Lecture 10: Passive Circuit Elements: Capacitors and RC Circuits

1. Capacitors:

A capacitor is a passive electrical component that stores electrical charge and has the property of
capacitance. In its simplest form, it is constructed of two parallel conductive plates separated by
an insulating material called the dielectric. The amount of charge that a capacitor can store per
unit of voltage across its plates is its capacitance, designated C. That is, capacitance is a measure
of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. The more charge (Q) per unit of voltage (V) that a capacitor
can store, the greater its capacitance (C), as expressed by the following formula:

𝑄
𝐶= (1)
𝑉

The farad (F) is the basic unit of capacitance. One farad is the amount of capacitance when one
coulomb (C) of charge is stored with one volt across the plates. Most capacitors that are used in
electronics work have capacitance values that are specified in microfarads (mF) and picofarads
(pF).

A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges
stored on the two plates. The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive
and negative charges and is concentrated within the dielectric, as shown in Figure 1.

Fig.1: The electric field stores energy in a capacitor.

Every capacitor has a limit on the amount of voltage that it can withstand across its plates. The
voltage rating specifies the maximum dc voltage that can be applied without risk of damage to
the device. If this maximum voltage, commonly called the breakdown voltage or working
voltage, is exceeded, permanent damage to the capacitor can result.

Capacitors normally are classified according to the type of dielectric material and whether they
are polarized or non-polarized. The most common types of dielectric materials are mica, ceramic,
plastic-film, and electrolytic (aluminum oxide and tantalum oxide). Ceramic and electrolytic
capacitors are the most common capacitors used in electronic circuits. Generally, ceramic
capacitors are non-polar and electrolytic are polar capacitors.
 Fig.2: Capacitor packages; axial, radial, PCB mount (through hole and SMD types).

Capacitors are available in several packages in the market as shown in Figure 2. The first
classification which is important for the user is the polarity or non-polarity of the capacitor. It
depends on the use of the capacitor by the designer. If the capacitor is facing only single sided
supply a polar capacitor suffice the need. Polar capacitors are marked with a –ve sign on their
body surface. A polar capacitor should never be attached in the reverse polarity, they blow up
instantly and cause a lot of sound and smell in case they are used beyond their specific ratings.
For bi-directional applications, AC supply for instance, a non-polar capacitor is recommended.
On the basis of the PCB (printed circuit board) type, a through hole or surface mount (SMD)
capacitors are selected. In case of through hole, radial and axial capacitors are used. Whereas in
case of surface mount, SMD capacitors are used. All the capacitors are available in different sizes
based on their multiple specifications, the most important being the capacitance, polar/nonpolar
and breakdown voltage rating.

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than the smallest capacitance
value because the effective plate separation increases. The calculation of total series capacitance
is analogous to the calculation of total resistance of parallel resistors. When capacitors are
connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances because the
effective plate area increases. The calculation of total parallel capacitance is analogous to the
calculation of total series resistance.

A capacitor will charge when it is connected to a dc voltage source. A capacitor does not let the
voltage change instantly across its two terminals. When it is connected to a DC power supply, the
charge slowly builds up (called charging), hence the voltage across it. Consider Figure 3(a), there
are three circuit elements in the circuit, a dc voltage supply, a resistor and a capacitor. Two
measuring instruments are used; an ammeter in series to measure the current through the
capacitor and a voltmeter to measure the voltage across the capacitor. There is a switch as well
that connects or disconnects the DC voltage source. The moment the switch is turned on, the
circuit loop is complete, letting the current pass through the capacitor and the process of charging
the capacitor begins. During the charging phase, the current through the capacitor is maximum
in the beginning and the voltage across the capacitor is 0 V. As the process continues, the voltage
across the capacitor builds up and the current through the capacitor starts decreasing. By the
moment the capacitor is fully charges, it behaves as an open circuit, where it maintains the voltage
stored inside. Since the circuit is open, there is 0 A current flowing through the circuit as shown
in Figure 3(b).

Fig.3: Capacitor charging characteristics.

When the capacitor is fully charged and if the DC power source shown in Figure 3 is removed
and its terminals are short, the resistor R becomes the load of the capacitor as shown in Figure 4.
Since, there is energy stored in the capacitor, it works like a voltage source. However, its voltage
starts decaying, called the capacitor discharging. It can be noticed that the direction is reverse of
the charging cycle. The voltage and current meters show maximum values in the beginning.
However, they start decaying with time until the capacitor is fully discharged.

Fig.4: Capacitor discharging characteristics.

When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for the
capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously because a finite time is required to move charge from one point to another. The
time constant of a series RC circuit determines the rate at which the capacitor charges or
discharges. The RC time constant is a fixed time interval that equals the product of the resistance
and the capacitance in a series RC circuit. The time constant is expressed in seconds when
resistance is in ohms and capacitance is in farads. It is symbolized by (Greek letter tau), and the
formula is:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (2)

When a capacitor is charging or discharging between two voltage levels, the charge on the
capacitor changes by approximately 63% of the difference in the levels in one time constant. An
uncharged capacitor charges to 63% of its fully charged voltage in one time constant. When a
capacitor is discharging, its voltage drops to approximately 100%-63%=37% of its initial value in
one time constant, which is a 63% change. It takes five time constants to change the voltage by
99% (considered 100%). This five time-constant interval is generally accepted as the time to fully
charge or discharge a capacitor and is called the transient time. Figure 5 demonstrates the behavior
of charging and discharging cycle of an RC circuit based on its time constant.

Fig.5: Exponential voltage curves for the charging and discharging of an RC circuit.

2. V-I characteristics of capacitors

The relationship between the current and voltage of the energy storing element; capacitor, is
given by the following equation:

1
𝑉𝐶 = ∫ 𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉𝐶 (0) (3)
𝐶
𝑑
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑉𝐶 (4)
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑉𝐶 is the voltage across capacitor, 𝐼𝐶 is the current through the capacitor, C is the
capacitance and 𝑉𝐶 (0) is the initial charge stored in the form of initial voltage potential. The circuit
diagram shown in Fig. 6 is called as R-C circuit. The switch S completes the circuit. Lets suppose
the energy stored in the capacitor is zero, therefore the initial voltage across the capacitor is also
zero; 𝑉𝐶 (0) is equals to 0 V. Let S is switched on at time t = 0 sec, the circuit loop will be complete
and the current 𝐼𝐶 flows through the circuit. The voltage drops across R and C are VR and VC
respectively.

Fig.6: RC circuit diagram

From KVL, the equation can be written as:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 (5)
since,
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅
Eq (3) is written as:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 (6)

By putting value of IC from eq (2) in (4), it becomes:

𝑑
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶 (7)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑉 = 𝜏 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶 (8)
𝑑𝑡

Eq (5) and (6) are general differential equations of R-C circuits. RC in eq (5) is known as the time
constant for R-C circuits, generally represented by 𝜏 (𝑇𝑎𝑢) as shown in eq (6). It can be noticed in
eq (6) that the left hand side is the voltage supplied to R-C circuit and on the right hand side is
voltage across capacitor.
2.1 Natural response of R-C circuits (Circuit Analysis without a voltage source)

If the voltage source V shown in Fig. 6 is replaced with a short with S to switch on state, and
assuming there is some charge stored in the capacitor, defining it’s potential as VC(0), the resistor
R becomes load of the capacitor. The differential equation (8) would take a form:

𝑑
𝜏 𝑉 + 𝑉𝐶 = 0 (9)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Eq. (9) is a linear, first order homogeneous differential equation. Assuming it’s solution to be:

𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (10)

𝑑
𝑉 = −𝑠𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (11)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
where A is a constant. In order to find the value of s, putting the solution from (10) and (11) in
(9):

𝜏(−𝑠𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) + 𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 = 0 (12)

𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑠𝜏 + 1) = 0 (13)

Since 𝐴𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cannot be equal to zero as it is the assumed solution of the equation. This implies the
other term is equals to zero.

(−𝑠𝜏 + 1) = 0 (14)

1 (15)
𝑠=
𝜏

From eq. (15), equation (10) becomes:

𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (16)

where A is found with the help of the initial conditions. Eq. (16) is graphically represented as
shown in Fig. 7.

Fig.6: Natural response of R-C circuits

Applying initial conditions:

𝑉𝐶 (0) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 𝐴(1) ≫ 𝑉𝐶 (0) = 𝐴 (17)

Putting value of A from eq. (17) in (16);

𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝐶 (0)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (16)

Example: In RC series circuit of R=10 KΩ and C= 100 µF, what is the time constant of this circuit?
Let the capacitor is charged and the voltage potential stored is 5V. Write the equation for the
voltage across capacitor. Plot the results as well.

Solution:

For an R-C circuit, the time constant is given by:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 10 × 103 × 100 × 10−6 = 1 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)

The voltage across the capacitor as shown in eq. (16) is given by:

𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 5𝑒 −𝑡 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

The time response of this R-C circuit is given by:

Exercise: In RC series circuit of R=1 KΩ and C= 1 µF, how long it will take to fully discharge the
capacitor? Let the capacitor is charged to 7 V initially.

HINT: Completely discharging would take infinite time if you try to solve it with eq. (16).
Generally, in electrical circuits, completely discharge is considered to be 99.3% of the overall
charge stored in the capacitor and the value is also equal to 5𝝉.

LINK: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/rc/rc_2.html

Exercise: In R-C series circuit of C=10 µF, what should be the value of R to discharge the capacitor
completely? Let the capacitor is charged to 12 V initially.

2.2 Capacitor’s current in R-C circuits during natural response:

The same methodology is used to find the current through the capacitor in an R-C circuit. Since,
1
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝑡, putting this eq. (6):

1
𝑉 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝑡 (17)
𝐶
As voltage source V is zero during the natural response, eq. (17) can be re-arranged as:
 1
𝐼𝐶 𝑅 + ∫ 𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐶
Differentiating both sides:
𝑑 1
𝑅 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝜏

The solution of this equation is:

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 (0)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (18)

where 𝐼𝐶 (0) = 𝑉𝐶 (0)/𝑅.

Example: In RC series circuit of R=2 Ω and C= 50 mF, what is the time constant of this circuit? Let
the capacitor is charged and the voltage potential stored is 5V. Write the equation for the voltage
and current of the capacitor. Plot the results as well.

For an R-C circuit, the time constant is given by:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 2 × 50 × 10−3 = 0.1 (𝑠𝑒𝑐)

The voltage across the capacitor as shown in eq. (16) is given by:

𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 5𝑒 −10𝑡 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

The current through the capacitor as shown in eq. (18) is given by:
5
𝐼𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −10𝑡 (𝐴)
2
The time response of this R-C circuit is given by: