Cairo university

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Department

(pipe tests)

Submitted to : dr / Mostafa El-Slaak

Submitted by : Ali Yasser AbdelRhman

Sec : 2
BN : 39
Background
The concept and value of high-pressure hydrostatic testing of cross
country pipelines were first demonstrated by Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation.
Texas Eastern sought the advice of Battelle in the early 1950s as they began to
rehabilitate the War Emergency Pipelines and to convert them to natural gas service.
Prior to testing, these pipelines exhibited numerous failures in service due to original
manufacturing defects in the pipe. The Battelle staff recommended hydrostatic testing
to eliminate as many of these types of defects as possible. After being tested to levels
of 100–109% of SMYS, during which time “hundreds” of test breaks occurred, not one
in-service failure caused by a manufacturing defect was observed. The news of this
successful use of hydrostatic testing spread quickly to other pipeline operators, and by
the late 1960s the ASA B31.8 Committee (forerunner of ASME B31.8) had established
an enormous database of thousands of miles of pipelines that had exhibited no in-
service ruptures from original manufacturing or construction defects after having been
hydrostatically tested to levels at or above 90% of SMYS.1 These data were used to
establish the standard practice and ASA B31.8 Code requirement that, prior to service,
each gas pipeline should be hydrostatically tested to 1.25 times its maximum allowable
operating pressure. Later, a similar requirement for liquid pipelines was inserted into the
ASME B31.4 Code. When federal regulations for pipelines came along, the precedent
set by the industry of testing to 1.25 times the MOP was adopted as a legal requirement
Both field experience and full-scale laboratory tests have revealed much about the
benefits and limitations of hydrostatic testing. Among the things learned were the
following:
•
Longitudinally oriented defects in pipe materials have unique failure pressure levels that
are predictable on the basis of the axial lengths and maximum depths of the defects and
the geometry of the pipe and its material properties.
•
The higher the test pressure, the smaller will be the defects, if any, that survive the test.
•
With increasing pressure, defects in a typical line-pipe material begin to grow by ductile
tearing prior to failure. If the defect is close enough to failure, the ductile tearing that
occurs prior to failure will continue even if pressurization is stopped and the pressure is
held constant. The damage created by this tearing when the defect is about ready to fail
can be severe enough that if pressurization is stopped and the pressure is released, the
defect may fail upon a second or subsequent pressurization at a pressure level below
the level reached on the first pressurization. This phenomenon is referred to as a
pressure reversal.
•
Testing a pipeline to its actual yield strength can cause some pipe to expand plastically,
but the number of pipes affected and the amount of expansion will be small if a
pressure–volume plot is made during testing and the test is terminated with an
acceptably small offset volume or reduction in the pressure-volume slope.

Practical Application of Hydrostatic Testing

Hydrostatic testing is used to determine and verify the integrity of pipelines. Some types
of data can be obtained through this verification process; however, it is essential to
identify the limits of the test process and obtainable results. Several type of flaws can be
detected by hydrostatic testing such as SCC and the actual mechanical properties of
the pipe compared with some other flaws that cannot be detected by hydrostatic testing
such as the subcritical but active corrosion cells and localized hard spots that may
become cause of failure in the presence of hydrogen.
Given that the test will play a significant role in the nondestructive evaluation of pipeline,
it is important to use the test pressure judiciously. The maximum test pressure should
be so designed that it provides a sufficient gap between the test pressure and
the maximum operating pressure (MOP). In other words, the maximum test pressure
should be less than GapMOP.
This also presupposes that after the test, the surviving flaws in the pipeline shall not
grow when the line is placed in service at the maintained operating pressure. For setting
the maximum test pressure, it is important to know the effect of pressure on the growth
of the defect. Also, it is important to consider how these growths would be affected by
pressure over time. These defects are often referred to as subcritical defects because
they will not fail during a one-time high-pressure test but will fail at a lower pressure if
held for longer time. The sizes of discontinuities that are in the subcritical group are
those that would fail—independent of time—at about 105% of the hold pressure. This
implies that the maximum test pressure would have to be set to at least 5% to 10%
above the MOP to avoid growth of subcritical discontinuities during the operation life of
the pipeline.
The phenomenon of pressure reversal occurs when a defect survives a
higher hydrostatic test pressure but it fails at lower pressure in a subsequent
repressurization. One of several factors that lead to this phenomenon is the creep like
growth of subcritical discontinuities over time at a lower pressure. The reduction in the
wall thickness in effect reduces the discontinuity depth to the material thickness (d/t)
ratio. This increase in d/t ratio in effect reduces the ligament of the adjoining defects,
which in effect reduces the required stress to propagate the discontinuity. The other
factor affecting the pressure reversal is that the damage to the crack tip opening (CTO);
the CTO is subject to some compressive force leading the crack tip to be forced closed.
This facilitates the growth of the crack upon repressurization to a much lower pressure.
Hence, if such a pressure cycle is part of the design, then pressure reversal is a point of
consideration.
When a pipeline is designed to operate at a certain MOP, it must be tested to ensure
that it is structurally sound and can safely withstand the internal pressure before being
put into service. Generally, gas pipelines are hydro tested by filling the test section of
pipe with water and pumping the pressure up to a value higher than MOP and holding it
at this pressure for a period of 4 to 8 hours. The magnitude of the test pressure is
specified by code, and it is usually 125% of the operating pressure. Thus, a pipeline
designed to operate continuously at 1000 psig will be hydrostatically tested to
a minimum pressure of 1250 psig.
Hydrostatic test
A hydrostatic test is a way in which pressure vessels such as pipelines, plumbing, gas
cylinders, boilers and fuel tanks can be tested for strength and leaks. The test involves
filling the vessel or pipe system with a liquid, usually water, which may be dyed to aid in
visual leak detection, and pressurization of the vessel to the specified test pressure.
Pressure tightness can be tested by shutting off the supply valve and observing whether
there is a pressure loss. The location of a leak can be visually identified more easily if
the water contains a colorant. Strength is usually tested by measuring permanent
deformation of the container. Hydrostatic testing is the most common method employed
for testing pipes and pressure vessels. Using this test helps maintain safety standards
and durability of a vessel over time. Newly manufactured pieces are initially qualified
using the hydrostatic test. They are then re-qualified at regular intervals using the proof
pressure test which is also called the modified hydrostatic test Testing of pressure
vessels for transport and storage of gases is very important because such containers
can explode if they fail under pressure.

Hydrostatic Leak Test

Hydrostatic testing is the most commonly used method of leak testing and a safer
method than pneumatic testing. Water is almost noncompressible and there is a limited
amount of stored energy; however, gaseous test mediums used for pneumatic testing
are highly compressible. This means that stored energy is contained within the piping
systemduring the test period could be released suddenly in the event of a failure,
causing local damage to personnel and equipment.
The potential damage possible during a pneumatic test is far greater than in a hydrotest;
however, trapped air pockets in a hydrotest also can have a disastrous effect if there is
a failure. That is why it is essential that all high points in piping systems have vents to
allow air to escape as the piping system is filled with water.
Hydrotests might not be an option if all traces of water are to be avoided during
operation, as in the case of cryogenic services operating at well below subzero
temperatures. Also, the disposal of large volumes of water may be a problem, or
conversely, water may be a rare commodity in the desert.
Leaks are detected by the visual examination of all joints for signs of water. This is not
as effective as leak detecting using a gaseous medium. Gas leaks are more visible
using a soapy liquid solution that covers the weld, and bubbles are detected in the event
of a leak. If helium is used as the test medium, then more sophisticated equipment can
be used, such as gas sniffers that detect minute leakages.
Water is not as sensitive as gases because of the surface tension. This can create a
barrier, and minute leak paths actually may be protected.
According to ASME B31.3, the hydrostatic test pressure at any point in a metallic piping
system should be as follows: no less than 1½ times the design pressure and, for design
temperatures above the test temperature, the minimum test pressure should be
calculated by the following equation, except that the value of ST/S should not exceed
6.5—
(7.1)Pr=1.5PSrS
where
P = internal design gauge pressure
PT = minimum test gauge pressure.
S = stress value at design temperature
(Table A-1, ASME B31.3).
ST = stress value at test temperature.
If the test pressure calculated using this equation produces a nominal pressure
stress or longitudinal stress that exceeds the yield strength at the test temperature, then
the test pressure may be reduced to the maximum pressure that does not exceed the
yield strength at the test temperature.
If it is not practical to isolate a vessel and a piping system to be leak tested in
combination with a pressure vessel, then the lesser of the two test pressures should be
used.
Testing procedures
Hydrostatic tests are conducted under the constraints of either the industry's or the
customer's specifications, or may be required by law. The vessel is filled with a nearly
incompressible liquid – usually water or oil – pressurised to test pressure, and examined
for leaks or permanent changes in shape. Red or fluorescent dyes may be added to the
water to make leaks easier to see. The test pressure is always considerably higher than
the operating pressure to give a factor of safety. This factor of safety is typically
166.66%, 143% or 150% of the designed working pressure, depending on the
regulations that apply. For example, if a cylinder was rated to DOT-2015 PSI
(approximately 139 bar), it would be tested at around 3360 PSI (approximately 232
bar). Water is commonly used because it is cheap and easily available, and is usually
harmless to the system to be tested. Hydraulic fluids and oils may be specified where
contamination with water could cause problems. These fluids are nearly incompressible,
therefore requiring relatively little work to develop a high pressure, and is therefore also
only able to release a small amount of energy in case of a failure - only a small volume
will escape under high pressure if the container fails. If high pressure gas were used,
then the gas would expand to V=(nRT)/p with its compressed volume resulting in an
explosion, with the attendant risk of damage or injury.

Water jacket test

Small pressure vessels are normally tested using a water jacket test. The vessel is
visually examined for defects and then placed in a container filled with water, and in
which the change in volume of the vessel can be measured, usually by monitoring the
water level in a calibrated tube. The vessel is then pressurised for a specified period,
usually 30 or more seconds, and if specified, the expansion will be measured by reading
off the amount of liquid that has been forced into the measuring tube by the volume
increase of the pressurised vessel. The vessel is then depressurised, and the
permanent volume increase due to plastic deformation while under pressure is
measured by comparing the final volume in the measuring tube with the volume before
pressurisation. A leak will give a similar result to permanent set, but will be detectable
by holding the volume in the pressurised vessel by closing the inlet valve for a period
before depressurising, as the pressure will drop steadily during this period if there is a
leak. In most cases a permanent set that exceeds the specified maximum will indicate
failure. A leak may also be a failure criterion, but it may be that the leak is due to poor
sealing of the test equipment. If the vessel fails, it will normally go through a
condemning process marking the cylinder as unsafe.
The information needed to specify the test is stamped onto the cylinder. This includes
the design standard, serial number, manufacturer, and manufacture date. After testing,
the vessel or its nameplate will usually be stamp marked with the date of the successful
test, and the test facility's identification mark.
A simpler test, that is also considered a hydrostatic test but can be performed by
anyone who has a garden hose, is to pressurise the vessel by filling it with water and to
physically examine the outside for leaks. This type of test is suitable for containers such
as boat fuel tanks, which are not pressure vessels but must work under the hydrostatic
pressure of the contents. A hydrostatic test head is usually specified as a height above
the tank top. The tank is pressurised by filling water to the specified height through a
temporary standpipe if necessary. It may be necessary to seal vents and other outlets
during the test.
Examples
Portable fire extinguishers are safety tools that are required in most public buildings.
Fire extinguishers are also recommended in homes. Over time the conditions in which
they are housed, and the manner in which they are handled affect the structural integrity
of the extinguisher. A structurally weakened fire extinguisher can malfunction or even
burst when it is needed the most. To maintain the quality and safety of this product,
hydrostatic testing is utilized. All critical components of the fire extinguisher should be
tested to ensure proper function.

Pipeline testing
Hydrotesting of pipes, pipelines and vessels is performed to expose defective materials
that have missed prior detection, ensure that any remaining defects are insignificant
enough to allow operation at design pressures, expose possible leaks and serve as a
final validation of the integrity of the constructed system. ASME B31.3 requires this
testing to ensure tightness and strength.
Buried high pressure oil and gas pipelines are tested for strength by pressurising them
to at least 125% of their maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) at any point
along their length. Since many long distance transmission pipelines are designed to
have a steel hoop stress of 80% of specified minimum yield strength (SMYS)
at Maximum allowable operating pressure MAOP, this means that the steel is stressed
to SMYS and above during the testing, and test sections must be selected to ensure
that excessive plastic deformation does not occur.
For piping built to ASME B31.3, if the design temperature is greater than the test
temperature, then the test pressure must be adjusted for the related allowable stress at
the design temperature. This is done by multiplying 1.5 MAWP by the ratio of the
allowable stress at the test temperature to allowable stress at the design temperature
per ASME B31.3 Section 345.4.2 Equation 24. Test pressures need not exceed a value
that would produce a stress higher than yield stress at test temperature. ASME B31.3
section 345.4.2
Other codes require a more onerous approach. BS PD 8010-2 requires testing to 150%
of the design pressure – which should not be less than the MAOP plus surge and other
incidental effects that will occur during normal operation.
Leak testing is performed by balancing changes in the measured pressure in the test
section against the theoretical pressure changes calculated from changes in the
measured temperature of the test section.
Australian standard AS2885.5 "Pipelines – Gas and liquid petroleum: Part 5: Field
pressure testing" gives an excellent explanation of the factors involved.
In the aerospace industry, depending on the airline, company or customer, certain
codes will need to be followed. For example, Bell Helicopter has a certain spe

Testing frequency
Most countries have legislation or building code that requires pressure vessels to be
regularly tested, for example every two years (with a visual inspection annually) for high
pressure gas cylinders and every five or ten years for lower pressure ones such as used
in fire extinguishers. Gas cylinders which fail are normally destroyed as part of the
testing protocol to avoid the dangers inherent in them being subsequently used
These common gas cylinders have the following requirements
DOT-3AL gas cylinders must be tested every 5 years and have an unlimited life.
DOT-3HT gas cylinders must be tested every 3 years and have a 24-year life.
DOT-3AA gas cylinders must be tested every 5 years and have an unlimited life.
(Unless stamped with a star (*) in which case the cylinder meets certain specifications
and can have a 10-year hydrostatic test life).
Typically organizations such as ISO, ASTM and ASME specify the guidelines for the
different types of pressure vessels.
Safety
Hydraulic testing is a hazardous process and needs to be performed with caution by
competent personnel. Adhering to prescribed procedures defined in relevant technical
standards appropriate to the specific application and jurisdiction will usually reduce
these risks to an acceptable level.
 A leak of high pressure liquid can cut or penetrate the skin and inject itself into
body tissues. This can cause serious direct injury to the operator, and if the fluid
is toxic or contaminated there will be additional adverse effects.
 A pressurised hose that is not securely attached or which fails under pressure
may whip around spraying water or oil and could hit someone and cause injuries.
A whip latch arrestor can be used to restrain such hoses.
 Enclosing the components to be tested, hazard signage, use of appropriate
personal protective equipment and providing barriers to access for non-essential
personnel are common precautions.
 Equipment:
Pressure gauges [1.5 to 4.0 times of test pressure]
Water tanks
Potable tanks
Pumps for water filling and pressure
Pressure gauges and temperature recorder
References

 W. Zheng, ... R.W. Revie, in Stress Corrosion Cracking, 2011

 Barry G. Bubar P.E., in Pipeline Planning and Construction Field

Manual, 2011

 In Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook (Eighth Edition), 2014

 Ramesh Singh, in Pipeline Integrity Handbook (Second Edition),

2017

 Peter Smith, in The Fundamentals of Piping Design, 2007

 Peter Smith, in The Fundamentals of Piping Design, 2007