Anatomy of the Digestive System  Visceral peritoneum—covers external surfaces of most

Two main groups of organs abdominal organs and continuous with the parietal
 Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract or GIT)— peritoneum through the mesentery
continuous, coiled, hollow tubethat runs through the  Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer that lines the
ventral cavity from stomach to anus abdominopelvic cavity
 These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate Stomach
 Accessory digestive organs  C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdominal
 Include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, cavity
gallbladder  Food enters at the stomach through the cardioesophageal
 Assist digestion in various ways sphincter from the esophagus
Gastrointestinal Tract  Functions:
 A continuous, coiled, hollow tube that runs through the  Temporary storage tank for food
ventral cavity from stomach to anus  Site of food breakdown
 Organs include  Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Mouth  Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
 Pharynx through the pyloric sphincter
 Esophagus  Regions
 Stomach  Cardial (cardia)—surrounds the cardioesophageal
 Small intestine sphincter
 Large intestine  Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the cardiac
 Anus region
Anatomy of the mouth  Body—midportion of the stomach
 Mouth (oral cavity)  Greater curvature is the convex lateral surface
 entrance of food  Lesser curvature is the concave medial surface
 mucous membrane–lined cavity  Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
 Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening  When full, can hold 4L (1 gallon) of food
 Cheeks—form the lateral walls  Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa which collapses
 Hard palate—forms the anterior roof when the stomach is empty
 Soft palate—forms the posterior roof  Lesser omentum
 Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate dangling at the  Attaches the lesser curvature of stomach to the liver
posterior edge of the soft palate  Greater omentum
 Vestibule—space between lips externally and teeth and  Connects the greater curvature of the stomach to the
gums internally transverse colon
 Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of  Structure of the stomach mucosa
the skull  Composed almost entirely of mucous cells
 Lingual frenulum—secures the tongue to the floor of the  Mucous cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
mouth that protects the stomach wall from acid damage and
Pharynx digestion by enzymes
 Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and air  Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric glands that
 Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the: secrete gastric juice, including:
 Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity  Intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12
 Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and absorption in the small intestine
continuous with the esophagus  Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes
Esophagus pepsinogen
 AKA: gullet  Parietal cells—produce HCl acid which is responsible
 Anatomy for the acidity of stomach contents and activate
 About 10 inches long pepsinogen to pepsin
 Runs from pharynx to stomach  Mucous neck cells—produce thin acidic mucus with an
 Physiology unknown function
 Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)  Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin
to the stomach Small Intestine
 Passageway for food only  The body’s major digestive organ
 Tissue Layers (tunics) of the GIT Organs  Longest portion of the GIT (2-4m, or 7-13 feet)
 Summary of the four layers from innermost to outermost,  Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
from esophagus to the large intestine  Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the
1. Mucosa- Innermost, moist membrane consisting of: ileocecal valve
 Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:  Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the
 Surface epithelium mesentery
 Lamina propria  Subdivisions:
 Muscle layer  Duodenum
 Lines the hollow cavity (known as the lumen)  C-shaped first part of the small intestine which
2. Submucosa acts as a bridge between the stomach and the
 Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve jejunum
endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and  Jejunum
lymphatic vessels  coiled tube, more vascular than ileum
3. Muscularis externa  Ileum
 smooth muscle  final and longest segment
 Inner circular layer  Nearly all nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine
 Outer longitudinal layer  Structures in the wall of the small intestine
4. Serosa—outermost layer of the wall; contains fluid- 1. Villi—fingerlike projections of the mucosa
producing cells
  Each villus has a capillary bed and lacteal which
absorbs the nutrients through the mucosal cells
2. Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma membrane
of the mucosal cells
3. Circular folds (AKA: plicae circulares)—deep folds of
mucosa and submucosa
 Increase surface area and force chime to travel
slowly for efficient nutrient absorption
 Peyer’s patches
 Collections of lymphatic tissue
 Located in submucosa
 Increase in number toward the end of the small
intestine to prevent entrance of bacteria into the
bloodstream from indigested food residue
Large Intestine
 Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1.5 m, than the
small intestine
 Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
 Functions:
 Absorb water from food residue
 Eliminate food residue throughfeces
 Subdivisions
 Cecum
 Appendix
 Colon
 Rectum
 Anal canal
1. Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
2. Appendix
 Hangs from the cecum
 Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that sometimes becomes
inflamed (appendicitis)
3. Colon
 Ascending—absorb remaining water and nutrients
 Transverse—absorb water and electrolytes
 Descending—stores feces
 Sigmoid—S-shaped region; contract to increase the
pressure inside the colon causing the stool to move into the
rectum4.
 Anal canal ends at the anus
5. Anus—opening of the large intestine
 External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal muscle and is
voluntary
 Internal anal sphincter—formed by smooth muscle and is
involuntary
 These sphincters are normally closed except during
defecation
 The large intestine delivers indigestible food residues to
the body’s exterior
 Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the
passage of feces
 Accessory Digestive Organs
1. Teeth
 Function: masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments
 Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime
 Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
 A baby has 20 teeth by age 2
 First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors
 Permanent teeth
 Replace deciduous teeth between ages 6 and 12
 A full set is 32 teeth (with the wisdom teeth)
 Teeth are classified according to shape and function
 Incisors—cutting
 Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
 Premolars (bicuspids)—crushing and grinding
 Molars—crushing and grinding
 Two major regions of a tooth
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the gingiva
 Enamel—covers the crown; directly bears the force of
chewing
2. Root
 Portion of the tooth embedded in the jaw bone
 Cement—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth
to the periodontal membrane (ligament)
 Periodontal membrane holds tooth in place in the
bony jaw
Note: The NECK is a connector between the crown and root
Salivary Glands
 Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the
mouth
1. Parotid glands
 Lies anterior to the ears
 Mumps: infection of the parotid glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
 Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty
saliva into the floor of the mouth through small ducts
 Saliva
 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
 Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass
called a bolus
 Contains:
 Salivary amylase—begins starch digestion
 Lysozymes and antibodies—inhibit bacteria
 Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
Pancreas
 Soft, pink triangular gland
 Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
 Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break
down ALL categories of food
 Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic
chyme coming from stomach
 Hormones produced by the pancreas
 Insulin
 Glucagon
Liver
 Largest gland in the body
 Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and
abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
 Digestive function is to produce bile
 Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct
and enters duodenum through the bile duct
 Bile is yellow-green, watery solution containing:
 Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from
the breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes
 Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats
Gallbladder
 Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface of
the liver
 When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the
cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
 While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the
removal of water
 When fatty food enters the duodenum, the
gallbladder spurts out stored bile
Functions of the Digestive System
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Essential activities of the GIT include the following 6
processes
 Ingestion
 Propulsion
 Mechanical breakdown
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Defecation
Functions of the Digestive System
 Digestion
 Absorption
Essential processes of the GI tract
1. Ingestion
 Active, voluntary process of placing food into the
mouth
2. Propulsion
 Movement of foods from one organ to the next of the
digestive system to another
 Swallowing- example of food movement
 Peristalsis—involuntary and involves alternating waves
of contraction and relaxation that squeeze food along
the GIT
3. Mechanical breakdown
 Breakdown of food into smaller particles
 Examples
 Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestine
 Movement of materials back and forth to
foster mixing in the small intestine
 Mechanical digestion prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
4. Digestion
 Occurs when enzymes chemically break down large
molecules to their building blocks
 Each major food group uses different enzymes
 Carbohydrates are broken down to
monosaccharides (simple sugars such as glucose,
fructose and galactose)
 Proteins are broken down to amino acids
 Fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol
5. Absorption
 Transport of digestive end products from the lumen of
the GIT to the blood or lymph
 Food must first enter mucosal cells and then move
into blood or lymph capillaries
 Small intestine is the major absorptive site
6. Defecation
 Elimination of indigestible substances from the GIT in
the form of feces
Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
 Food ingestion and breakdown
 Food is physically broken down in to smaller pieces by
chewing
 Mixed with salivary amylase from the saliva
begins starch/carbohydrate
 Essentially, no food absorption occurs in the mouth
 Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis
 Pharynx and esophagus serve as passageways to carry
food to the stomach
 Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
 Two phases of swallowing
1. Buccal phase
 Voluntary
 Occurs in the mouth
 Chewed food mixed with saliva forms
into a bolus (food mass) and forced into
the pharynx by the tongue
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
 Involuntary transport of the bolus through
the muscular walls of the pharynx and
esophagus by peristalsis
 Nasal and respiratory passageways are
blocked
 Coughing reflex is triggered in an attempt to
expel food which may enter the respiratory
tract
 The cardioesophageal sphincter opens when
food presses against it and enters the
stomach
 Figure 14.14 Swallowing (1 of 4).
 Figure 14.14 Swallowing (2 of 4).
 Figure 14.14 Swallowing (3 of 4).
 Figure 14.14 Swallowing (4 of 4).
Activities in the Stomach
 Food breakdown
 Secretion of gastric juice is regulated by neural and
hormonal factors and produced at 2-3L/day
 Gastric juice converts the gastric contents into chyme
(semiliquid food mass)
 Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the
hormone gastrin
 Gastrin causes stomach glands in the mucosa to
produce:
 Protein-digesting enzymes
 Mucus
 Hydrochloric acid
 Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very
acidic because it activates conversion of pepsinogen
(inactive protein-digesting enzymes) to pepsin for
protein digestion
 Protein-digestion enzymes
 Pepsin—an active protein-digesting enzyme
 Rennin—works on digesting milk protein in infants
by clumping milk proteins for breakdown
 Other than the beginning of protein digestion, little
chemical digestion occurs in the stomach
 ONLY alcohol and aspirin are NOT absorbed in the
stomach
 Food propulsion
 Peristalsis: peristaltic waves occur from the fundus to
the pylorus to mix the food
 Grinding: vigorous peristalsis and mixing of food in the
fundus toward the pylorus of the stomach which
forms and holds 30ml of chyme. Pyloric sphincter
slightly opens to pump 3ml of chyme into the small
intestine.
 Retropulsion: peristaltic waves close the pyloric
sphincter, forcing the remaining chyme (about 27ml)
back into the stomach for more mixing; the stomach
empties completely in 4–6 hours
 Figure 14.15 Peristaltic waves in the stomach.
Activities of the Small Intestine
 Chyme breakdown and absorption
 Brush border enzymes found at the microvilli at the
mucosa of the small intestinesfunction to:
 Break down double sugars (disaccharides: ex.
lactose, maltose, sucrose) into simple sugars
(monosaccharides: ex. glucose, fructose
galactose)
 Complete protein digestion
 Pancreatic juice
 Enters the small intestine via the pancreatic duct
 Activities of the Small Intestine
 Together with bile enters the small intestine via
the common bile duct
 Contains enzymes:
1. Pancreatic amylase: complete digestion of
carbohydrates (starch)
2. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypetidase: carry
out half of protein digestion
3. Lipase: responsible for fat digestion
4. Nuclease: digest nucleic acids
 Contain pancreatic enzymes play the major role in
the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
 Contains bicarbonate ions (alkaline) to neutralize
the acidic chyme and provides the proper
environment for activation of intestinal enzymes
and pancreatic enzymes
 Entrance of chyme in the small intestine stimulates
the mucosal cells to produce the hormones:
  Secretin: causes liver to increase production of
bile
 Cholecystokinin (CCK): causes the gallbladder to
release stored bile
 Both hormones stimulate the pancreas to release its
pancreatic juice containing its enzymes and
bicarbonate ions
 Bile
 Acts as a fat emulsifier
 Needed for absorption of fats and fat-soluble
vitamins (K, D, E, and A)
 Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act
in Digestion (1 of 2)
 Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act
in Digestion (2 of 2)
 Water is absorbed along the length of the small
intestine
 End products of digestion
 Most substances are absorbed by active transport
through the intestinal cell plasma membranes and
enter capillary beds in the villi and transported to
the liver by the hepatic portal vein
 Lipids are absorbed by diffusion and carried to the
liver by blood and lymphatic fluids
 At the end of the ileum, some water, indigestible food
materials (plant fibers such as cellulose) and bacteria
and enter the large intestine through the ileocecal
sphincter
Activities of the Large Intestine
 Nutrient breakdown and absorption
 No digestive enzymes are produced
 Resident bacteria (ex. Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Gram
positive cocci) digest remaining nutrients
 Release gases (methane and hydrogen sulfide)
that contribute to flatulence and and odor of
feces
 Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins
 Vitamins, ions, and most of the remaining water are
absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via feces
 Feces contains:
 Undigested food residues
 Mucus
 Bacteria
 Enough water to allow its smooth passage
 Propulsion of food residue and defecation
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation
reflex
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary
(external) anal sphincter
 Imbalance:
1. Diarrhea: result from any condition that
rushes food residue through the large
intestine because of insufficient time to
absorb the water; when prolonged may cause
dehydration
2. Constipation: food residue remains in the
large intestine for extended periods, too
much water is absorbed
Part II: Nutrition and Metabolism
 Most foods are used as metabolic fuel
 Foods are oxidized and transformed into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
 ATP is chemical energy that drives cellular activities
 Energy value of food is measured in kilocalories (kcal) or
Calories (C)
 Nutrition
 Nutrient—substance in food used by the body for
normal growth, maintenance, and repair
 Divided into 6 categories
 Major nutrients: make up the bulk of food
eaten
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
 Minor nutrients: required in small amounts
1. Vitamins
2. Minerals
 Water: accounts for 60% of the volume of
food
 Considered major nutrient
 A diet consisting of foods from the five food groups
normally guarantees adequate amounts of all the needed
nutrients
 Grain
 Fruit
 Vegetable
 Meat and meat alternatives
 Milk products
 Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their
Major Nutrients (1 of 2)
 Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their
Major Nutrients (2 of 2)
 Dietary Recommendations
 Food guide pyramids
1.Healthy Eating Pyramid
 Issued in 1992 by Walter Willett
 Six major food groups arranged horizontally
2. My Plate
 Issued in 2011 by the USDA
 Five food groups are arranged by a round dinner plate
 Can be personalized by age, sex and activity level
 Basic dietary principle
“Eat less overall; eat plenty of fruits, vegetables and whole
grain; AVOID junk food; and exercise regularly.”
 Figure 14.17 Two visual food guides.
 Dietary Sources of the Major Nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
 Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and starches derived
from plants
 Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of
glycogen in meats
2. Lipids
 Most dietary lipids are triglycerides
 Saturated fats come from animal products
(meats,dairy food) and few plant products (coconut)
 Unsaturated fats fare present in nuts, seeds, and
vegetable oils
 Major cholesterol sources are egg yolk, meats, and
milk products
3. Proteins
 Animal products contain highest quality proteins
 Complete proteins—meet all of the body’s amino acid
requirements for tissue maintenance and growth
 Ex. eggs, milk, meat, and fish
 Essential amino acids: those that the body cannot
make and must be obtained through diet
 Cereal grains and legumes when eaten together
when eaten together provide ALL the needed
amino acids
 Legumes, beans, nuts and cereals are also protein rich,
but the proteins are nutritionally incomplete
 Figure 14.18 the eight essential amino acids.
4. Vitamins
 Organic nutrients needed by the body in small
amounts
 A balanced diet is the best way to ensure a full vitamin
complement
 Most vitamins function as coenzymes
5. Minerals
 Foods richest in minerals: vegetables, legumes, milk,
and some meats