Lube LCA

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2005
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Final Report: Life Cycle Analysis of Biolubricants

for Aluminum Rolling
EPA Grant Number: R831521
Title: Life Cycle Analysis of Biolubricants for Aluminum Rolling
Investigators: Theis, Thomas L.
Institution: University of Illinois at Chicago
EPA Project Officer: Klieforth, Barbara I
Project Period: November 1, 2003 through October 31, 2006
https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract/6613/report/F 1/18
11/28/2019 Final Report | Life Cycle Analysis of Biolubricants for Aluminum Rolling | Research Project Database | Grantee Research Project | ORD …
Project Amount: $249,944

RFA: Technology for a Sustainable Environment (2003) RFA Text | Recipients
Lists
Research Category: Sustainability , Pollution Prevention/Sustainable
Development
Objective:
This project examined issues associated with the substitution of pertroleum-based
lubricants with bio-based (i.e., plant-derived) lubricants for industrial
applications. Such an approach appeared to be an attractive material substitution:
biolubricants are renewable, relatively nontoxic, biodegradable, and more easily
extracted and processed than petrolubricants. There are, however, several aspects
of the use of biolubricants that have to be addressed further in order to estimate
the societal, environmental, and technological benefits and impacts of the
widespread use of these substitutes. These aspects fall into three areas:
performance, regulatory, and life cycle.
Performance. Knowledge of the lubrication properties of biolubricants formulated

for various applications must be measured and compared with their petro-based
counterparts in order to determine such factors as material wear, lubricant
stability, and quantitative needs.
Regulatory. There is reason to suggest that volatile organic compound (VOC)

emissions and solid waste issues for biolubricants will be less severe than for
petrolubricants. In addition to lower toxicity and higher biodegradability, the
composition of biolubricants tends to consist of higher molecular weight/lower
vapor pressure components. However, there is a need to measure emission rates
and compositions, again in comparison with petro-based lubricants intended for
similar uses.
Life Cycle. The extent to which they can be reused (either directly or for
secondary uses), and the degree to which their production is itself dependent on
petroleum products are important matters that must be addressed before it
becomes clear that biolubricants are the preferable choice. Given the heavy
dependence of U.S. agriculture on petroleum products, a significant quantity of
petrochemicals will be used to produce plant feed stocks. In addition, widespread
expansion of agricultural production of plants dedicated as feedstocks for
biolubricants may have implications for elemental cycling (particularly nitrogen),
carbon sequestration, and soil erosion.
Summary/Accomplishments (Outputs/Outcomes):
A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) examining soybean and petroleum-

based lubricants has been compiled using Monte Carlo Analysis (MCA) to
determine system variability. Comparative inventory emissions between soybean
and mineral oils show that if they have similar use rates during performance,
soybean oils have greater life cycle emissions of VOC, NOx, SOx, N2O, NO3-,
and total P, and lower emissions of CO2, CH4, and PM10 as well as decreased
fossil fuel consumption; however, experimental data obtained from an aluminum
manufacturing facility indicate that significantly less soybean lubricant is required
to achieve similar or superior performance. With improved performance and a
lower use rate, a transition to soybean oil results in lower aggregate impacts of
acidification, smog formation, and human health from criteria pollutants.
Regardless of the quantity consumed, soybean-based lubricants exhibit significant
climate change and fossil fuel use benefits; however, eutrophication impacts are
much greater due to nonpoint nutrient emissions. Fundamental tradeoffs in the
carbon and nitrogen cycles are addressed in the analysis, demonstrating that a
transition to soybean oil may result in climate change benefits at the expense of
regional water quality.
Introduction
Commodities derived entirely or partially from biomass, known as bio-based

products or biocommodities, have been proposed as substitutes for petroleum in
applications ranging from transportation fuels to plastics. While many studies
have focused on transportation fuels, the potential exists for successful
implementation of biocommodities in niche markets, such as lubricants, plastics,
and specialty chemicals (Lynd, et al., 1999; Mohanty, et al., 2002; Wilke, 1995;
Dale, 1999). Bio-based lubricants are particularly feasible for adoption within
industry; currently they are used as hydraulic fluids and once-through operations
such as cutting and stamping. Biolubricants have yet to appear in continuous-loop
operations, such as aluminum rolling; however, experimental evidence from this
project suggests that the potential exists for implementation.
Over 2 billion gallons (~7.5 billion liters) of lubricants are produced annually in
the United States (Energy Information Administration, 2004). Of these, over 900
million gallons (~3 billion liters) are used for industrial purposes, with
approximately 100 million gallons (~380 million liters) dedicated to
metalworking operations including aluminum rolling (Honary, 1996). The U.S.
agricultural sector produces approximately two and a half billion gallons of
vegetable oils annually, with 2% of these stocks currently used in nonfood
applications (Ash and Dohlman, 2006; Kinney, 1998). Biolubricants are
increasing in popularity due to superior technical properties and environmental
concerns associated with petroleum lubricants (Pearson and Spagnoli, 2000;
Honary, 2001). Recent chemical modifications improve the oxidative stability of
vegetable oils, demonstrating their potential to compete with mineral oils in
longer-term applications (Honary, 1996; McManus, et al., 2003; Kassfeldt and
Goran, 1997; Pal and Singhal, 2000).
It is often assumed that bio-based products are environmentally preferable to

petroleum products due to their renewable nature. To determine the validity of
this assumption, a comparative LCA allows a quantitative comparison of the
energy and material flows throughout the stages of each product, from creation to
disposal or reuse (Vignon, et al., 1992). A significant body of work is available on
the life cycles of bio-based transportation fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, and
various databases catalogue the environmental impacts of agriculture (MacLean,
et al., 2000; Sheehan, et al., 1998; Fu, et al., 2003; Shapouri, et al., 1995; Lave, et
al., 2000). One study focusing on rapeseed oil for use in hydraulic applications
shows greenhouse gas emissions reductions for biolubricants but increased
impacts of eutrophication, smog production, and energy use (McManus, et al.,
2004).
Agricultural systems exhibit considerable variability and uncertainty in emission

profiles because of differences in geography, climatology, and agricultural
practices. The use of average data to characterize agricultural systems may not
adequately generate an accurate system depiction of emissions occurring during
“extreme” years (such as rainy or drought years), and the subsequent

environmental impacts. This paper incorporates data variability to provide a more
comprehensive system description. The use of variable data allows the LCA
practitioner to compare alternative products using average values and also best
and worst case scenarios given probability estimates.
The purpose of this project was to conduct a comparative LCA for biolubricants
and mineral oils, using MCA to incorporate data variability into the assessment.
Unlike most metalworking operations that currently use bio-based lubricants in
once-through operations, rolling processes recycle lubricants in a continuous loop.
Experimental data from aluminum rolling is used to determine lubricant behavior
during the process, and convert to an appropriate functional unit. Use phase data
are not often incorporated into LCAs due to lack of data, which results in a cradle-
to-gate analysis that may overlook important inventory flows. By incorporating
experimental data within the analysis, the results are more relevant to actual
applications. Although this paper focuses on aluminum rolling as an example, the
reported data are applicable to a range of soybean-based products.
Methods
Boundaries. The boundaries for the life cycles of the mineral oil and soybean
lubricants modeled in this project are presented in Figure 1. All primary and
secondary inputs related to upstream manufacturing are included; however, the
contributions from the manufacture of capital equipment are assumed to be
negligible. It is assumed that nonmodified soybean oil is used in the process due
to its acceptable performance in this application. When nonmodified soybean oil
can be used, it is preferable for economic considerations, since additional
processing increases the cost. Applications using chemically modified or heat-
treated soybean oil require incorporation of additional inventory data as
appropriate, which will increase the energy consumed along the life cycle.
Figure 1. Flow Diagrams of Soybean and Mineral Oil Life Cycles,

Depicting Relevant Material and Energy Flows Documented in the
Inventory. Transportation between processes is also included.
The amount of lubricant used in aluminum rolling is determined by experimental

results, which are described below. It is assumed that all of the emissions
associated with metal rolling will be the same for both lubricants, except for VOC
emissions during the process. The lubricant system consists of oil-in-water
emulsions with additive packages that are assumed to be similar for both types of
lubricants. Other emissions associated with the use phase, such as energy use by
the mill, are the same regardless of lubricant and are excluded from this study.
Aluminum Rolling Trials. Soybean lubricant performance was tested in an

aluminum rolling manufacturing facility. The experimental data indicate that
soybean lubricants consistently outperform the mineral oil standards (Miller, et
al., 2006). In addition to obtaining greater reductions, the soybean lubricants were
able to perform at temperatures and pressures that induced failure in the mineral
oils. Surface quality was also improved by the soybean material.
Inventory Analysis. Inventory data on agricultural operations are available from

numerous sources; however, values of mass and energy flows for agricultural
operations can differ substantially, depending on annual fluctuations in crop yield,
weather patterns, and agricultural operations. Evaluation of three databases and
their underlying assumptions was necessary in order to establish an inventory for
this study, and is described in detail in a prior publication (Miller and Theis,
2005). From the findings of this study, the Greenhouse gases, Regulated
Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model is the basic
framework for the inventory data in this study, due to its transparency and
adaptability to user assumptions (Wang, 1999). Data gaps and disparities
identified in the earlier study are included in this study. These include
incorporation of nonpoint nitrogen emissions and variability in VOC emissions
from hexane extraction, and inclusion of upstream emissions from soybean-
specific agricultural chemicals.
From the analysis of available models, it is evident that significant variability can
exist. Variability data were obtained via MCA, which is a tool that repeatedly and
randomly selects values from probability distributions assigned to system
parameters. This study used Crystal Ball Version 7.0 to run the MCA simulations.
In addition to providing transparency and adaptability to user assumptions,
GREET Version 1.6 contains variability information in a Crystal Ball format for
energy generation processes. Modifications to the GREET model as well as
determination of variability distributions for individual parameters are described
in Miller, et al. (2006).
GREET 1.6 catalogues energy use and emissions for each stage of the agricultural
process, including variability estimates. Detailed descriptions of the inventory
calculations can be found in the GREET manual (Wang, 1999). While GREET
provides valuable information pertaining to the agricultural sector, it is created for
analysis of transportation fuels and needs to be modified for this analysis.
Modifications to the GREET inventory include a separate nitrogen
characterization model, which supplies aqueous nitrate emissions as well as N2O,
NOx and NH3 emissions. A complete description of the nitrogen distribution
model is detailed in an earlier paper (Miller, et al., 2006). Agricultural chemical
manufacturing data for fertilizer production and application, lime, and crop-
specific pesticides are also added (Landis, et al., 2006). VOC emissions resulting
from the hexane extraction of soybean oil are modified from the original GREET
values, using a distribution resulting from a best-fit regression of ten collected
industry sources ( EPA, 1995). While other methods of oil extraction exist, hexane
extraction is currently the most prominent and economically viable, so it is the
extraction method used in this analysis. Carbon sequestration and end-of-life
releases are also incorporated into the analysis.
A credit of 2.44 kg CO2/kg soybean oil is included in the farming inventory in

this analysis, which is based on the assumption that 66% by mass of processed
soybean oil derives from atmospheric carbon (Sheehan, et al., 1998). Both the
Energy Information Administration (EIA) and Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) assume that 50% of the carbon in lubricants is
sequestered at the end-of-life in a solid state and 50% is released as emissions
(EIA, 2004). This assumption seems valid since filter material containing waste
lubricants is generally sent to sealed landfills. This study assumes that all end-of-
life carbon emissions are CO2, although a study is currently underway to measure
the respective VOC emissions of soybean and mineral oils during aluminum
rolling. A sensitivity analysis on the final impact data shows this assumption does
not affect the overall conclusions of the analysis. The end-of-life emissions for
mineral oils are based on a lubricant carbon content equivalent to 1.95 kg CO2/kg
mineral oil, with uncertainty bounds of -1%/+6%, as defined by the EIA (EIA,
2004).
Allocation. Many industrial processes generate more than one product; each
product is responsible for a portion of the emissions generated during the process,
although it is often unclear exactly how the inventory should be divided among
the components in LCA. The choice of allocation scheme can be an important
factor in LCA and can significantly impact the outcome (Vignon, et al., 1992).
Allocation is usually conducted on a mass, energy, or market basis. In this study,
all allocation is conducted on a mass basis at the process level and is described in
detail below. Although market-based allocation is also a reasonable alternative,
the interdependence of corn-soybean agriculture complicates the allocation
scheme. Allocation of emissions on an energy basis is rejected for this study since
the ultimate function of the product is not related to energy purposes.
Agricultural cycles provide some interesting dilemmas in the choice of allocation.

Allocating on a mass basis, soybean oil is responsible for 18% of the inventory
flows associated with soybean production (Sheehan, et al., 1998). Since soybeans
are generally rotated with corn, allocating overall farm-scale emissions to
soybeans is more complex. Corn and soybeans are grown in rotation to minimize
fertilizer requirements for corn crops and maintain soil health. Even though
fertilizers are generally applied only to corn, soybeans are an integral part of the
nitrogen cycle in modern agriculture, due to their ability to fix nonreactive
nitrogen, and reduce fertilizer requirements for the next corn crop. Inefficient
fertilizer uptake during a corn rotation allows soybeans to utilize residual fertilizer
and fix less nitrogen (Gentry, et al., 2001). To determine environmental impacts of
corn and soybeans, a proportion of emissions must be allocated to each.
This project uses process-level allocation between corn and soybeans, which
dictates that inventory flows particular to a certain product should be allocated
only to that product (Wang, et al., 2003). Two methods for allocating nutrients
between corn and soybean are presented:
1. Treat the rotation as a system, and allocate total inventory flows for the
rotation to corn and soybean according to an appropriate percentage.
2. Treat corn and soybean growing seasons separately, allocating only
inventory flows which occur within the growing season, irrespective of the
nutrient cycle overlap.
The first method is a more precise system depiction; however, deciding on the
appropriate percentage can be complicated and subjective. Even though fertilizer
applied during corn years has a role in soybean nutrition, its primary purpose is
for corn crops, and it is difficult to determine the impact fertilizer applied during
corn years has on soybean growth. Ideally, this allocation would account for the
nutrient flows based on soil nitrogen budgets, which would relate each crop’s
contribution to total nitrogen fluxes. This type of information is not well
understood, and difficult to convert to allocation schemes. In addition, allocating
upstream emissions of applied fertilizer to soybeans does not seem appropriate,
since fertilizers are generally applied only to corn crops.
The second scheme is easier to perform, although it may not reflect the
mechanistic nature of the system. According to this allocation, the inventory
would include only fertilizer and chemicals applied to each crop, and nutrient
runoff and air emissions during their respective growing years. In this manner, all
upstream emissions generated from fertilizer manufacturing and the subsequent
nitrogen loads to the environment are allocated to corn. Soybeans are accountable
for fertilizer applied during soybean years only, as well as nutrient leaching and
air emissions during their growing season. While the synergistic nature of the
corn-soybean rotation is not captured by this method, it is a reasonable allocation,
since biological nitrogen fixation from soybeans is responsible for disruptions in
the nitrogen cycle even without direct fertilizer application. Emissions associated
with phosphorus fertilizer are allocated in a similar manner.
This study includes only nutrient runoff and chemicals applied during the soybean
growing season; it does not include pesticides applied to corn. The only pesticide
included in the inventory is glyphosate, since it is the predominant herbicide used
on soybeans. Inventory data associated with lime, a soil amendment used to adjust
soil pH, is allocated on an annualized basis depending on the percentage of
soybean acreage in the study area (Landis, et al., accepted).
Calculating emissions associated with mineral oils was also conducted at the
process level. Most lubricants are produced through a pathway similar to that of
Residual Fuel Oil (RFO), which derives from the heavier fraction of crude
separated via the initial distillation process (Wang, et al., 2003). Based on the
product streams of a generic U.S. refinery, lubricant stocks are assumed to make
up 7% by mass of the total product (Wang, et al., 2003), and refinery emissions
are allocated accordingly.
Functional Unit and Use Phase Calculations. In LCA, products are compared on
the basis of a functional unit that appropriately compares the performance of the
products. The functional unit for the analysis is area of aluminum rolled. The
relative performance of soybean and mineral oil must be determined in order to
complete the analysis.
The described aluminum rolling performance experiments indicate superior

performance by the soybean oil and improved surface quality of the metal.
Soybean oil achieves greater reductions in metal thickness at lower temperatures
than the traditional mineral oil, indicating that approximately 75% less lubricant
can be used in an emulsion to achieve similar or improved results (Alcoa, Inc.,
2004). A summary of the experimental data obtained at the aluminum rolling trial
can be found in Miller, et al., 2006.
Impact Assessment. Several software tools are available to perform life cycle
impact assessments (LCIA) (Goedkoop, 1995; Dreyer, et al., 2003; Jolliet, et al.,
2003; Itsubo and Inaba, 2003; Bare, et al., 2003; Bare and Gloria, 2006). These
vary by the inclusion of different impact categories, characterization factors, and
the use of normative factors, such as weighting the importance of impacts to
normalize an analysis (Bare and Gloria, 2006; Landis and Theis, submitted; Toffel
and Marshall, 2004). LCIA uses characterization factors to determine the amount
of impact a given amount of emission will have.
The Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other
Environmental Impacts (TRACI) is used in this analysis because of
characterization factors specific to location-specific U.S. data as well as its
midpoint approach to impact assessment. TRACI provides characterization
factors for 12 impact categories: ozone depletion, global warming, acidification,
eutrophication, photochemical smog, ecotoxicity, human health criteria air
pollutants, human health cancer, human health noncancer, fossil fuel, land use,
and water use (Bare, et al., 2003). The method for measuring each environmental
impact is different and is discussed in detail in the literature (Bare, et al., 2003;
Bare and Gloria, 2006; Landis and Theis, submitted; Toffel and Marshall, 2004;
Norris, 2003).
Due to constraints of data availability and consistency, the only impacts that are
calculated in this analysis are not compound-specific. Impacts pertaining to
aquatic and human health depend greatly on emissions of individual chemicals
and are not calculated to avoid biasing the results of the assessment due to lack of
uniformity in the data. Reported human health impacts pertain only to those
resulting from exposure to the criteria pollutants and do not indicate the acute or
chronic health issues from toxic or carcinogenic substances. This may be a
significant issue from a worker exposure issue and should be addressed in the
future when compound-specific data are available. Ozone depletion potential is
also not considered since neither inventory tracks specific chemical information
on ozone-depleting substances.
Characterization factors for climate change are site-generic, meaning the location
of the emission does not affect the magnitude of the impact value. Other
environmental impacts vary depending on the location of relevant emissions.
Using TRACI’s site-specific characterization factors, better impact assessments
can be made than with generalized factors (Bare, et al., 2003). Information for
determining location-specific impact factors can be found in Miller, et al., 2006.
Results and Discussion
Inventory Results. MCA allows calculation of probability distributions for each

inventory flow. Figure 2 presents the inventory data for mineral oil and soybean
lubricants on a mass of emission/mass of lubricant basis. The contributions of
each stage of the life cycle to total process emissions are shown with variability
bars indicating the values within a 10–90% probability range, with the median
value of the total indicated above each emission.
a)
b)
Figure 2. Contributions of Each Life Cycle Stage to Total Emissions, With

Variability Bars Showing the 10–90% Probability Range. Indicated values
represent the median of the distribution. The life cycle stages of mineral
oils are: crude oil recovery, refining combustion emissions, refining
noncombustion emissions (Refining NC), and transportation to production
facility. For soybean oil, the life cycle stages represented are farming
equipment, fertilizer production and transportation, other (upstream
production and transportation of lime and pesticides), on-field emissions,
transportation to processing plant, soybean processing, and transportation to
production facility.
Median fossil energy consumption for soybean oil is 5.27 MJ/kg oil. Oil
processing is responsible for 55% of energy consumption, followed by farming
operations (28%), and transportation (11%). Upstream processes make up the
remainder. Oil processing is the most energy intensive stage because of the natural
gas consumed drying the beans and generating steam for the extraction process.
Internal energy for soybean oil is not included since it derives from solar energy.
In contrast, the life cycle of mineral oil is responsible for the consumption of
44.78 MJ/kg oil of fossil energy, almost ten times that of soybean oil. The
majority (91%) is from fossil energy embodied within the product. The internal
energy of the mineral oil is included because it derives from a source of fossil
energy; soybean oil does not. Of the remaining 4.24 MJ/kg oil consumed
throughout the manufacture of the lubricant, 51% occurs during the refinery stage,
42% during crude oil extraction, and 7% during transportation.
As seen in Figure 2a, crude oil extraction is responsible for the majority of air
emissions in mineral oil production, especially for methane, where fugitive
emissions from oil extraction and transportation to the refinery are abundant. Life
cycle emissions for soybean oil are distributed among various processes. Use of
farming equipment and transportation are major contributors to NOx, SOx, and
CO2 emissions. Soybean oil processing is the dominant contributor to VOC
emissions, due to process emissions during hexane extraction, which separates oil
from meal. On-field processes make up the majority of N2O emissions, and
contribute substantially to NOx. These emissions are the byproducts of
denitrification and nitrification reactions of fertilizer and mineralized soil
nitrogen. In addition, on-field processes include CO2 sequestration, which results
in net negative CO2 emissions due to the assumption that 50% of the carbon is re-
released to the atmosphere, while 50% stays in a stable solid state. Even if it is
assumed that the carbon is re-released in its entirety at the end of life, the carbon
emissions are offset by the initial carbon sequestration, resulting in only the CO2
emitted by fossil fuel combustion throughout the life cycle.
System Variability and Error. The variability bars depicted in Figure 2

demonstrate the 10–90% range of possible values for these data. In the mineral oil
inventory, aggregate PM10 and SOx emissions vary by over 100% between the
10th and 90th percentiles. Inventory components from particular life cycle stages
also demonstrate significant variability, but these do not greatly affect the
cumulative variability of the life cycle. For instance, refinery emissions from
noncombustion processes (which include fugitive emissions, blowdown systems,
thermal and catalytic cracking, and catalyst regeneration) possess variability
ranges over several orders of magnitude for VOC, CO, PM10, NOx, and SOx
emissions; however, these do not greatly impact the aggregate inventory for these
compounds since they have relatively small values when compared to combustion
processes. Certain soybean oil components demonstrate significantly greater
variability. For soybean oil, aggregate VOC and N2O emissions vary by over
300% over the 10–90% range due to process variability in soybean oil extraction,
and variability in N2O emissions from on-field processes.
Three sources of variability are contained within inventory data: operational

variability (e.g., differences in operational practices such as operating machinery
more efficiently); natural variability (e.g., nutrient cycles in agricultural systems,
composition of crude oil, and methane released from oil fields), and systematic
variability within the model (e.g., different researchers compiling data and
assigning probability distributions to values and the use of different models to
compile data). The large variability in nitrogen compounds in the soybean
inventory is an artifact of the natural variability in agricultural systems, whereas
the variability associated with SOx emissions in the mineral oil inventory is
largely due to operational variability. Systematic variability differences appear in
this inventory from the combination of GREET and nutrient models, as well as
other supplemental data that were added. Systematic variability also encompasses
uncertainty in inventory ranges and inventory flows that are not assigned
variability distributions in this model due to limitations in data availability. These
include CH4 emissions from crude oil recovery, CO2 sequestration during on-field
processes, and end-of-life CO2 emissions. While the authors have tried to limit
the systematic variability wherever possible, it is an inevitable result of combining

multiple data sources. Operational and natural variability cannot be reduced in
this analysis, since they are a result of actual data occurring within the system.
Inventory Comparisons. Figure 3 presents life cycle inventory results on a mass of

emission per area of metal basis. If performance data are neglected and
comparison is conducted using similar use rates, soybean oil is responsible for
greater life cycle emissions for VOC, NOx, N2O, NO3-, and total P, and for
significantly fewer emissions of CO2 and CH4, as well as significantly less fossil
energy consumption. Due to the intensive participation of agriculture in the
nitrogen cycle, soybean oil has notably higher NOx, N2O and aqueous nutrient
emissions than mineral oils on a mass basis. Hexane extraction, which dominates
the VOC emissions for soybean oil, is responsible for significantly greater VOC
emissions than the mineral oil. The lower CO2 and CH4 emissions for soybean oil
are due to the sequestration of carbon during soybean farming, and the methane
releases during crude oil extraction. The comparative emissions for CO, PM10,
and SOx have similar values for soybean and mineral oils, and the variability
ranges associated with these emissions overlap.
Figure 3. Comparative Life Cycle Inventory Results for Soybean and

Mineral Oils, Showing the 10–90% Probability Range Per 100 m2 of
Aluminum Production. Two soybean cases are shown: no change in
performance, as well as the expected 75% reduction in the amount of oil
used to produce of a similar quantity of aluminum. All values are reported
as kg/100 m2 rolled aluminum, except for CO2 and NO3- emissions, which
are in Mg/100 m2.
Experimental data suggest that approximately 75% less soybean oil will be
required in the rolling process, resulting in lower life cycle emissions proportional
to the reduction in the total amount of oil consumed. Interestingly, the total net
carbon sequestration is lower for the improved performance case, since there is
less oil consumed throughout the process and therefore less potential for
sequestration. LCA cautions against direct emissions comparisons, since the data
can be misleading. The emissions must be first translated into appropriate impact
metrics for proper comparison.
Impact Results. An LCIA is compiled using the inventory data for the life cycles
of soybean and mineral oil and location-specific characterization factors from
TRACI. Table 1 reports the impact results for producing 100,000 m2 of rolled
aluminum, indicating the median and the 10–90% probability range.
Table 1. Impact Results for Mineral Oil and Four Use-Phase Soybean Oil
Scenarios, for 100,000 m2 Aluminum. Median value is shown with values
in parenthesis representing the 10-90% range.
Soybean Oil
Performance
Basis –
Soybean Oil
Impact Units Mineral Oil generated
Mass Basis
from
experimental
data
Reduction in
lubricant used 76%
- No Change
during the use (65-86%)
phase
moles H+
437 (374- 753 (540- 166
Acidification equivalents/
525) 1026) (96-285)
100,000m2
kg N
equivalents/ 0.26 (0.23- 154 (52.7- 27.9
Eutrophication
0.30) 291) (10.7-73.3)
100,000m2
DALYs/ 1.14 (0.92- 1.38 (1.14- 0.31

Human Health
100,000m2 1.43) 1.67) (0.19-0.50)
kg NOx
Smog 8.45 (7.59- 15.5 (10.8- 3.42
equivalents/
Formation 9.59) 21.0) (1.95-5.88)
100,000m2
kg CO2 -2343
Global 5731 (5577- -538
equivalents/ (-2924,
Warming 5900) (-889, -288)
100,000m2 -1583)
Fossil Fuel GJ/ 182 (179- 20.7 (20.1- 4.92

Use 100,000m2 184) 21.4) (3.11-7.61)
For easier comparison among the data, the results have been normalized to the
impacts associated with mineral oil, as seen in Figure 4. In this figure, variability
bars are included only for soybean oil data, since normalized results for mineral
oil have a value of 1 by definition. The variability associated with normalized
soybean oil scenarios depicts the variability of the impact categories relative to
mineral oil. Soybean oil shows negative impact profiles in the Climate Change
category. This is caused by sequestration of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
and results in net improvement instead of an impact. As discussed earlier, if the
assumption of net carbon sequestration is rejected, the climate change potential
for soybean oil will still be significantly less than mineral oil due to soybeans’
participation in photosynthesis. In addition, fossil fuel consumption for soybean
oil is less than 10% of mineral oil. Eutrophication is several orders of magnitude
greater for soybean lubricants regardless of production improvements. This result
is not surprising, given the participation of biomass in the nitrogen cycle, and
direct emissions of NO3- and phosphorus into watersheds.
Figure 4. LCIA Results Normalized to Mineral Oil
Tradeoff Analysis. The results show that with improved performance, soybean oil
lubricants result in significant climate change and fossil fuel use benefits, but
have increased impacts in eutrophication potential.
Fossil fuel combustion is a controlling factor determining the relative

environmental impacts of most products and processes due to the quantity of
emissions. The inventory emissions for the criteria pollutants are directly related
to fossil fuel combustion. In general, products that have greater fossil fuel
combustion throughout their life cycle will generate more emissions and cause the
most deleterious environmental impacts. When combustion of fossil fuels is
greater, the resultant emissions and subsequent impacts are also greater.
Modern agriculture is one of the exceptions to this linkage between fossil fuels
and the emissions inventory. Agricultural systems rely largely on natural fluxes of
carbon and nitrogen to produce biomass. While combustion processes are an
integral part of modern agricultural systems, natural cycles that extract carbon and
nitrogen from the air can contribute greatly to the overall fluxes within the
system. As this analysis shows, the more biomass used within a system that has
net carbon sequestration, the greater the climate change benefit. The more
soybean oil that is used, the more carbon sequestration and subsequent climate
change benefit can be realized. Conversely, as consumption of biomass increases,
the flux of nitrogen into the environment also intensifies. Nitrogen contributes to
many impacts in its reactive forms, with emissions of NOx, N2O, and NO3-
primary factors in eutrophication, acidification, and smog formation, and
contributors to climate change and human health impacts (Galloway, et al., 2003).
The carbon and nitrogen cycles in agriculture are inextricably linked. As

atmospheric carbon uptake increases in soybeans, so does biological nitrogen
fixation in order to reach the typical 30:1 C:N Redfield ratio for foliage plants
(Megonigal, 2002). As shown in Figure 4, there is an inverse relationship between
climate change benefits and eutrophication impacts. Essentially, the substitution
of soybean oils for mineral oils results in a fundamental tradeoff between the
impacts of carbon and those of nitrogen. Increased biomass substitution may
assist in ameliorating the global issue of climate change, but may occur at the
detriment of regional impacts, such as eutrophication and hypoxia. Consideration
of increased nitrogen flux and the subsequent environmental impacts should be an
important factor in decisions concerning widespread adoption of bio-based
products.
A correlation between the aggregate amount of carbon sequestered and the

nitrogen compounds emitted can be determined. Based on the assumptions of this
analysis, the ratio of nitrogen compounds emitted in soybean fields during on-
field processes to the rate of CO2 sequestration via photosynthesis is: 14 g
NO3-/kg CO2 sequestered (10–90% range 4.4–27.0); 0.33 g N2O/kg CO2
sequestered (0.13–0.59); 0.51 g NOx/kg CO2 sequestered (0.13–0.59). For the
complete inventory data specific to soybean lubricants and the relative amount
used in rolling, including all process emissions and sequestered carbon released at
the end of life, the ratio of nitrogen compounds emitted for carbon dioxide
sequestered is: 36 g NO3-/kg CO2 sequestered (13.2–76.3); 0.61 g N2O/kg CO2
sequestered (0.37–1.69); 3.42 g NOx/kg CO2 sequestered (2.46–4.52).
Only durable goods that maintain carbon in a solid state at the end of life can
claim credit for sequestration. If the carbon stored during photosynthesis is
released into the atmosphere completely via combustion or biodegradation, there
is no net sequestration. Instead, there is a net release of carbon from fossil sources
used to produce the biomass. In these cases, there is no carbon sequestration, and
the ratio of the amount of reactive nitrogen released to the amount of displaced
fossil carbon becomes much greater. Instead of creating climate change benefits,
combustion products derived from biomass merely slow the flux of fossil carbon
into the atmosphere, while accelerating the flux of reactive nitrogen.
Nutrient fluxes are often neglected in agricultural LCAs because of their

variability and difficulty integrating them into life cycle inventories (Sheehan, et
al., 1998). However, as the results of this analysis indicate, inclusion of this
information is essential to understand and evaluate the tradeoffs that arise for bio-
based products. Eutrophication impacts are significantly greater and climate
change is lower for soybean-based lubricants, but the extent of the remainder of
impacts for soybean oil is largely dependent on the amount of oil used in the
process.
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1997;207:41-45.
Pal M, Singhal S. Environmentally adapted lubricants, part II. Hydraulic fluids.

Journal of Synthetic Lubrication 2000;17(3):219-224.
Vignon BW, et al. Life-cycle assessment: inventory guidelines and principles.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Battelle and Franklin Associates Ltd.:
Cincinnati, 1992.
MacLean HL, et al. A life-cycle comparison of alternative automobile fuels.

Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 2000;50(10):1769-1779.
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Landis AE, Miller SA, Theis TL. A probability approach to incorporating natural
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Journal Articles on this Report : 2 Displayed | Download in RIS Format
Other project All 2 2 publications in selected

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views: publications types
Type Citation Project Document Sources
Miller SA, Theis TL.

Comparison of life-cycle
inventory databases: a Abstract: MIT Press Abstract
R831521 (2004)
Journal Article case study using soybean
production. Journal of
R831521 (Final) EXIT
Industrial Ecology
2006;10(1-2):133-147.
Miller SA, Landis AE,

Theis TL. Use of Monte Abstract from PubMed
Carlo analysis to Full-text: ACS Full Text
characterize nitrogen
Journal Article fluxes in
R831521 (2004)
R831521 (Final)
EXIT
agroecosystems. Other: ACS PDF
Environmental Science
& Technology EXIT
2006;40(7):2324-2332.
Supplemental Keywords:
life cycle assessment, life cycle inventory, bio-based production, soybean oil,
aluminum rolling, metal working, life cycle comparison, inventory analysis,
soybean agriculture, product substitution, sustainable engineering,, RFA,
Scientific Discipline, Air, POLLUTANTS/TOXICS, Sustainable
Industry/Business, Chemical Engineering, Sustainable Environment,
Environmental Chemistry, cleaner production/pollution prevention, Chemicals,
climate change, Air Pollution Effects, Technology for Sustainable Environment,
Ecological Risk Assessment, Atmosphere, life cycle analysis, environmental
monitoring, environmentally conscious manufacturing, petrolubricant substitutes,
air pollution control, VOC removal, aluminum rolling, metal casting industry, life
cycle assessment, biolubricants, carbon emissions credit trading, Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs)
Progress and Final Reports:

Original Abstract
2004 Progress Report
2005
The perspectives, information and conclusions conveyed in research project

abstracts, progress reports, final reports, journal abstracts and journal publications
convey the viewpoints of the principal investigator and may not represent the
views and policies of ORD and EPA. Conclusions drawn by the principal
investigators have not been reviewed by the Agency.
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11/28/2019 Final Report | Life Cycle Analysis of Biolubricants for Aluminum Rolling | Research Project Database | Grantee Research

Research Project | ORD …

2 publications for this project

Final Report: Life Cycle Analysis of Biolubricants

Project Amount: $249,944

Performance. Knowledge of the lubrication properties of biolubricants formulated

Regulatory. There is reason to suggest that volatile organic compound (VOC)

A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) examining soybean and petroleum-

Commodities derived entirely or partially from biomass, known as bio-based

It is often assumed that bio-based products are environmentally preferable to

Agricultural systems exhibit considerable variability and uncertainty in emission

“extreme” years (such as rainy or drought years), and the subsequent

Figure 1. Flow Diagrams of Soybean and Mineral Oil Life Cycles,

The amount of lubricant used in aluminum rolling is determined by experimental

Aluminum Rolling Trials. Soybean lubricant performance was tested in an

Inventory Analysis. Inventory data on agricultural operations are available from

A credit of 2.44 kg CO2/kg soybean oil is included in the farming inventory in

Agricultural cycles provide some interesting dilemmas in the choice of allocation.

The described aluminum rolling performance experiments indicate superior

Results and Discussion

Inventory Results. MCA allows calculation of probability distributions for each

Figure 2. Contributions of Each Life Cycle Stage to Total Emissions, With

System Variability and Error. The variability bars depicted in Figure 2

Three sources of variability are contained within inventory data: operational

the systematic variability wherever possible, it is an inevitable result of combining

Inventory Comparisons. Figure 3 presents life cycle inventory results on a mass of

Figure 3. Comparative Life Cycle Inventory Results for Soybean and

aluminum, indicating the median and the 10–90% probability range.

DALYs/ 1.14 (0.92- 1.38 (1.14- 0.31

Fossil Fuel GJ/ 182 (179- 20.7 (20.1- 4.92

Figure 4. LCIA Results Normalized to Mineral Oil

Fossil fuel combustion is a controlling factor determining the relative

The carbon and nitrogen cycles in agriculture are inextricably linked. As

A correlation between the aggregate amount of carbon sequestered and the

Nutrient fluxes are often neglected in agricultural LCAs because of their

Lynd LR, Wyman CE, Gerngross TU. Biocommodity Engineering. Biotechnology

Mohanty AK, Misra M, Drzal LT. Sustainable bio-composites from renewable

Energy Information Administration. Annual Energy Review 2004. Department of

Honary LA. An investigation of the use of soybean oil in hydraulic systems.

Ash M, Dohlman E. Oil crops outlook. United States Department of Agriculture

Pearson SL, Spagnoli JE. Environmental lubricants—an overview of onsite

Honary LA. Biodegradable/biobased lubricants and greases. Machinery

Kassfeldt E, Goran D. Environmentally adapted hydraulic oils. Wear

Pal M, Singhal S. Environmentally adapted lubricants, part II. Hydraulic fluids.

Vignon BW, et al. Life-cycle assessment: inventory guidelines and principles.

MacLean HL, et al. A life-cycle comparison of alternative automobile fuels.

Shapouri H, Duffield JA, Graboski M. Estimating the net energy balance of

Lave L, et al., Life-cycle analysis of alternative automobile

Wang M. GREET—Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in

Energy Information Administration. Documentation for emissions of greenhouse

Wang M, Lee H, Molburg J. Allocation of energy use in petroleum refineries

Goedkoop M. The EcoIndicator 95. Pre consultants, Amersfoort, The

Jolliet O, et al. IMPACT 2002+: A new life cycle impact assessment

Itsubo N, Inaba A. A new LCIA method: LIME has been completed.

Toffel MW, Marshall JD. Improving environmental performance assessment: a

Galloway JN, et al. The nitrogen cascade. BioScience 2003;53(4):341-356.

Journal Articles on this Report : 2 Displayed | Download in RIS Format

Other project All 2 2 publications in selected

Type Citation Project Document Sources

Miller SA, Theis TL.

Miller SA, Landis AE,

Progress and Final Reports:

The perspectives, information and conclusions conveyed in research project

LAST UPDATED ON TUESDAY, AUGUST 14, 2007