20-08-2019

Training on Statistical Process Control

Venue : Adviks North India
Faculty : Mandeep Singh Oberoi
Date : 22nd Aug,2019

Contact : Mr. Deepak B

Sr. Manager – Academy & Life Care
+91-9158091188 1

Areas to Understand & Learn ……..

Quality ???

Attribute & Variable

Data

What’s SPC all about

Understanding
Statistics
Variation – Special
Cause & Common
Cause
Control Charts

Variable Data Cp /
Cpk

SPC – Attribute Data

What’s
Quality?
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QC vs QA vs QMS

Product Focussed

Quality Control

Process Focussed Quality

Assurance

Quality
Management
System
Performance
Focused

What’s Quality ??

“Quality is Doing it Right when No one is Looking.”

Management is responsible for 95% of Quality problems. 5

E. Deming

Quality Guru’s Speak….

Conformance
to
requirements
(Philip B.
Crosby)

Reduced
Zero Defects
variation (W. . (Philip B.
Edwards
Crosby)
Deming)

Fitness for
use (Joseph
M. Juran)

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Quality Can also be termed as

‘A measure of excellence’

P P = Performance or result
Q= E = Expectations
E
Will “E” ever Reduce ???

Data
Factual Decision Making.mp4

Correct Data – Backbone of Improvement

Correct Data is Backbone of any Analysis

9
Garbage In Garbage Out

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Attribute Data ( Qualitative )

“Things we count”

Control charts based on

Attribute data must be attribute data are
Attribute data is
converted to a form of p Chart
Attribute data is purely qualitative data that can
Variable data called
binary in nature be counted for recording Np Chart
discrete data in order to
and analysis C Chart &
be counted or useful
U chart.

e.g. Good / Bad

Yes / No
OK / Not OK
Acceptable / Not Acceptable
Right / Wrong etc.

10

Variable Data ( Quantitative )

"Things we measure"

Variable data is what It is called a variable Control charts based on

you would call A variable is any because the value may Variable data are
Quantitative. There are characteristics, number, vary between data units
Individual Moving
two types (Discrete) or quantity that can be in a population, and
Range chart (IMR)
count data and measured or counted. may change in value
(Continuous) data. over time. Xbar/R Chart.

e.g. Weight
Height
Pressure
Temperature
Speed etc.

11

Core Tools

APQP – FMEA – SPC – MSA – PPAP –

Advanced Failure Mode Statistical Measurement Production
Product & Effect Process System Part Approval
Quality Analysis Control Analysis Process
Planning

Rev. : 02 Rev. : 04 Rev. : 02 Rev. : 04 Rev. : 04

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SPC

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SPC

Statistical : Collecting,
analyzing and interpreting
data

Process : An activity which

transforms input into output
by utilizing resources.

Control : Measuring and

monitoring performance,
taking actions to control
within prescribed limits
14

SPC

Statistical Process Control - Developed by Walter Shewart at Bell

Telephone Laboratories in the 1920’s .

“A phenomenon will be said to be

controlled when, through the use of past
experience, we can predict, at least within
limits, how the phenomenon may be
expected to vary in the future”

Economic Control of Quality of

Manufactured Product, 1931

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What is Statistics all about???

The science of :
SPC

SPC

SPC

SPC
Collection of
Data Arranging
Data
Analysis of
Data Interpretation
of Data

FACTUAL and EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING

16

Product Quality

Product &
Process Design

Process
Controls

Process &
Product
Measurement

Bad part production,

Customer Risk Measurement
Analysis

Process
Improvement

17

Process Controls

Process Control

Variation in any process is natural.

The process needs to be controlled in order to ensure that output is meeting the
customer requirements.

Prevention Strategy
Detection Strategy

Tools for
A future oriented
A strategy that attempts Process Control
strategy by analysis and
to identify unacceptable
action toward
output
correcting the process
after it has been
itself so that
produced and then
unacceptable parts will
separate it from the good
not be
output
produced.
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Detection Strategy of Output Control

Traditional Approach to Manufacturing

Production Quality Control

Screening out the items not

meeting specifications

19

Prevention Strategy of Output Control

People
Methods
Material Input PROCESS Product
Equipment
Environment

Input Output

Measure &
Give Feedback
A Typical Process

20

Techniques for Process Control

100% Inspection
In this technique 100%
checking of all the parameters
of all products has been done
to get defect free product. Here
only defects are
detected.
Mistake Proofing
In this technique 100% process
control is achieved by
preventing all types of failures
by using modern techniques to
get defect free product. Here
causes are prevented thru
generation control / pass thru
control
SPC
In this Statistical technique
such as Control Chart,
Histogram etc. are used to
analyses the process to
achieve and maintain state of
statistical control to get defect
free product. Causes are
detected and prompting CA
before defect occurs

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What’s Your Opinion about SPC

SPC is the cure for Quality and Production problems.

SPC is a tool to help the discovery of problems .

SPC is a tool to help in identifying the

type and degree of corrective action
required.

22

Aim of Statistical Process Control

Aim of SPC
system is to Preventing :
make
Economically
Sound Under Control
Decision ( failing to
about the take actions
actions when its
affecting the Providing required ) .
process Statistical Preventing :
Signal when
special cause
of variation is Over Control
present & to ( taking
avoid false actions when
signal when its not
they are not required )
present

SPC is the method to communicate with the machines.

It is the language of the process. 23

Pre-requisites for SPC

Pre-Requisite
Pre-Requisite

• Process must • Dispersion of • Gauge R & R

Pre-Requisite

be stable data must be should be

normally qualified
distributed

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Scope of SPC Study

Customer Oriented Management Current &

critical parameters oriented critical Potential
parameters problems

Process High
Fit Scrap/Rework
Parameters
High RPN
Function Internal
Customer
Low Cpk

Performance CTQ
Parameters Low Yield

25

Benefits

B Factual Decision

E Reduce Waste (Scrap and Rework)

N Improve Overall Quality, Reduce COPQ

E Increase Productivity

F Compete in Today’s World Market

I Increased Operator Involvement

T Increased Customer Satisfaction

26

Purpose of SPC

To monitor how a process is running.

To get signal when something has gone wrong

To determine when to take action on the process

To identify what needs to be done to correct it.

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Statistics

28

Stats checks…..

Central Spread : Shape :

Tendency : Distribution of Distribution of
Average of Observations observations
Observations

- Range - Normal
- Mean
- Variance - Non - Normal
- Median
- Standard
- Mode Deviation

29

Measures of Central Tendency of Data

Mean Median Mode

It is the arithmetic It is the middle value of

average of a set of a set of values. Central It is the maximum
values. frequent value in a set
number in a ascending of values.
- It reflects the or descending order.
influence of all values. - It reflects the
- It reflects 50% rank. distribution
- Strongly influence by - Does not include all
extreme values ( Say values in calculation.
Outliers ).
- Is “Robust” to extreme
values ( Say Outliers ).
Exercise Mean 30
Median Mode

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Measure of Variability

Standard Deviation (s) :

Range :
Variance (s2) : It is the square root of the
variance. In
It is maximum – minimum
of a set of data. It is the other words, it is R.M.S of
It is the average squared each data from
most
deviation of each
easiest measures of the mean.
data from the mean.
spread. It is very sensitive - It is the most common and
to outliers. useful measure
of variation
Variance SD

( Spread of Data )

31

Measure of Variability

32

Measure of Variability

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Shape of Distribution

Normal Distribution Non - Normal Distribution

Bell Shaped spread of data. Do not have Bell shaped

- Has equal no. of points on spread of data.
both side.
- Ideally Mean, Median and - Inherent nature of data
Mode coincide.

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Shape of Distribution

35
Normal Distribution

Normal Distribution Curve – General Behavior

68.26%

95.46%

99.73%

-3 -2 -1  1 2 3

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Normal Distribution Curve – Effect of Variance

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Variation

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Presence of Variation

Fundamental law of nature says that No two

things are exactly alike

Even “identical twins” are different from one

another in some ways

The same is true of all parts produced in

manufacturing Operations

If we could measure with enough precision,

we would see that no two parts are truly
identical

These differences are called “Variation”.

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Sources of Variation in Production Processes

Operators / Man Method

Measurement
Material
Instruments

Input Process Output

Human
Tools Inspection
Machine Performance
Environment

40

Sources of Variation in Production Processes

Equipment
Indirect Material Machines
Fixtures People
Tools
Gauges/Masters Training
Coolant
Spindles/Collects Skill
Bushings
Motivation
Lubricants
Communication
Chemicals
Attitude
Trust
Direct Material
Hardness Product
Machiniability Quality
Pick up points

Orders Methods
Clarity Specification
Timeliness Facilities Speeds
Adequacy Temperature Feeds
Product mix Cleanliness Process Documentation
Quantity Humidity
Noise
Central coolant system 41

It’s not the tip

of the iceberg
that’sIt’s
thewhat you can’t see…
problem….

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Process (Un)Stable

Stable Process Unstable Process

(Controlled (Un-controlled
Variation) Variation)
No Assignable Causes are
Assignable Causes are present
present

Process is operating under Process is operating under

common causes only assignable & common causes

Stable process will be predictable Unstable process is unpredictable

Statistically under control , data

Not under Statistical control.
follows Normal Distribution

Variation will be Mean ± 3 x Distribution will not be Normal

Standard deviation Distribution

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Type of Causes of Variation

Common Cause Special Cause

Large no of common cause of variation

Very few in effect at any time
are present at any time

Each has an individual effect that is too

The effect is measurable
small to mention

They occur infrequently in an

Remain constant over time
unpredictable manner

The machine operator is best able to

Need Management support for actions
discover and make changes

Only a change in the system will reduce

They can be found and eliminated
that part of the variability

Also called Inherent causes Also called Assignable causes.

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Airline - Decreasing Variation.mp4

Common Cause of Variation

Common cause of variation is fluctuation caused by unknown factors resulting in
a steady but random distribution of output around the average of the data.
It is a measure of the process potential, or how well the process can perform
when special cause variation removed.
Variation
due to Variation within the
working same grade of raw
hrs/ shift material

Inappropriate working
Variability conditions,
in settings e.g. lighting, noise, dirt,
temperature, ventilation.

Variation
Normal
Measurement
wear and
error
tear

Ambient Change of
temperature Trained
45
and humidity Operators

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Special Cause of Variation

Special cause of variation is a shift in output caused by a specific factor such as
environmental conditions or process input parameters.

It can be accounted for directly, potentially removed and is a measure of

process control.
Power Operator
Surge absent

Poor
Poor batch
adjustment
of raw
of
material
equipment

Computer Faulty
crashes. controllers

Machine
malfunction 46

Common vs Special Cause of Variation

Common Special
Causes Causes

 Process Stability refers to the consistency of the process with respect to

important process characteristics such as the average value of a key
dimension or the variation in that key dimension.

 If the process behaves consistently over time, then we say that the process
47
is stable or in control.

Statistical Control

A Process Is in a State of Statistical Control when:

No special causes are affecting the process ( all values are between +/- 3 sigma
with some other rules)

68.26%

95.46%

99.73%

-3 -2 -1  1 2 3

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Special Attention

Reacting to
special cause of
variation by
changing the Ignoring special
process cause of variation
by assuming “it’s
part of the
process””

49

Control Charts

A real-time, time-ordered, graphical process feedback tool

Designed to tell an operator when significant changes have occurred in the

Control Chart

manufacturing process.

Tell the operator when to do something and when to do nothing.

Illustrates process behavior by detecting changes in a process output’s mean and

/ or standard deviation about the mean.

Designed to separate “Common Cause” of variation from “Special Cause” of

variations.

Indicates visually whether a process is in control (stable and predictable), or if it is

out of control (unstable and unpredictable)

50

Control Charts
Control Charts: A control chart is a chronological ( Hour by Hour or Day by
Day ) graphical comparison of a current part/process characteristic with
limits reflecting the capability of the process as shown by past experience.

“The function of a control chart is to minimize the net economic

losses from over adjustment and under adjustment.”

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Control Charts

Quality Characteristic
Variable Attribute
defective defect
no
n>1? X and MR
constant
yes constant yes
p or sampling
sample
np unit?
X and R size?
yes no
no

p-chart with c u
variable sample
size

52

Control Charts - Logic

Assume process displays
controlled variation

Predict Behavior of Averages and

ranges (Calculate Control Limit)

Compare observed or
Future Average and
range values with
control limit
If observations are
If observations are
consistent with
inconsistent with predictions
predictions then process
then process is definitely
may be stable
unstable

Continued operation of
process within limits is the Take action to identify and
only “proof” of stability remove assignable causes

53

Variable Control Charts

N=1 N>1

Individual Moving Group Value

Range Chart Average
X bar / R Chart

54

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Control Charts
Variable Control Chart : Individual Moving Range ( n=1 )

 When your sample size is one (n=1), the chart to use is an Individual X –
Moving Range chart

 Individual X charts are also called X charts, I charts, IX charts, or Individual

Charts

Accounting data
for a given time Homogeneous
Process
period batches Sampling is
automation
(chemicals, liquid expensive and/or
•Daily overtime Short production sending only one
foods, etc.) where time consuming,
•Number of parts runs (e.g. five rational data value
variation from or destructive
scrapped pieces in the entire (PLC sends one
consecutive testing
run) value every 5
samples would not (automotive crash-
minutes for an
indicate product testing)
oven temperature)
variation.

55

Individual Moving Range ( n=1 )

Moving The chart below

Range which represents
The IX-MR
is the several batches
chart plots of resin, a
absolute
Individual X, homogeneous
difference
the actual mixture, and we
reading between two want to measure
consecutive the percent solids
X readings of each batch.

56

Case Study: Evaluate ……

Mean X = Moving Range = Std Deviation =

Draw X bar & MR Charts …..

Case Study 1 Case Study 2

S.No. X S.No. X S.No. X S.No. X
1 0.92 11 0.92 1 50.09 11 50.66
2 0.92 12 0.92 2 49.69 12 50.68
3 0.93 13 0.92 3 50.12 13 51.06
4 0.92 14 0.94 4 50.1 14 49.08
5 0.93 15 0.92 5 49.64 15 49.03
6 0.92 16 0.92 6 50.35 16 49.81
7 0.92 17 0.91 7 49.87 17 49.85
8 0.92 18 0.92 8 49.82 18 49.77
9 0.92 19 0.93 9 51.24 19 49.20
10 0.92 20 0.92 10 51.08 20 49.24
UCL (MR) D4 * MR bar X bar+A2 MR
D4 = 3.27 UCL (X)
bar
LCL(MR) D3 * MR bar D3 = 0 LCL(X)
X bar-A2 MR
bar
A2 = 2.66 57

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Case Study - 1
X MR
0.94 0.02

0.94 0.94 0.017

0.016 0.016
0.93
0.93 0.93 0.014
0.93 0.93 0.013
0.92 0.012
0.92 0.92 0.011 0.011
0.92 0.92 0.92 0.01
0.92 0.920.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
0.92 0.92 0.920.92 0.92 0.008
0.007
0.91
0.91 0.005
0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004
0.91 0.003 0.0030.003
0.002
0.001
0.90 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Case Study - 2
X MR
51.5 2 1.98
51.24
51 51.08 51.06
50.6650.68 1.6
50.5
50.35 1.42
50 50.09 50.1250.1
49.8749.82 49.8149.8549.77 1.2
49.69 49.64
49.5
49.24
49.2
49 49.0849.03 0.8 0.78
0.71
0.57
48.5 0.46 0.48
0.4 0.4 0.43 0.42 0.38
48
0.16
47.5 0 0 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.04
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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Variable Control Charts

Variable Control Chart : X bar / R Chart ( n>1 )

R chart plots the

subgroup Range
The Xbar chart which is the
Used when 2 to 10 plots subgroup difference
Simple to use and Best Used by the
measurements can means, that is, the between the
easy to Line Inspectors or
be made in quick average of the maximum and the
understand. Operators
succession. individual values in minimum
the subgroup. individual values
within the
subgroup.

59

Xbar / R Chart ( n>1 )

Gather Data

Generally 100 Select subgroup size,

readings with 25 or Frequency and
more subgroups is number of
recommended. subgroups.

Number of
Subgroup is selected
subgroups should be
such that it
chosen such that all
represents only
types of causes have
variation because of
an opportunity to
common causes
appear.
Parts produced should be
under similar conditions.
Subgroup frequency For a initial study 4
is chosen so that to 5 consecutively
changes in process produced
over time can be production pieces
detected. are recommended.
It should be 60
eventful.

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X-Bar, Range ( R ) Control Charts

For X Bar Chart :

U.C.L. = X + A2 R
L.C.L. = X - A2 R SUB GROUP

SIZE A2 D3 D4

2 1.88 0 3.27

3 1.02 0 2.57
4 0.73 0 2.28
5 0.58 0 2.11

6 0.48 0 2

For R Chart : 7 0.42 0.08 1.92

8 0.37 0.14 1.86

U.C.L. = D4 x R 9 0.34 0.18 1.82
10 0.31 0.22 1.78

L.C.L. = D3 x R

Where A2, D3, D4 are constraints depending upon the subgroup size .
61

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
63.45 63.46 63.46 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.46 63.46 63.46 63.46
63.45 63.46 63.46 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.46 63.46 63.45 63.46
63.45 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.46
63.45 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.46 63.45 63.46
63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.45 63.46
Xbar 63.45 63.454 63.458 63.45 63.454 63.45 63.454 63.458 63.452 63.46
R 0 0.01 0.01 0 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
X D Bar 63.454
Range Bar 0.006
USL = 63.48
LSL = 63.38 UCL( X Bar ) 63.46
LCL( X Bar ) 63.45

D2 = 2.326 UCL(R ) 0
LCL(R ) 0.013
Control Chart

62

X bar/ R Chart Exercise

DATA COLLECTION
S.No. 1~5 6~10 11~15 16~20 21~25 26~30 31~35 36~40 41~45 46~50
X1 4.46 4.42 4.44 3.99 4.41 4.41 4.43 4.57 4.49 4.46
X2 4.45 4.45 4.43 4.38 4.49 4.51 4.43 4.42 4.45 4.48
X3 4.40 4.44 4.37 4.37 4.36 4.42 4.45 4.51 4.45 4.55
X4 4.45 4.47 4.08 4.43 4.42 4.44 4.55 4.34 4.45 4.43
X5 4.51 4.44 4.41 4.35 4.46 4.39 4.40 4.48 4.44 4.48

S.No. 1~5 6~10 11~15 16~20 21~25 26~30 31~35 36~40 41~45 46~50
X1 24.95 24.93 24.93 24.95 24.95 24.96 24.93 24.94 24.96 24.95
X2 24.93 24.94 24.93 24.95 24.95 24.95 24.95 24.93 24.98 24.96
X3 24.95 24.93 24.94 24.93 24.93 24.96 24.94 24.94 24.99 24.99
X4 24.94 24.94 24.93 24.95 24.95 24.94 24.93 24.93 24.96 24.96
X5 24.93 24.95 24.95 24.96 24.96 24.93 24.94 24.95 24.98 24.96

SUB GROUP

SIZE A2 D3 D4
2 1.88 0 3.27

3 1.02 0 2.57
USL = 25.50
USL = 4.50 4 0.73 0 2.28 LSL = 24.50
LSL = 4.30 5 0.58 0 2.11

6 0.48 0 2

7 0.42 0.08 1.92 SPC Worksheet

8 0.37 0.14 1.86

9 0.34 0.18 1.82 63

10 0.31 0.22 1.78

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Process is in Control if …..

The sample points fall • X Bar Chart

between the control
limits. • R Chart

• The points vary both above

There are no major and below the average value.
trends forming • Points follow ±1σ, ±2σ, ±3σ
rules

64

When to take action???

Point above UCL

X
UCL UCL
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
MEAN X MEAN
X
X X X
X X

X
X

LCL LCL
X

65
Point below LCL

When to take action???

Seven points above

centre line

UCL UCL

X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
MEAN MEAN
X X
X X X
X X
X
X X
X

LCL LCL

Seven points below

centre line
66

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When to take action???

Seven points in an
upward direction

UCL UCL
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
MEAN MEAN
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X

LCL LCL

Seven points in a
downward direction 67

When to take action???

Cyclic pattern Trend pattern

UCL X
UCL
X X
X
X X X
X X X
X X X X
X
X X
X X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X X X
X X
X X
LCL LCL

68

When to take action???

Considerably less than 2/3 of all Considerably more than 2/3 of all
the points fall in this zone the points fall in this zone

UCL UCL
X
X X
X
X
X
XX
X X
X X X X
X X X X X
X
X X X X
X X X
X X X
X
X X
X X X X
X X X
X
X
LCL LCL

69

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When to take action???

Analogy to Traffic Signal

Stop
Investigate/Adjust

Wait and Watch Go

No action on Process 70

Subgroup size - 2

Two parts Yellow on Any part in red zone,

Two parts Yellow on opp. side , Stop & Stop & Investigate
same side , Adjust Investigate the the process,
the process process Requalify the process

One Green, One Both Green, No

Yellow, No action Action

-3 -1.5  1.5 3

71

Process Capability

Process
Capability &
Capability Index

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Process Capability

Cp / Cpk , σ – Standard deviation ( R / d2 )

Short Term Study

Pp / Ppk , σ – Standard deviation =

Long Term Study

Cm / Cmk , σ – Standard deviation =

Short Term Study ( Machine Capability) - 50 consecutive values

Process Capability

Is Cp enough ?
Cp TELLS U ONLY ABOUT THE SMARTNESS OF CURVE

IT TELLS WHAT BEST PROCESS CAN MAKE

Why Cpk is Needed ?

Cpk TELLS U ABOUT THE POSITIONING / LOCATION
OF THE CURVE
IT TELLS WHAT THE PROCESS IS ACTUALLY
PRODUCING

Process Capability

Process capability is defined as how likely a product is going to

meet the design specifications.

Cpk is the
Cp is the Potential of Performance Index
the Process only tells tells “ What Actually
“ What Best A Process A Process Is Producing
Can Produce ” ”

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Process Control Chart Factors

Control Limit UCL Factor LCL Factor Factor for

Sample Factor for for Ranges for Ranges Estimating
(Subgroup) Averages (Range (Range Sigma
Size (Mean Charts) Charts) Charts) ( = R/d2)
(n) (A2) (D4) (D3) (d2)

2 1.880 3.267 0 1.128

3 1.023 2.575 0 1.693
4 0.729 2.282 0 2.059
5 0.577 2.115 0 2.326
6 0.483 2.004 0 2.534
7 0.419 1.924 0.076 2.704
8 0.373 1.864 0.136 2.847
9 0.337 1.816 0.184 2.970
10 0.308 1.777 0.223 3.078

76

Measures of Process Capability

Cp : This is the capability index defined as the tolerance width divided

by the process inherent variation irrespective of process centering.

Tolerance range
Cp =
Process Range

USL – LSL USL – Upper Specification Limit

Cp = LSL – Lower Specification Limit
6σ
σ – Standard deviation ( R / d2 )

Measures of Process Capability

Cpk : This is the capability index which accounts for process centering.
It is defined as minimum of CpkU or CpkL.

Cpk = Min. USL – X Or X - LSL

3σ 3σ

CpkU CpkL ‘σ = R/d2

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Mind Teaser : What’s UR

Cp Cpk Interpretation

0.80 0.67 Process is not capable of meeting the customer specs.

Process is not centered.

1.67 1.40 Process is capable of meeting customer specs.

Process is not perfectly centered.

1.67 1.67 Process is capable of meeting customer specs.

Process is perfectly centered.

1.67 1.60 ????

Impact of Process Location on

Process Capability

3 Sigma process

Mean=8
LSL SD = 2
USL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

- 3 SD + 3 SD

Note : LSL is Lower specification limit and USL is Upper specification limit.

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4 Sigma process

LSL Mean=8 USL

SD = 1.33

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

- 4 SD + 4 SD

5 Sigma process

Mean=8
LSL SD = 1.07 USL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
- 5 SD + 5 SD

6 Sigma process

Mean=8
LSL SD = 1 USL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

- 6 SD + 6 SD

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3 Sigma Vs 6 Sigma

6 Sigma curve
LSL USL

3 Sigma curve

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

In a 3 sigma process the values are widely spread along the center line, showing the higher
variation of the process. Whereas in a 6 Sigma process, the values are closer to the center
line showing less variation in the process.

Sigma levels without Mean shift

*Parts Per Million

Process Capability

SPC –
Attribute
Data

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Control Charts

Quality Characteristic
Variable Attribute
defective defect
no
n>1? X and MR
constant
yes constant yes
p or sampling
sample
np unit?
x and R size?
yes no
no

p-chart with c u
variable sample
size

88

89

For Attribute Data :

np
p Charts u Charts c Charts
Charts
A chart for A chart for A chart for A chart for
proportion of number of number of non- number of non-
units non- units non- conformities conformances
conforming conforming per unit in one unit

e.g. Fuel tank e.g. Hole dia. e.g. Bubbles in e.g. Errors on
does not leak u/s or o/s. car glass. a letter.

Sample size
Sample size Sample size Sample size
Constant /
Constant Variable Constant = 1
Variable

90

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Charts for Attributes

• Fraction nonconforming (p-chart)
– Fixed sample size
– Variable sample size

• np-chart for number nonconforming

• Charts for defects

– c-chart
– u-chart

91

p Charts for Attributes

92

p Chart p Chart

– S #def = 50/1250 = .04

p=
Sn Sample number
3 P = 3 p(1-p) 1 2 3 4 25 Total
n n 50 50 50 50 50 1250
=3 .04(.96) #def 2 4 0 3 2 50
50
p .04 .08 0 .06 .04 1.00
= 0.083
–
UCL P = p + 3 P
UCL P = 0.123
= .04 + .083 = .123 •
•
–
LCL P = p - 3 P –
• p = 0.04
= .04 - .083 = 0 LCL P = 0
can't be negative
•
93

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p vs np Chart
p Charts for Attributes np Charts for Attributes

k is no of samples each of size n.

Di is no of non-conforming
samples in the ith sample batch
94

P / np Charts for Attributes

Sample No of Defectives Total Inspected

1 3 20
2 2 20
3 1 20
4 2 20 p and np charts
5 1 20
Total 9 100

p Chart np Chart
0.3 6

0.25 5

0.2 4

0.15 3

0.1 2

0.05 1

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Proportion Defective Center LCL UCL n*p LCL UCL No of Defectives

95

c vs u Charts for Attributes

• Used when a single unit will be

c Chart examined for nonconformities at
each time point.

• Used when a number of units

will be sampled at each time
u Chart point
• Per unit average number of
nonconformities will be obtained

96

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c Chart
Hotel Suite Inspection - Defects Discovered
Day Defects Day Defects Day Defects

1 2 10 4 19 1
2 0 11 2 20 1
3 3 12 1 21 2
4 1 13 2 22 1
5 2 14 3 23 0
6 3 15 1 24 3
7 1 16 3 25 0
8 0 17 2 26 1
9 0 18 0
Total 39 97

k is no of samples each of size 1.

Di is no of non conforming samples in the ith sample batch

98

c Chart for Hotel Suite Inspection

5 UCL = 5.16
Number of defects

4
3
2
c = 1.50
1
0 LCL = 0
5 10 15 20 25 Day

99

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c Charts for Attributes

m=3 m=2 m=1

UCL 5.17 3.95 2.72
c - Chart UCL 0 0 0

6
m=3
5

4 4
m=2

3 3 3 3 3 3 m=1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Day Defects

100

u Charts for Attributes

k is no of samples each of size ni.

Di is the total number of nonconformities in the ith sample

, If all the samples

OR
are of the same size

101

u Charts for Attributes

 u charts are used to monitor the number of nonconformities on a unit of a

process based on samples of units taken from the process at given times
(hours, shifts, days, weeks, months, etc.).

 An initial series of samples is used to estimate the average number of

nonconformities per unit.

 The estimated value is then used to produce control limits for the per unit
number of nonconformities.

 During this initial phase, the process should be in control. If points are out-of-
control during the initial (estimation) phase, the assignable cause should be
determined and the sample should be removed from estimation.

 Once the control limits have been established for the U chart, these limits may
be used to monitor the per unit number of nonconformities (defects) of the
process going forward.

102

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u Charts for Attributes

No of Car Glasses Inspected No of Defects ui u bar LCL UCL

20 5 0.25 0.12 0 0.35
25 2 0.08 0.12 0 0.33
22 3 0.14 0.12 0 0.34
30 5 0.17 0.12 0 0.31
26 1 0.04 0.12 0 0.32
28 4 0.14 0.12 0 0.31
29 3 0.10 0.12 0 0.31
30 2 0.07 0.12 0 0.31
210 25

u Chart
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ui u bar LCL UCL

c u charts

103

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104
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