encased in a seed. For this reason, these two types of tracheophytes are
termed seed plants.

Fertilization in Gymnosperms:-
The female gametophyte contains several archegonia, where the egg
cells originate and develop. The gametophyte itself is surrounded by
layers of sporangia and integument; all of these elements comprise an
ovule, which is found on the surface of a female cone. Fertilization
occurs when pollen grains (male gametophytes) are carried by the wind
to the open end of an ovule, which contains the eggs, or female
gametophyte. There, the pollen grain develops an outgrowth called a
pollen tube, which eventually penetrates to the egg cell within one of
the archegonia. The sperm cells within the pollen tube then vie to
fertilize the egg. Once fertilization has occurred, the embryo develops
within the female gametophyte, and the ovule becomes the seed,
complete with a food source (the gametophyte tissue) and a seed coat
(the integument). This embryo, which will eventually become a new
sporophyte, consists of two embryonic leaves, the epicotyl and
hypocotyl.

Fertilization in Angiosperms:-
The female reproductive organ of angiosperms is the pistil, located in
the middle of the flower. As in gymnosperms, the male gametophyte is
the pollen grain. In order for fertilization to occur in most flowering
plants, insects or other animals must transport the pollen to the pistil.
A major distinguishing feature of angiosperms is the practice of double
fertilization.

Double Fertilization:-

Angiosperms undergo two fertilization events where a zygote and


endosperm are both formed.

Double Fertilization: a complex fertilization mechanism that has


evolved in flowering plants; involves the joining of a female
gametophyte with two male gametes (sperm)

Double fertilization involves two sperm cells; one fertilizes the egg cell
to form the zygote, while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei that
form the endosperm.
After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow
through the style to reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen,
contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell. The pollen
tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell
travels. The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and
certain chemical signals. As it travels through the style to reach the
embryo sac, the pollen tube’s growth is supported by the tissues of the
style. During this process, if the generative cell has not already split
into two cells, it now divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen tube is
guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the
embryo sac; it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle. Of the two
sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote;
the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell
that develops into the endosperm. Together, these two fertilization
events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization. After
fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule
forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit,
usually enveloping the seed.

After fertilization, embryonic development begins. The zygote divides to


form two cells: the upper cell (terminal cell) and the lower cell (basal
cell). The division of the basal cell gives rise to the suspensor, which
eventually makes connection with the maternal tissue. The suspensor
provides a route for nutrition to be transported from the mother plant to
the growing embryo. The terminal cell also divides, giving rise to a
globular-shaped proembryo. In dicots (eudicots), the developing embryo
has a heart shape due to the presence of the two rudimentary
cotyledons. In non-endospermic dicots, such as Capsella bursa, the
endosperm develops initially, but is then digested. In this case, the food
reserves are moved into the two cotyledons. As the embryo and
cotyledons enlarge, they become crowded inside the developing seed and
are forced to bend. Ultimately, the embryo and cotyledons fill the seed,
at which point, the seed is ready for dispersal. Embryonic development
is suspended after some time; growth resumes only when the seed
germinates. The developing seedling will rely on the food reserves
stored in the cotyledons until the first set of leaves begin
photosynthesis.
Advantages and
disadvantages

Advantages:-

 Pollen is plant's male DNA that is transported to the female part


of the flower to enable the plant to reproduce. Because pollen
contains DNA, it can be used to change a plant's traits.
 Pollen is used to manipulate plant traits. Cross-pollination is the
process of fertilization between similar plants to improve them.
Creating plants resistant to pests or dehydration or increasing
crop production are a few changes made through cross-pollinating.
Pollen can also be used by archeologists to determine what ancient
civilizations used for food.
 Pollen can spread with the wind or through interaction with
insects. The outer wall of the pollen grain is strong to prevent
damage during transport. The inner layer is similar to an ordinary
plant cell. Microscopic in size, pollen grains are not visible
individually to the eye. Clumps of pollen can be seen on insects
that move from plant to plant. Only 10 percent of plants spread
pollen without the help of insects.
 Pollen is used in supplements to improve athletic performance or
increase the strength of immune systems.
Disadvantages:-

 The immune system normally defends the body against harmful


invaders — such as viruses and bacteria — to ward off illnesses.
In people with pollen allergies, the immune system mistakenly
identifies the harmless pollen as a dangerous intruder. It begins to
produce chemicals to fight against the pollen.
 This is known as an allergic reaction, and the specific type of
pollen that causes it is known as an allergen. The reaction leads to
numerous irritating symptoms, such as:

 sneezing
 stuffy nose
 watery eyes

 Some people have pollen allergies year-round, while others only


have them during certain times of the year. For example, people
who are sensitive to birch pollen usually have increased symptoms
during the spring when birch trees are in bloom.

 Similarly, those with ragweed allergies are most affected during


the late spring and early fall.
 About 8 percent of adults in the United States experience hay
fever, according to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and
Immunology (AAAAI).

 There are hundreds of plant species that release pollen into the
air and trigger allergic reactions.
 Here are some of the more common culprits:

 Birch pollen allergy:-

Birch pollen is one of the most common airborne allergens during


the spring. As the trees bloom, they release tiny grains of pollen
that are scattered by the wind.

A single birch tree can produce up to 5 million pollen grains, with


many traveling distances of up to 100 yards from the parent tree.

 Oak pollen allergy:-

Like birch trees, oak trees send pollen into the air during the spring.
While oak pollen is considered to be mildly allergenic compared to the
pollen of other trees, it stays in the air for longer periods of time. This
can cause severe allergic reactions in some people with pollen allergies.

 Grass pollen allergy:-

Grass is the primary trigger of pollen allergies during the summer


months.

It causes some of the most severe and difficult-to-treat symptoms.


However, the AAAAI reports that allergy shots and allergy tablets can
be highly effective in relieving symptoms of grass pollen allergies.

 Ragweed pollen allergy:-

Ragweed plants are the main culprits of allergies among weed pollens.
They’re the most active between the late spring and fall months.

Depending on the location, however, ragweed may begin spreading its


pollen as early as the last week of July and continue into the middle of
October. Its wind-driven pollen can travel hundreds of miles and
survive through a mild winter.
Conclusion
Palynology is the study of plant pollen, spores and certain
microscopic plankton organisms (collectively termed
palynomorphs) in both living and fossil form.

Pollination is a most important ecosystem service provided by


insects and others resulting in sustainability and stability of
the community life. Plants and animals particularly insects
largely interact at the point of pollination and this relationship
are vital to continue functioning and existence of plants and
animals in balance and stable state.

The ultimate fruits production depend upon a number of


aspects such as flowering period, floral morphology, anthesis,
pollen morphology ,pollen productivity, stigma morphology,
stigma receptivity, flower-visitors interaction and their
foraging behavior . Lack of pollinators may make pollen
transfer difficult. So the relationship between the flower and
visitor is one of the most critical parts of plant reproduction as
well as pollen dispersal and pollination.

The uniqueness and specific features regarding the


architecture of flower are of great significance in relation to
pollination mechanism and co-evolutionary studies of flowering
plants. Pollen-pistil interaction is one of the fine examples of
co-adaptation between the male and female partners. There is a
continuous process between the pollen and the pistil beginning
with pollination until the pollen tube enters the ovule. The
understanding of pollen-pistil interaction essentially involves
gaining knowledge on pollination. Heteroanthery, heterostyly,
(distyly and tristyly) conditions were found in some plants
which indicate necessity of some agents for transferring pollen
grains from anther to stigma. All the contrivances ensure cross-
pollination nature of these plants.

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