168 TORCH TRINITY JOURNAL 7 (2004)

REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS THEORY

AND JAPANESE MISSION

Eiko Takamizawa *

Although Japan is known as one of the most Gospel-resistant

nations, the country has remarkably demonstrated accommodating
attitudes toward newly emerging religious movements since the time of
the Meji Restoration. 1 Even today religious cults are aggressively
increasing their membership. The contrast of these two religious
phenomena in Japan suggests two questions. First, why are Japanese so
open to religious cults but not to the Gospel? Second, how can
Christian mission incorporate and utilize Japanese religious
accommodation for its benefit?

REVITALIZATION MOVEMENT THEORY

Anthony Wallace, a functional anthropologist, formulates the

theory of revitalization movement by observing some historical cases
of emerging religious movements. He defines the revitalization
movement as “a deliberate, organized, conscious effort by members of
a society to construct a more satisfying culture” 2 According to Wallace,
the members and the leaders of societies deliberately and consciously
seek revitalization when their basic needs are not being met. A more
satisfying culture is expected or created out of the organized effort to
revitalize the old disintegrated culture. 3 Although Wallace’s research
was based on the Iroquois Indian society, which is animistic and tribal
by nature, his theory is applicable to other societies that share similar

*
Dr. Eiko Takamizawa is Assistant Professor of Mission at TTGST. She speaks and lectures
regularly in Japan, the US, and Asian countries. She currently serves as Corporate Pastor for
Onnuri Japanese Worship in Seoul, Korea. Her primary research interest lies in the eastward
Christian expansion during the pre-Roman Catholic era with specific focus on the Nestorian
Mission.
1
There are more than 230,000 registered religious organizations in Japan according to the
statistic by Japan Cultural Ministry in 2000. http://www.relnet.co.jp/relnet/brief/r3-01.htm
2
Anthony Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” American Anthropologist 58 (1956): 265.
He distinguishes a revitalization movement from a classic culture change in that the former is a
deliberate intent for a change by the members that occurs in a rather short period, while the latter
is a slow, chain-like, self-continued process of super-organic inevitabilities.
3
Anthony Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1966),
179.
 REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS THEORY 169

qualities. Especially in Japanese society where animistic and tribal

tendencies still exist, religious cults demonstrate the characteristics that
Wallace describes.

Key Concepts

Wallace’s revitalization theory is based on two key concepts: one is

the concept of stress and the other is that of maze way.

Concept of Stress

Viewing a society as an organism, Wallace focuses on the

mechanism of homeostasis in society. He suggests, “Homeostasis is a
mechanism in which a system tries to preserve its integrity by
maintaining a minimally fluctuating, life-supporting matrix and by
taking emergency measures under conditions of stress to preserve the
constancy of this matrix.” 4 When the system encounters some
occasions in which its homeostasis is compromised, stress-reducing
mechanisms usually work to restore it. However, when the society
comes to the point that stress-reducing mechanisms have no effect, the
society goes to a revitalization movement. In this framework, Wallace
defines stress as “a condition in which the social organism is threatened
with more or less serious damage.” 5 He lists some factors of stress:
climate, ecological change, military defeat, political subordination,
extreme pressure toward acculturation, economic distress, epidemics
and so on. The list of stresses must be extended to the personal level to
include such factors as human relationships, self-value, relative
depravity, disorientation, emotional problems and so on.

Concept of Maze Way

Another key concept in understanding the revitalization movement

theory is the “maze way.” Wallace explains that every person in society,
as a part of the societal organism, needs to have a mental image of
society and its culture, as well as of his own body and its behavioral
regularities, in order to act in ways which reduce stress at all levels of

4
Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” 265.
5
Ibid., 266.
170 TORCH TRINITY JOURNAL 7 (2004)

the system. 6 The mental image is called a maze way. When one, under
chronic stress, receives repeated information that one’s maze way does
not lead to an action which reduces the level of stress, one must choose
to either maintain the present maze way and tolerate the stress, or
change the maze way to another. This effort to change a maze way is
the core of a revitalization movement.

Progressive Structure of Revitalization Movement

Wallace observes a progressive structure of the movement that is

applicable to various situations other than the Iroquois Indian. He
asserts the validity of the theory, suggesting that “such movements
follow a remarkably uniform program throughout the world.” 7 The
observed process includes (1) the steady state, (2) the period of
increased individual stress, (3) the period of cultural distortion, (4) the
period of revitalization, and (5) the new steady stage.
(1) The steady state is one in which “culturally recognized
techniques for satisfying needs operate in a way that chronic stress
varies within tolerable limits.” 8 Wallace contends, “During the first
stage, the societal needs are basically met, and the stress in the system
‘varies within tolerable limits’.” 9 Members would not question about
their existing maze way in interpreting their life events. Therefore, even
though some incidents fail to fulfill their expectations, they are likely to
attribute the failure to their own neglect of some requirements in the
old system.
(2) The period of individual stress is the stage in which tension
rises. The causes, as mentioned above, can be varied from social
uprooted-ness such as war, natural disaster, population explosion, and
so forth, to personal difficulties such as loss of loved ones or property,
unmet desires, or uncured diseases. The members of the society at this
stage will look for a solution to relieve the tension, both internal and
external. The latter is usually regarded as deviant and revolutionary at
this stage. 10
(3) The next stage is the period of cultural distortion. During this
6
Ibid., 266.
7
Wallace, Religion, 158.
8
Ibid.
9
Ibid.
10
Gaylin Van Rheenen, “Change in Animistic Societies,” Communicating Christ to Folk
Religionists. http://www.missiology.org/folkreligion/chapter4.htm. (accessed on 3 February 2005).
 REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS THEORY 171

period the old meaning system fails to function in maintaining the

social equilibrium and is continuously called into question. In this
situation, society demonstrates “the regressive response” in the form of
alcoholism, intra-group violence, ambivalent dependency, collapse of
kinship, irresponsibility in public officials, states of depression and
self-reproach, and a variety of psychosomatic and neurotic disorders. 11
Because the elements in society are not harmoniously related but rather
mutually inconsistent, society expects and requires an alternative maze
way. The new way, which was once conceived as deviant, is seen as
significant alternative at this stage.
(4) The fourth stage is the revitalization period. Wallace observes
six functional stages within the revitalization period: 12 (a) maze way
reformulation in which the members begin to picture their society in a
different way from the mainstream interpretation, (b) the innovator
plays the prophet’s role and spreads the new maze way among
interested people, (c) the prophets establish an organization that
connects society with their perspectives, (d) the organization adapts to
the resistance from society, and (e) as the number who accept the new
maze way increases, a cultural transformation occurs.
The revitalization process comes to the end by accomplishing
cultural transformation. Then, this new steady stage is the beginning of
another cycle of the process.

ANALYZING JAPAN THROUGH

REVITALIZATION THEORY

Applying Wallace’s revitalization theory to Japan, the present task

is to analyze the stagnant situation of Japanese missions. Regarding the
steady stage, Japan is a country that has not experienced colonization or
any severe political threat during its history. Especially after WWII,
Japan has rather enjoyed economical and cultural progress for more
than a half century. In terms of basic needs, the country finds few
applicable stress factors of which Wallace mentions. Due to the high
stability as its society, Japan seems to be unprepared for revitalization.
Additionally, the Japanese traditional maze way is quite flexible
and accommodating by nature, and it tolerates the problems and
situations in society. This allows the social homeostasis to be
11
Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” 269.
12
Ibid., 270-75.
172 TORCH TRINITY JOURNAL 7 (2004)

maintained. Peter Lundell describes the nature of the Japanese maze

way as Japanese cultural cobweb. 13 Because the web is not only widely
spread, but also flexible and persistent, once people are caught, they
can hardly escape. Thus, revitalization as a society, but also individual
conversion as a personal revitalization, is still difficult for the Japanese.
The second is individual-stress stage. The felt needs and problems
of Japanese people are not those of basic needs. It is better expressed in
the term “disorientation.” The problems Japanese face is more
“existential” than external. It is not a problem of being damaged by
some external cause, but is an anxiety of not knowing where they are
going. Statistics confirm this. When asked about the initial object of the
religious quest, the results were as follows: the meaning of life (40.4%),
the way to live rightly (40.4%), the nature of true love (36.5%), fear of
death (20.1%), and loneliness (18.3%). 14 The problem for Japanese
people in an affluent society is “disorientation” of their lives rather than
material damage. The problems of disorientation are not only spatial
and temporal, but also moral and spiritual. Another stress observed in
contemporary Japanese society is that the people are seeking for the
absolute axes for every aspect of their lives.
The third stage is cultural distortion. Japan, with its material
affluence and political stability, seems to be satisfied with its traditional
maze way. Therefore, it can be said that Japan has not yet reached the
stage of cultural distortion. Thus, further stages of the revitalization
theory are also to come in future.

CRITIQUE OF REVITALIZATION THEORY

The greatest contribution of Wallace’s revitalization movement

theory is its progressive understanding that aids in the analysis of
individual conversion. Christians in pagan societies like Japan tend to
emphasize a dramatic experience of conversion, and to neglect the
preconditions and post-conditions of the converts. It might be one cause
for the lack of effective discipleship in Japan.
Wallace’s observation and analysis of each stage of revitalization
13
Peter N. Lundell, “Behind Japan’s resistant web: Understanding the problem of Nihonkyo,”
Missiology 23 (October): 401-412.
14
Lutheran World Federation Office of Communication, Tokyo, “How Japanese Become
Christians: Final Report of the Baptism motivation Survey of 1973-74,” in Reader of Wheaton
Extension Education, Audience Psychology, ed. James Engel (Wheaton, Illinois: Wheaton
Graduate School, 1974).
 REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS THEORY 173

provide various insights for Japanese Christians in understanding why

and how new religious cults are prospering in Japan. The religious cults
are usually active in approaching people through felt needs. They are
deceitful but apparently successful. Christians, on the other hand, tend
to be centripetal and less active in reaching out to meet needs. The
Christians seem rather content with fewer changes of their peaceful
lives within the stained glass windows.
The second strength in the theory is its integration of the
sociological and psychological approaches to revitalization. Lewis
Rambow describes four approaches toward the study of conversion: (1)
psychoanalytical approach which focuses on the role of depressions or
suggestibility, (2) behavioral approach which emphasizes the
immediate impact on conversion, (3) humanistic/transpersonal
approach which focuses on the effect of conversion upon self-
realization, and (4) social/holistic approach which views conversion
both from social and internal aspects. 15 He holds that conversion should
be understood as a multilayered process including every aspect of
human life. Wallace is partially in accord with this integrated approach
through his use of both sociology and psychology.
However, there are weaknesses to the application of revitalization
theory. The primary weakness of the theory is in its lack of the spiritual
perspective. Wallace solely focuses on human and social dynamics as
the cause of revitalization movements, and neglects any notion of a
Divine God who is sovereign over the course of human history. In
many cases of revitalization movement in Christian history, the
movements were not just the outcome of the demand from the social
situation, but were themselves divine interventions. Because Wallace’s
theory is based on his functional anthropologist’s view of religion, he
understands revitalization movements purely as a social process set in
force in the needy places.
This leads to the recognition of the second weakness. As the theory
presumes no absolute standard, it does not differentiate vicious cults
from orthodox religion. The Christianity that is based on the revelation
from God, and tested to be true by history, is radically different from
artificial religions from below. The existing revelation of the Scripture
is the evidence of the Supernatural being in it who is real and true.

15
Luis Rambo, “The Psychology of Conversion,” in Handbook of Religious Conversion, ed.
H. Newton Malony and Samuel Southard, 159-63 (Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education
Press, 1992).
174 TORCH TRINITY JOURNAL 7 (2004)

Moreover, the millions of witnesses of God’s Spirit changing people’s

lives throughout the two-thousand years of Christian history cannot be
merely explained within the framework of socio-psychological
movements.
This second weakness is revealed in its primary focus on the
phenomenological analysis of society and culture. Paul Hiebert
describes a threefold structure of mental construction under a
phenomena: (1) theories or maps and models which provide the person
with practical answers raised by belief systems, (2) belief systems or
paradigms, which determine the questions society is asking and provide
methods of investigation, and (3) the worldview which integrates
elements of culture as a whole. As Wallace approaches the issue from a
functionalist’s viewpoint, the integral role of worldview is not
considered. In order to have a deeper understanding of revitalization
movements, there ought to be not only the phenomenological and
psychological analyses, but also a worldview analysis.

IMPLICATIONS FOR JAPANESE MISSION

Wallace explained how people in stressful conditions can be open

to a new maze way. Japanese Christians should be more sensitive to the
felt needs of the nonbelievers. Discovering and approaching the “white
field” is the strategic way for evangelization of Japan. Therefore,
church ministries must be more target-oriented, so that they can provide
more effective approaches to the groups with specific needs for
communicating the Gospel.
The Word of God needs to be understood, proclaimed and
demonstrated both in the message and life so that people can see the
stability and strength in Christian life. The relevancy of the Gospel of
Jesus Christ to the people’s felt needs and to the deepest needs should
be clearly manifested. In order to do so, Japanese churches need to be
open to change, allowing the Holy Spirit to work freely for revival.
Complacency, maintaining the status quo, fear and reluctance to change
could result in refusing the revitalization of the Church itself.

WORKS CITED
 REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS THEORY 175

Horikoshi, Nobuji. Nihonjin no kokoro to Kirisutokyo (Japanese mind

and Christianity).Tokyo: Inochi no Kotobasha, 1986.
Lutheran World Federation Office of Communication, Tokyo. “How
Japanese Become Christians: Final Report of the Baptism
Motivation Survey of 1973-74.” In Reader of Wheaton Extension
Education, Audience Psychology, ed. James F. Engel. Wheaton,
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McGurie, Meredith B. Religion: The Social Context. Belmont,
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Nomura, Kozo. Fukuin no Rekishika to Kaishin no Shingaku
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Rambo, Luis. “The Psychology of Conversion.” In Handbook of
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________. Religion: An Anthropological View. New York: Random
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