CCSP Final Notes 2019

COMPUTER CONCEPTS
AND
SOFTWARE PACKAGES
(CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM)
ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Semester III
Paper 3.4 Computer concepts and software packages
Duration: 3 hours Marks: 100 Lectures: 50
Unit I
Basic Concepts: Meaning, characteristics and applications of a Computer, Advantages and

limitations of a computer, Meaning of Data, Information and Knowledge, Data types, data
storage, data representation such as ASCII.
Unit II
Components of Computers: Hardware components: input devices, output devices, system

unit. Software components: Application software: general purpose packaged software and
tailor – made software, System software: operating system, interpreter, compiler, linker, loader.
Unit III
Operating System: Need and functions of an Operating System, Graphic user interface and
character user interface. Windows environment: application and document, Windows interface
such as icons, lists, menus, dialog box, etc. Desktop, control panel, system tools, utilities such
as calculator, calendar, etc. Explorer: file types, attributes, names, folders, drives, devices. File
functions: create, open, close, delete, rename, move, cut, copy, paste, etc.
Unit IV
Introduction to Networks and Internet: Meaning and types of networks - LAN, MAN and
WAN, Internet, difference between internet and intranet. Basics: functions, growth, anatomy,
Uses, Wireless and Wi-Fi, Internet services: ISP, types of accounts, World Wide Web: websites
file transfer, browsing, searching.
Unit V
Office Applications: Meaning and applications of word processing,
MS-Word – formatting text, writing basic document using Word, Header and Footer, Page
formatting, paragraph formatting, saving a document, printing a document. Meaning and
applications of spreadsheets.
MS-Excel – creating a workbook, saving a workbook, editing a workbook, creating a series,

use of basic formulae in Excel, use of functions in Excel, sorting data, creating simple charts.
Meaning and applications of presentation.
MS-PowerPoint – creating simple presentation including slide transitions, bullets, etc.

The Theory paper will be based on Units 1-4 only and the practical component will be
based on Unit 5 only.
Suggested Readings
 Absolute Beginner's Guide to Computer Basics by Michael Miller
 Fundamental of Computers by Akash Saxena, Kratika Gupta
 Fundamentals of Information Technology, Alexis and Mathew
 Computers Today, Donald H. Sanders.
 Basic Financial Accounting, J.R. Monga
 Computer Fundamentals, P.K. Sinha
 Double Entry Book-Keeping, T.S. Grewal and Grewal.
GUIDELINES FOR THE CONDUCT OF PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
Computer Concepts, Software Packages and Computerized Accounting
Time: 60 Minutes Description of Marks Time Allowed

Maximum Marks: Question
25 Ques. No.
1 Lab testing of 25 60 minutes

various concepts
MS word, PPT and
Excel as mentioned
in Unit V.

UNIT-1
Basic Concepts: Meaning, characteristics and applications of a Computer, Advantages and

limitations of a computer, Meaning of Data, Information and Knowledge, Data types, data
storage, data representation such as ASCII.
COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The term computer
is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate or programmable machine.
Computer cannot do anything without a Program. It represents the decimal numbers through a
string of binary digits. The Word 'Computer' usually refers to the Center Processor Unit Plus
Internal memory.
Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. The First mechanical computer
designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-only memory in the
form of punch cards.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the
result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
Digital Computer Definition
The basic components of a modern digital computer are: Input Device, Output Device, Central
Processor Unit (CPU), mass storage device and memory. A Typical modern computer uses LSI
Chips.
Four Functions about computer are:
1. Accepts Data-Input
2. Processes Data-Processing
3. Produces Output-Output
4. Stores Results-Storage
INPUT (DATA):
Every computer is designed with data entry as a pivotal function - before this data can be passed
on to the processor for processing. Data entry basically involves what is referred to as data
input and is accomplished via input devices. The application used in the computer will also
dictate how the data is input. This can be done manually, automatically, or by a combination
of the two. Manual entry of data means the operator or technician manually inputs data via add-
on peripherals. The basic input devices include the keyboard, mouse and external storage
devices.
For example, an operator will input data via the keyboard to the computer and the processor
will manipulate the data for display or storage, depending on the intended needs and/or uses.
Today, data can also be input via vocal dictation applications and body gestures like Kinect
and biometric devices. Automated applications and robotics can also be used to intelligently

feed data into the computer on station or remotely. As an example, tallying of an electoral
process can be accomplished remotely and automatically.
Figure: - A microphone can be used for data entry into the computer
PROCESS:
Data processing is the core function and purpose of a computer system. It is the main reason
why a computer is actually a computer.
The 'brain' of the computer where data is processed is referred to as the microprocessor. It is
also commonly known as the central processing unit (CPU) or accelerated processing unit
(APU).
It is important to note that processing units of modern personal computing devices continue to
evolve and outperform its predecessors. One particular evolution is the merger of
microprocessor and graphics processing unit (GPU) into what is now known as accelerated
processing unit (APU). The merger allows for integration of powerful graphics processing
abilities on top of traditional arithmetic and logical computations of the processor.
Figure: - Intel Processor

OUTPUT:
When raw data has been fed to the microprocessor for manipulation, the end result is referred
to as information.
At a local level, the processed data and information can be:
 Viewed as text or video via display monitor

 Consumed as audio files
 Printed as hard copy onto paper
 Printed as 3D models
The information to be viewed on the monitor could be:
 The text viewed could be a letter

 A video production of a family ceremony
 The documents to be printed could be a business report or just a letter
 The audio output could be an mp3 file recorded and edited via relevant applications.
DATA AND INFORMATION
The last and very important function of a computer is data and information storage. A computer
can store information internally and externally. The hard disk drive (HDD) and/or solid-state
disk drive (SSD) are internal storage devices and serve to protect and house all data and
information within a computer. In bigger systems where data and information are extremely
crucial, the RAID system is used. Multiple disk drives operate simultaneously to ensure
absolute data and information integrity. External storage is achieved through accessories that
attach externally to the computer. They include external drives and optical disks.
Better still data and information can be stored online in cloud solutions for a fee.
Storage integrity is a crucial phase that can actually determine the worth of a computer system.
In any case, what use is a computer without data and information?
 Computer Memory (Storage) Hardware

Computer memory hardware can be grouped under primary and secondary memory: while
primary memory is volatile and non-volatile, secondary memory is non-volatile, capable of
storing data for later use

Figure: - Sample hard disk drive
Computer Classification: By Size and Power
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.
According to functionality, computers are classified as:
1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer
SUPERCOMPUTER
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA
uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration
purpose.
The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in large
air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building.

The 5 fastest supercomputers in the world
1. Summit (US)
Showing further evidence of the US Department of Energy’s renewed commitment to

supercomputing power, Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s (ORNL) Summit first claimed the
#1 spot in June 2018, taking the top rank from China for the first time in 6 years. In the year
since its debut on the June 2018, Summit has widened its lead as the number one system,
improving its initial High Performance Linpack (HPL) performance from 122.3 to the current
148.6 peta FLOPS.
Figure: Summit
2. Sierra (US)
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory’s (LLNL) Sierra initially debuted at #3 with 71.6
peta FLOPS, but optimization has since pushed the processing speed on its 1,572,480 cores to
94.6 peta FLOPS, earning it the #2 spot. Incorporating both IBM central processing units
(CPUs) and NVIDIA graphics processing units (GPUs), Sierra is specifically designed for
modeling and simulations essential for the US National Nuclear Security Administration.
Figure: Sierra

3. Sunway Taihu Light (China)
A former number one, Sunway Taihu Light dominated the list since its debut in June 2016. At
that time, its 93.01 peta FLOPS and 10,649,000 cores made it the world’s most powerful
supercomputer by a wide margin, boasting more than five times the processing power of its
nearest competitor (ORNL’s Titan) and nearly 19 times more cores. But given the non-stop
pace of technological advancement, no position is ever secure for long. Taihu Light ceded the
top spot to competitors in June 2018. Located at the National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi,
China, Taihu Light’s creators are using the supercomputer for tasks ranging from climate
science to advanced manufacturing. It has also found success in marine forecasting, helping
ships avoid rough seas while also helping with offshore oil drilling.
Figure: Sunway Taihu Light

4. Tianhe-2 (China)
Tianhe-2, whose name translates as “MilkyWay-2,” has also seen recent updates. But despite
now boasting a whopping 4,981,760 cores and running at 61.4 peta FLOPS, that hasn’t stopped
it from slipping two spots in just one year—from #2 to #4.
Developed by the National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) in China, is intended
mainly for government security applications. This means that much of the work done by
Tianhe-2 is kept secret, but if its processing power is anything to judge by, it must be working
on some pretty important projects.
Figure: Tianhe-2

5. Frontera (US)
A new entry, Frontera is the brand-new supercomputer at the Texas Advanced Computing
Center (TACC) at the University of Texas. It replaces Swiss National Computing Centre’s Piz
Daint, the only European machine in the previous top five, leaving the highest-ranking spots
now split solely between the US and China.
At 23.5 petaflops, Frontera is the fastest supercomputer on a university campus. It was designed
specifically to tackle the most prevalent types of problems that scientists need supercomputers
to solve--equations that describe motions of bodies in the universe and the interactions of atoms
and molecules. But Frontera doesn’t neglect up-and-coming areas like data-intensive
applications and deep learning. Frontera was funded by the National Science Foundation
(NSF). Each year, more than 55 million node hours on Frontera will be made available to
researchers through the NSF Petascale Computing Performance Allocation program.
Figure: Frontera

Uses of Supercomputers
Space Exploration
Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-matters. For these studies
scientist use IBM’s powerful supercomputer “Roadrunner” at National Laboratory
Los Alamos.
Earthquake studies
Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon. Besides that, supercomputers
are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas, petroleum, coal, etc.
Weather Forecasting
Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the nature and extent of
Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.
Nuclear weapons testing
Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test the Range, accuracy & impact
of Nuclear weapons.
Popular Supercomputers
 IBM’s Sequoia, in United States

 Fujitsu’s K Computer in Japan
 IBM’s Mira in United States
 IBM’s SuperMUC in Germany
 NUDT Tianhe-1A in China
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to
run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-
conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with large
data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks
educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about
their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
Popular Mainframe computers
 Fujitsu’s ICL VME

 Hitachi’s Z800
Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as
“Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a disk with
not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers & Mainframes. These
computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or

organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department
can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.
Popular Minicomputers
 K-202
 Texas Instrument TI-990
 SDS-92
 IBM Midrange computers
Figure: - IBM Midrange Computer
MICROCOMPUTERS
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all
types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing
computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers. The
Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education and
work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung,
Sony, HP, Lenovo and Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.

Figure: - Micro Computer
Basic characteristics about computer are:
1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can
perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second)
or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your
computer performs work.
2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7 determined on the basis of design
of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it
overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information
or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers
of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and
when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from
the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide
what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you
can.
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus
it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. Role of Computer in Embedded System:
Embedded systems are used to control, monitor or help the operation of equipment. An
embedded system has software embedded into hardware, which makes a system dedicated for
an application (s) or specific part of an application or product or part of a larger system. It
processes a fixed set of pre-programmed instructions to control electromechanical equipment.
Embedded systems often interact (sense, manipulate & communicate) with external world
through sensors and actuators and hence are typically reactive systems; a reactive system is in
continual interaction with the environment and executes at a pace determined by that
environment. Today, embedded systems are found in cell phones, digital cameras, camcorders,
portable video games, calculators, personal digital assistants, microwave ovens, answering
machines, home security systems, washing machines, lighting systems, fax machines, scanners
and many other devices.
Characteristics of Embedded System
a) Embedded systems are application specific.

b) Embedded systems are very efficient. They save time and cost.
c) Real time systems performed operations within time. Embedded systems are typically
designed to meet real time constraints
d) Embedded systems often interact with external world through sensors and actuators and
hence are typically reactive systems; a reactive system is in continual interaction with the
environment and executes at a pace determined by that environment.
e) They generally have minimal or no user interface
SENSORS PROCESSORS ACTUATORS
Figure: - Embedded System
2. Role of Computer in Simulation:
A computer simulation runs on a computer to show behavior of a system. It represents running

of system’s model. It makes the use of abstract model to simulate the system. Computer
simulation used in mathematical systems like physics, chemistry, biology and in various human
systems like economics, social science, and engineering. Computer simulation can assist in the
design, creation, and evaluation of complex systems. Designers, managers, analysts, and
engineers use computer simulation to understand and evaluate the behavior of the system.

Computer simulations are used in various areas: -
a) Simulators are used to give training to pilots.

b) It is used for modeling car crashes to test safety mechanisms in new vehicle models.
c) Robot simulators are used for the design of robots and robot control algorithms.
d) Urban simulation models that simulate dynamic patterns of urban development.
e) Traffic engineering to plan parts of the street network from single junctions over cities to
a national highway network.
f) Reservoir simulation for the petroleum engineering to model the subsurface with
simulation tools.
g) They are used in weather forecasting.
3. Role of Computer in Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial intelligence is very emerging field of computer science. The main objective of AI is
to develop machines that have human kind of intelligence. Various AI techniques are used that
are used to solve AI problems. It includes Expert systems and neural network. An expert
system is a set of programs that manipulate encoded knowledge to solve problems in
specialized domain that normally require human expertise. Expert system has explanation
module, input/output interface, editor, inference engine, knowledgebase, case history file,
learning module. Various Expert Systems are available
a) Dendral: it is capable of determining the structure of chemical compounds given a

specification of the compound’s constituent elements and mass spectrometry data obtained
from samples of compound.
b) Mycin: it is expert systems which diagnoses infectious blood diseases and determine are
commended list of therapies for the patient.
c) Puff: It is a diagnostic expert system for pulmonary diseases
4. Use of Computer in Defense:
Computer performs very important role in Defense. Computers are used to track incoming
missiles target to destroy them. Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target
enemy forces, help diagnose any problems with the platforms. Computers are used to hold
documents, maintenance records and records of events. They are also used on Intercontinental
Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that use GPS and Computers to help the missile get to the target.
Applications of Computer in Defense
a) Computer Simulation- Computer simulations allow the military to train soldiers without
actually having to put them in harm's way. It is a way to develop military’s tactical,
strategically and doctrinal solutions in battle.
b) Communication - When it comes to military training, being able to communicate with the
team in far places is essential in learning to work together. Allow those who are specializing
in military communication to get hands-on training in real world setting.
c) Military Secrecy- It also helps them organize their files for safekeeping and easy access.
There are programs and hardware of military computers that are confidential for security
purpose.

5. Role of Computer in Medical:
Computer plays very important role in medical science. It helps the doctors to conduct various
surgeries. Using computers, we are able to hold all of patients' information in a more organized
way. With so many patients and their information, files and records would occupy too much
space. Computers allow people in the medical field to store information. Medical history,
current health status, family history, and more can be easily accessed and looked up within a
few minutes. Computers can be used to perform research in the health sector. Research studies
can be done on a computer. Studying certain types of cells, microorganisms, body functions,
etc. are done through computer. They can easily save important information and open it up
later and this information can be easily displayed through presentations and Google documents,
or be sent to whomever needs to view it. Web conferencing can be used to guide new trainee
doctors. Doctors are able to freely communicate across the world using computer based
programs and internet access. Computers are used in many of the diagnostic tests that take
place within the hospital. Types of Computer Techniques Used in Hospitals are Computerized
Axial Tomography (CAT or CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and Functional MRI
(fMRI).
Applications of Computers in Medical
a) Computer-assisted surgery (CAS) represents a surgical concept and set of methods, that
use computer technology for surgical planning, and for guiding or performing surgical
interventions. CAS has been a leading factor in the development of robotic surgery.
b) In radiology, computer-aided detection (CADe), also called computer-aided diagnosis

(CADx), are procedures in medicine that assist doctors in the interpretation of medical
images. Imaging techniques in X-ray, MRI, and Ultrasound diagnostics yield a great deal
of information, which the radiologist has to analyze and evaluate comprehensively in a
short time.
6. Role of Computer in Biometrics Systems:
The word “biometrics” came from Greek word which can be divided into two roots: “bio”
means life and “metrics” – to measure. Biometrics offer automated methods of identity
verification or identification on the principle of measurable physiological or behavioral
characteristics such as a fingerprint or a voice sample. The characteristics are measurable and
unique.
Biometric technologies can be divided into 2 major categories according to what they
measure:
a) Devices based on physiological characteristics of a person (such as the fingerprint or hand
geometry).
b) Systems based on behavioral characteristics of a person (such as signature dynamics).
Applications of Biometrics:
a) Biometric time and attendance systems, which are being increasingly used in various
organizations to control employee time keeping.
b) Biometric safes and biometric locks, provides security to the homeowners

c) Biometric access control systems, providing strong security at entrances.
d) Biometric systems are also developed for securing access to pc's and providing single login
facilities.
e) Wireless biometrics for high end security and providing safer transactions from wireless
devices like PDA's, etc.
f) Applications of biometrics technology in identifying DNA patterns for identifying

criminals, etc.
7. Role of Computer in Banks:
Computer technology has made several important impacts on our society. Today computer
is playing very important role in every field of life. Many activities in daily life can be
performed very easily and quickly. A lot of time is saved and overall cost is reduced to solve
a particular problem. Many fields where computer are widely used. Computers are widely
used in banks. They are used in banks for record keeping and maintaining accounts of
customers. Most of the banks provide the facility of ATMs. The customers can draw money
through ATM card from any branch of that bank (or another bank) at any time of a day.
Computers support all these functions and services: -
a) Mainframe: -Your bank's workhorse is the mainframe. It's the backbone of any bank's
operations because it performs all the following, simultaneously: all customer account data
i. Performs complex analysis of constantly changing financial markets

ii. Keeps track of all the bank's product offerings and their associated interest rates and
earnings
iii. Communicates with other mainframes at branch locations around the world
b) ATMs: -The automated teller machine, which was introduced in the 1970s, liberated the
typical bank customer from that last-minute race to get to the bank before it closed. Using
an ATM, customers were finally able to check account balances, withdraw cash and
eventually deposit cash and checks, make transfers between accounts and make loan
payments. The individual computer units inside each ATM are linked to the bank's
mainframe, where all the data are stored and coordinated.
c) Teller Terminals: -Servicing the varied national and international needs of today's bank
customers requires a teller able to communicate as much with the outside world as with the
mainframe. All of this communication happens from the individual teller terminal. Teller
computer terminals provide access to business and personal overseas accounts and process
wire transfers and bill payments to the bank's proprietary credit cards and any other bills,
such as your electric bill, that the bank offers to facilitate at its location.
d) Scanners: - scanners ensured that would never happen again by making digital scans of
checks as legally viable as paper checks. Now banks and their customers use check scans

routinely for deposits and transfers, making the digital imaging function a major player in
today's computerized banking.
e) Biometric Devices: -American Express and BBVA are two U.S. financial institutions that
jumped first into biometric identification of customers. Press your thumb to the digital
device and the tiny computer inside verifies your identity using your unique fingerprint.
American Banker predicts that with increasing availability of this technology through
devices like Touch ID from Apple, these print readers will soon be standard computer
technology for banks internationally.
8. Role of Computer in E-Commerce: E-Commerce stands for electronic commerce. It is

also known as e-trade or e-business. E-commerce is a financial business transaction
conducted electronically between business partners over computer network (such as on
Internet). This saves time for participants on both ends. The users can buy, sell, and
exchange products or services via computer network. There are many applications of e-
commerce such as home banking, shopping in electronic malls, buying stocks, finding a job,
conducting an auction, collaborating electronically with business partners around the globe,
marketing & advertising and providing customer service.
The following services of e-commerce are used most frequently
a) Electronic Mail (E-mail): The e-mail is a service that transports text messages from a
sender to one or more receivers via computer. Voice mail systems capture, store and transmit
spoken messages.
b) Video conferencing: Video conferencing is a type of conference in which video cameras

and microphones capture sight and sound transmission over networks. It is an advance form
of teleconferencing. Video conferencing should provide a complete simulation of a normal
meeting environment, enabling both parties to see, hear and present material, just as if they
were in the same room. It can speed up business process and procedures in the same way
that the fax and the e-mail have revolutionized the way we share information. Tangible
benefits are most easily related to actual cost savings. The most obvious quantifiable saving
is the cost of travel and cost of the time wasted during travel. Following hardware and
software are required in video conferencing.
i. Webcam is a digital video camera. Its output can be viewed in real time over a
network/Internet
ii. Microphone & speaker or headset.
iii. Special software for video conferencing. iv. Computer with a large memory and fast
processor.
c) Electronic-Shopping (E-Shopping): The shopping conducted through Internet is known

as electronic shopping or e-shopping. Many business organizations have their websites on
the Internet. These websites are used to sell goods and services. Customers place their orders
through websites and make payments using credit cards. Any computer connected to
Internet can be used for this purpose. People can purchase any goods such as books,
software, movies, and computers etc.

9. Role of Computer in Weather Forecasting: Weather forecasting is the application of
science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. It involves
so many mathematical calculations. The mathematics involved is too complex. The task is
not too much for computer, however. Computers can perform a series of calculations in a
few hours that would take a meteorologist his or her whole lifetime to finish. In numerical
weather predicting meteorologists select a group of equations that describe the conditions
of the atmosphere as completely as possible for any one location at any one time. This set
of equations can never be complete because even a computer is limited as to the number of
calculations it can complete in a reasonable time. Thus, meteorologists pick out the factors
they think are most important in influencing the development of atmospheric conditions.
These equations are fed into the computer. After a certain period of time, the computer will
print out the changes that might be expected if atmospheric gases behave according to the
scientific laws to which they are subject. From this printout a meteorologist can make a
forecast of the weather in an area in the future. The accuracy of numerical weather
predictions depends primarily on two factors.
i. First, the more data that is available to a computer the more accurate its results.
ii. Second, the faster the speed of the computer the more calculations it can perform and the
more accurate its report will be.
10. Role of computer in Entertainment: Today, computers are used in a variety of areas for
entertainment purposes. The technology is used for streaming and watching videos, listening
to downloads of music, playing video games. The computers started as very simplistic
machines for storing and transferring data. Most of these files were text-based reports used
in a work environment. As technology advanced, computers became increasingly versatile
in what they could do. With the creation of the Internet and faster processors, file sharing
and entertainment became a popular use for personal computers everywhere in the world.
Computers have endless uses in the entertainment industry by directly marketing products
to users.
Computer used in these fields.
a) Music: Computers now have almost unlimited access to any song by any artist. This is the way
of entertainment. Many website services allow users to purchase individual tracks or albums
directly to their computer. Most record labels take advantage of these services to make up for
lost revenue from illegal downloading. Computers also open a venue for many amateur
musicians in the music industry to record their own music without a professional studio needed.
Computers also allow musicians to create artificial instruments to record with, called MIDI
instruments that provided by multimedia.
b) Television and Movies: In entertainment with the advancement of video card and Internet
speeds, movies and streaming television are now at the click of a mouse button. Many websites
provide the services of movies with the cost of monthly subscription fee. Various websites
offer free streaming episodes of certain TV series with Internet commercials. With the use of
newer HD televisions and computers, the option of sending your computers video. These
videos feed to the full screen. Many times users may not even need to pay for cable service or
television because of the entire free available video content online using internet.

c) Art: Art is entertainment using computers. Pictures, paintings, poetry and more are just a
technique of art. Various browsers offer specific image search options to quickly browse
through art with a single keyword and movement of a mouse. Besides general use, computer
photo editing programs and animation programs are also the sources of art and photography.
d) Games: Computer games are video games. However, computer games offer a variety of
possibilities. Computers have access to many peripheral devices such as keyboards, mouse’s,
joysticks, and controllers. Computer games also are highly customizable because computers
can manipulate game files and video games. For examples creating new levels, characters or
graphic files for specific games. Video games are based on these files.
11. Role of Computer in Education: Computer teaching plays a key role in the modern education
system. Students find various notes on the internet using computer. Students find it easier to
refer to the Internet than searching for information in fat books. The process of learning has
gone beyond learning from prescribed textbooks. Internet is a much larger and easier-to-access
storehouse of information. When it comes to storing retrieved information, it is easier done on
computers.
a) Computers are a brilliant aid in teaching: Online education has revolutionized the education
industry. Computer online education technology has made the dream of distance learning, a
reality. Education is no longer limited to classrooms and practical labs. It has reached far and
wide, thanks to computers that provide very vast knowledge of study that is extra from books.
Physically distant locations have come closer due to Internet accessibility. So, even if students
and teachers are not very well communicating with one another. Online educational courses
provided by the internet that are better for students that are not required to attend classes
physically.
b) Computers have given impetus to distance education: Distance education is most popular
technique in these days. Computers facilitate effective presentation of information.
Presentation software like PowerPoint and animation software like Flash among others can be
of great help to teachers while delivering lectures in distance education. Using multimedia
computers facilitate audio-visual representation of information, thus making the process of
learning interactive and interesting way. Computer-aided teaching adds a fun element to
education. Teachers hardly use chalk and board today. They bring presentations on a flash
drive, plug it in to a computer in the classroom, and start teaching. The color and the view of
the presentations make full interest of students in study. Due to the visual aid, difficult subjects
can be explained in better ways and understand easily.
c) Computer software help better presentation of information: Internet can play an important
role in education. Computer provides the various software for presentations. As it is an
enormous information base and retrieval of information on a variety of subjects. The Internet
can be used to refer to information on different subjects with different way. Both teachers and
students benefit from the Internet and gain advance information. Teachers can refer to it for
additional information and references on the topics to be taught. Students can refer to web
sources for additional information on subjects of their interest gets extra information of
education. The Internet helps teachers set test papers, frame questions for home assignments
and decide project topics.

d) Computer used for storage of educational contents: Computers enable storage of data in
the electronic format, thereby saving paper. Memory capacities of computer storage devices
are in gigabytes. This enables them to store huge chunks of data. Moreover, these devices are
compact. They occupy very less space, yet store large amounts of data. Both teachers and
students benefit from the use of computer technology. Presentations, notes and test papers can
be stored and transferred easily over computer storage devices. Similarly, students can submit
homework and assignments as soft copies. The process becomes paperless, thus saving paper.
Plus, the electronic format makes data storage more durable. Electronically erasable memory
devices can be used repeatedly. They offer robust storage of data and reliable data retrieval.
e) Computer hard drives and storage devices are an excellent way to store data: This play
important role in education. Storage is the education sector which computers have impacted.
They are of great use in every field. This underlines the importance of computer education.
Knowledge of computers can make the career in the right direction of any person. Computers
are a part of almost every industry today. They are no longer limited any specific field. They
are used in networking, for information access and data storage and also in the processing and
presentation of information.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
The history of computer development is a computer science topic that is often used to reference
the different generations of computing devices.
Each one of the five generations of computers is characterized by a major technological

development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate. Most major
developments from the 1940's to present day have resulted in increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more powerful and more efficient computing devices.
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)
The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot
of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. It would take operators days or even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)
The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
From Binary to Assembly
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions
in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material.
The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments
and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.
Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present)
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Concept of Data
In general, data are information that have been gathered and translated for some purpose,
usually analysis. It can be any character, including text and numbers, pictures, sound, or video.
If data are not put into context, they don't mean anything to a human or computer.
Data is distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special way. All software is
divided into two general categories: data and programs. Programs are collections of instructions
for manipulating data.
Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers or text on pieces of paper, as bits and bytes
stored in electronic memory, or as facts stored in a person's mind.
Within a computer's storage, data is a collection of numbers represented as bytes that are in
turn composed of bits (binary digits) that can have the value one or zero. Data are processed
by the CPU, which uses logical operations to produce new data (output) from source data
(input).
1. Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information. In practice,
however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of the word.
2. The term data is often used to distinguish binary machine-readable information from textual
human-readable information. For example, some applications make a distinction between data
files (files that contain binary data) and text files (files that contain ASCII data).
3. In database management systems, data files are the files that store the database information,
whereas other files, such as index files and data dictionaries, store administrative information,
known as metadata.
Concept of Data, Information and Knowledge
The word data is plural datum, which means fact or raw information. Information is organized
or processed data. For example, 88, 99, 34 are numbers i.e., data. But they alone do not give
any information as to what they are.
However, if they are written as
Subject Marks
English 88
Mathematics 99
History 34

Then they become meaningful and are referred to as information.
Working principle of a computer
Just as a human being can be seen as a combination of body and mind, so can a computer. The
computer is a two-part system consisting of a body that is the hardware and a mind that is the
software. A computer therefore, is a collection of electronic parts (body) with a set of
instructions controlling it (mind).
Most activities can be described in terms of the Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) cycle. This can
be best illustrated by an example. Let us assume that, you are asked to add 1346 and 2936
 You first hear the two numbers.
 Store the numbers in your memory.
 Your brain adds the two numbers.
 Then, the result (4281) is stored in your memory.
 You either speak out the result or write it down depending on requirement.
The numbers are input, added and the result is output here, the inputs are 1346 and 2935. The
output is 4281. Your ear is the input device, brain is the processing unit, and mouth is the output
device.
A computer system too, follows the I-P-O cycle. To understand the I-P-O cycle of a computer,
let us take the example of an airline reservation system.
A person who wishes to travel by air from Singapore to New York fills in a reservation request
slip. This slip contains relevant data, i.e., details of the name, age, place of destination, etc., of
the customer. These customer details are the inputs. The process in this case, included
examining the flight number, the date of the journey, the class requested, and determining
whether seats are available as per the reservation details. As a result of this process, the
information that either the person gets the reservation or is unable to get the reservation is
output. The output may be in the form of a ticket, if seats are available, or a message turning
down the request. In case the customer is given reservation, his details are stored in a storage
device. Now, let us see how each component of the PC system is related to the I-P-O cycle.
The data in the form of request slip is input via the keyboard. Hence, the keyboard becomes
the input device. The processing is performed by a component of the system unit called the
microprocessor. The information regarding availability of seats is displayed on the display unit;
hence, the VDU becomes the output device. If a ticket is to be issued, it is printed on a printer
which is also an output device. Thus, each component of the PC system is involved in the I-P-
O cycle. The system unit does the processing. The other components -the VDU, the printer,
and the keyboard are necessary in the input or output part of the I-PO cycle and are hence
termed as I/O devices. Now you can identify the components of a PC as:
i. The monitor or the visual display unit (VDU) for output

ii. The keyboard for input
iii. The system unit (CPU) for processing
iv. The printer for output

Similarly, to understand the concept of Knowledge we take this argument with another
example.
Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added interpretation or analysis. E.g. "The
price of crude oil is $80 per barrel."
Information is data that has been interpreted so that it has meaning for the user. E.g. "The
price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80 per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so is said
to be information to someone who tracks oil prices.
Knowledge is a combination of information, experience and insight that may benefit the
individual or the organization. E.g. "When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's likely
that petrol prices will rise by 2p per litre" is knowledge.
The boundaries between the three terms are not always clear. What is data to one person is
information to someone else. To a commodities trader for example, slight changes in the sea
of numbers on a computer screen convey messages which act as information that enables a
trader to take action. To almost anyone else they would look like raw data. What matters are
the concepts and your ability to use data to build meaningful information and knowledge.
KNOWLEDGE
INFORMATION
DATA
Figure: - Flow Chart of knowledge, information and data
DATA TYPES
Data type represents a type of the data which you can process using your computer program. It
can be numeric, alphanumeric, decimal, etc.
Let’s keep Computer Programming aside for a while and take an easy example of adding two
whole numbers 10 & 20, which can be done simply as follows −
10 + 20
Let's take another problem where we want to add two decimal numbers 10.50 & 20.50, which
will be written as follows −
10.50 + 20.50

The two examples are straightforward. Now let's take another example where we want to record
student information in a notebook. Here we would like to record the following information –
Name:
Class:
Section:
Age:
Sex:
Now, let's put one student record as per the given requirement –
Name: Zara Ali

Class: 6th
Section: J
Age: 13
Sex: F
The first example dealt with whole numbers, the second example added two decimal numbers,
whereas the third example is dealing with a mix of different data. Let's put it as follows –
 Student name "Zara Ali" is a sequence of characters which is also called a string.
 Student class "6th" has been represented by a mix of whole number and a string of two
characters. Such a mix is called alphanumeric.
 Student section has been represented by a single character which is 'J'.
 Student age has been represented by a whole number which is 13.
 Student sex has been represented by a single character which is 'F'.
This way, we realized that in our day-to-day life, we deal with different types of data such as
strings, characters, whole numbers (integers), and decimal numbers (floating point numbers).
Similarly, when we write a computer program to process different types of data, we need to
specify its type clearly; otherwise the computer does not understand how different operations
can be performed on that given data. Different programming languages use different keywords
to specify different data types. For example, C and Java programming languages use int to
specify integer data, whereas char specifies a character data type.
DATA STORAGE
What does Data Storage mean?

Data storage is a general term for archiving data in electromagnetic or other forms for use by a
computer or device. Different types of data storage play different roles in a computing
environment. In addition to forms of hard data storage, there are now new options for remote
data storage, such as cloud computing, that can revolutionize the ways that users access data.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF DATA STORAGE
1. External Hard Drive
These are hard drives similar to the type that is installed within a desktop computer or laptop
computer. The difference being that they can be plugged in to the computer or removed and
kept separate from the main computer. They typically come in two sizes:
Desktop External Hard drive: Uses a 3.5-inch hard drive similar to that used in desktop
computers.
Portable External Hard drive: Uses a 2.5-inch hard drive similar to that used in laptops.
Desktop External Hard Drives are generally cheaper than Portable External Hard Drives for
the same storage space. Desktop External Hard Drives and usually faster and more robust.
Capacity: 160GB to 3TB (approx. 3000GB)
Advantages: Very good option for local backups of large amounts of data. The cheapest
storage option in terms of dollars per GB. Very reliable when handled with care
Disadvantages: Can be very delicate. May be damaged if dropped or through electrical surge
2. Solid State Drive (SSD)
Solid State Drives look and function similar to traditional mechanical/ magnetic hard drives
but the similarities stop there. Internally, they are completely different. They have no moving
parts or rotating platters. They rely solely on semiconductors and electronics for data storage
making it a more reliable and robust than traditional magnetic. No moving parts also means
that they use less power than traditional hard drives and are much faster too.
With the prices of Solid State Drives coming down and is lower power usage, SSD’s are used
extensively on laptops and mobile devices. External SSD’s are also a viable option for data
backups.
Capacity: 64GB to 256GB
Advantages: Faster read and write performance. More robust and reliable than traditional
magnetic hard drives. Highly portable. Can be easily taken offsite
Disadvantages: Still relatively expensive when compared to traditional hard drives. Storage
space is typically less than that of traditional magnetic hard drives.
3. Network Attached Storage (NAS)
NAS are simply one or more regular IDE or SATA hard drives plugged in an array storage
enclosure and connected to a network Router or Hub through an Ethernet port. Some of these
NAS enclosures have ventilating fans to protect the hard drives from overheating.
Advantages: Very good option for local backups especially for networks and small businesses.
As several hard drives can be plugged in, NAS can hold very large amounts of data.
IT can be setup with Redundancy (RAID) increasing the reliability and/ or read and write
performance. Depending on the type of RAID level used, the NAS can still function even if

one hard drive in the RAID set fails. Or two hard drives can be setup to double the read and
write speed of single hard drive.
The drive is always connected and available to the network making the NAS a good option for
implementing automated scheduled backups.
Disadvantages: Significantly more expensive than using single External Hard Drives.
Difficult to bring offsite making it very much a local backup hence still susceptible to some
events like theft and floods, fire etc.
4. USB Thumb Drive or Flash Drive
These are similar to Solid State Drives except that it is much smaller in size and capacity. They
have no moving parts making them quite robust. They are extremely portable and can fit on a
keychain. They are Ideal for backing up a small amount of data that need to be brought with
you on the go.
Capacity: 4GB to 64GB
Advantages: The most portable storage option. Can fit on a keychain making it an offsite
backup when you bring it with you. Much more robust than traditional magnetic hard drives
Disadvantages: Relatively expensive per GB so can only be used for backing up a small
amount of data
5. Optical Drive (CD/ DVD)
CD’s and DVD’s are ideal for storing a list of songs, movies, media or software for distribution
or for giving to a friend due to the very low cost per disk. They do not make good storage
options for backups due to their shorter lifespan, small storage space and slower read and write
speeds.
Capacity CD: 650MB to 900 MB Capacities DVD: 4.7GB to 17.08GB
Advantages: Low cost per disk
Disadvantages: Relatively shorter life span than other storage options. Not as reliable as other
storage options like external hard disk and SSD. One damaged disk in a backup set can make
the whole backup unusable.
6. Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is storage space on commercial data center accessible from any computer with
Internet access. It is usually provided by a service provider. A limited storage space may be
provided free with more space available for a subscription fee. Examples of service providers
are Amazon S3, Google Drive, and Sky Drive etc.
Advantages: A very good offsite backup. Not affected by events and disasters such as theft,
floods, fire etc.
Disadvantages: More expensive than traditional external hard drives. Often requires an
ongoing subscription. Requires an Internet connection to access the cloud storage. Much slower
than other local backups.

UNIT II
Components of Computers: Hardware components: input devices, output devices, system

unit. Software components: Application software: general purpose packaged software and
tailor – made software, System software: operating system, interpreter, compiler, linker, loader.
Hardware Components
Hardware refers to the physical equipment’s of the computer system used as input, processing
and output devices. Hardware consists of the machine itself and the various computer resources
attached to it which we can physically see and touch. It consists of keyboard, mouse,
microphone, scanner, etc. as input devices; printer, monitor, speaker, etc. as output devices;
processor, registers, memory, etc. relating to C.P.U as processing devices, and hard disk,
CDs/DVDs, etc. as storage devices.
Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
 Optical Character Reader (OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to
the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It
is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen
button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer
for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted
into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are
printed
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in
a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts
graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing
fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be
a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any piece of computer hardware item which utilizes whatever data and
commands from your computer in order to perform a task. This leads to the results of data
processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form.
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed
on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types
 Character printers
 Line printers
 Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

DAISY WHEEL
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
character sets available in the market are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers.

 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.\
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Support many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality
output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer
SOFTWARE
Sometimes abbreviated as SW and S/W, software is a collection of instructions that enable the
user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without software, computers
would be useless. For example, without your Internet browser, you could not surf the Internet
or read this page and without an operating system, the browser could not run on your computer.
The software can be broadly categorized into
1. System software
2. Application software
System software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware
and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system
software is the interface between the hardware and user applications.
The operating system (OS) is the best-known example of system software. The OS manages
all the other programs in a computer.
Other examples of system software and what each does:
 The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system started after you turn it on and
manages the data flow between the operating system and attached devices such as the hard
disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
 The boot program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or random
access memory (RAM).
 An assembler takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that
the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.
 A device driver controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer, such as
a keyboard or a mouse. The driver program converts the more general input/output instructions
of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand.
According to some definitions, system software also includes system utilities, such as the disk
defragmenter and System Restore, and development tools such as compilers and debuggers.

Application software
Application software, or simply applications, are often called productivity programs or end-
user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks such as creating documents,
spreadsheets, databases, and publications, doing online research, sending email, designing
graphics, running businesses, and even playing games! Application software is specific to the
task it is designed for and can be as simple as a calculator application or as complex as a word
processing application. When you begin creating a document, the word processing software
has already set the margins, font style and size, and the line spacing for you. But you can change
these settings, and you have many more formatting options available. For example, the word
processor application makes it easy to add color, headings, and pictures or delete, copy, move,
and change the document's appearance to suit your needs.
Microsoft Word is a popular word-processing application that is included in the software suite
of applications called Microsoft Office. A software suite is a group of software applications
with related functionality. For example, office software suites might include word processing,
spreadsheet, database, presentation, and email applications.
General-purpose application software
General-purpose application software is software used to perform a broad variety of tasks and
is useful to nearly all computer users, such as word processing, graphics editing and
spreadsheet applications. In contrast, other types of software applications are used to perform
specific tasks, such as accounting or contact management, or they are used in a particular
industry, such as stock trading or library management.
General-purpose application software provides many features that people use regularly, such
as italicizing text in a word-processing application or adding a column of numbers in a
spreadsheet application. To appeal to a wide range of users, this type of software also offers
specialized features that few people use, such as automatic indexing or financial functions.
Besides word processors and spreadsheets, another type of general-purpose application is a

database, which stores and tracks records of information. Presentation software is used to create
and display electronic slide shows. People use desktop publishing software to design and
produce documents that integrate text and graphics, such as brochures and flyers. Content
access applications allow users to access digital content, such as music, photos and videos.
General-purpose applications are sometimes bundled together in a package called a suite. An

office suite, for example, includes applications an office worker is likely to use. A graphics
suite provides applications for creating and editing different types of graphics and animations.
Tailor made software
Tailor-made or Custom software is specially developed to meet specific requirements and as

such, it can be bracketed with the use of software packages developed for the multiple and
extensive users at the same time, such as commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software, or existing
free software.
Many MNC; s has expertise in designing and developing customized software to accommodate
customer’s particular preferences and expectations. Company’s specialization spreads from
designing in a stage by stage processes, allowing all nuances and possible hidden dangers to

be taken into account, and including issues which may not have been envisaged or indicated in
the specifications.
Operating system
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Interpreter and Complier
A program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. There are two ways to
run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program;
the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then

executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly into machine
language.
Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during which
machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program is long.
The interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately execute high-level programs. For this
reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a
programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them quickly. In addition,
interpreters are often used in education because they allow students to program interactively.

Both interpreters and compilers are available for most high-level languages. However, BASIC
and LISP are especially designed to be executed by an interpreter. In addition, page description
languages, such as PostScript, use an interpreter. Every PostScript printer, for example, has a
built-in interpreter that executes PostScript instructions
Interpreter Compiler
Translates program one statement at a time. Scans the entire program and translates it as
a whole into machine code.
It takes less amount of time to analyze the It takes large amount of time to analyze the
source code but the overall execution time is source code but the overall execution time is
slower. comparatively faster.
No intermediate object code is generated, Generates intermediate object code which

hence are memory efficient. further requires linking, hence requires more
memory.
Continues translating the program until the It generates the error message only after
first error is met, in which case it stops. scanning the whole program. Hence
Hence debugging is easy. debugging is comparatively hard.
Programming language like Python, Ruby Programming language like C, C++ use
use interpreters. compilers.
Linkers and Loaders
Linker: In high level languages, some built in header files or libraries are stored. These
libraries are predefined and these contain basic functions which are essential for executing the
program. These functions are linked to the libraries by a program called Linker. If linker does
not find a library of a function, then it informs to compiler and then compiler generates an
error. The compiler automatically invokes the linker as the last step in compiling a program.
Not built in libraries, it also links the user defined functions to the user defined libraries.
Usually a longer program is divided into smaller subprograms called modules. And these
modules must be combined to execute the program. The process of combining the modules is
done by the linker.
Loader: Loader is a program that loads machine codes of a program into the system memory.
In Computing, a loader is the part of an Operating System that is responsible for loading
programs. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program. Because it places
programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading
the contents of executable file into memory. Once loading is complete, the operating system
starts the program by passing control to the loaded program code. All operating systems that
support program loading have loaders. In many operating systems the loader is permanently
resident in memory.

UNIT-3
OPERATING SYSTEM
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.
Need of Operating System:
In earlier day’s user had to design the application according to the internal structure of the
hardware. Operating System was needed to enable the user to design the application without
concerning the details of the computer’s internal structure. In general, the boundary between
the hardware & software is transparent to the user.
Usage of Operating System:
 Easy interaction between the human & computer.

 Starting computer operation automatically when power in turned on.
 Loading & scheduling users program.
 Controlling input & output.
 Controlling program execution.
 Managing use of main memory.
 Providing security to users’ program.
Functions of Operating System:
The main functions perform by most Operating System of today are as follow: -
1. Process Management: - The process management module of an Operating System takes

care of the creation & deletion of processes, scheduling of various system resources to the
different process requesting them, & providing mechanism for synchronization &
communication among processes.
2. Memory Management: - The memory management module of an Operating System takes

care of the allocation & reallocation of memory space to the various program in need of this
resource.
3. File Management: - computer use a lot of data & programs, which are, stored on secondary
storage devices. File management functions of an Operating System. Involves keeping track of
all different files & maintaining the integrity of data stored in the files including file directory
structure.
4. Security: - The security modules of an Operating System protect the resources &
information of a computer system against destruction& unauthorized access.

5. Command Interpretation: -The Command Interpretation module of an Operating System
takes care of interpreting of user commands, & directing the system resources to handle the
requests. With this mode of interaction with the system, the user is usually not too concerned
with the hardware details of the system.
6. Input/output or Device Management: - coordination & control of various input & output
devices are an important function of the Operating System. This involves receiving the request
for I/O interrupts, & communicating back to the requesting process.
7. Job Control: - When the user wants to run an application program, he must communicate
with the Operating System telling it what to do. He does this using Operating System job
control language or JCL. JCL consists of a number of Operating Systems commands, called
system commands that control the functioning of the Operating System.
GUI - graphical user interface
Graphical user interface is abbreviated GUI and pronounced GOO-ee.
GUI is a program interface that takes advantage of the computer's graphics capabilities to make
the program easier to use. Well-designed graphical user interfaces can free the user from
learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find that they work more
effectively with a command-driven interface, especially if they already know the command
language.
Character user interface
The command-line user interface or Character user interface was the primary method of
communicating with a computer from the first machines, all the way through the 1980s.
Although it may still be accessed in most of today operating systems, it is utilized far less due
to the ease of use and familiarity of the graphical user interface (GUI). The CUI, however, is
still preferred by many advanced end users as its features provide them with more
comprehensive control over an operating system's functions.
Short for character user interface or command-line user interface, CUI is a prompt used to
interact with computer programs. It works by allowing the user (client) to issue commands as
one or more lines of text (referred to as command lines) to a program. One of the CUI's uses is
that it provides an easy way to implement programming scripts.
Examples of command lines
Good examples of command lines include MS-DOS, Windows command line, Terminal,
and the Linux command line.

Windows interface
Icons
An icon is a small graphical representation of a program or file that, when clicked on, will be
run or opened. Icons are used with Graphical User Interface (GUI) operating systems, such as
Microsoft Windows. The image to the right is an example of My Computer icons in different
versions of Microsoft Windows.
When you double-click or open an icon, the associated file or program will be opened. For
example, if you were to double-click on the My Computer icon, it would open Windows
Explorer and double-clicking a document or file icon would open that document in the
associated program.
Menu
Menus are hierarchical lists of commands or options available to users in the current context.
Drop-down menus are menus displayed on demand on mouse click or hover. They are normally
hidden from view and therefore are an efficient means of conserving screen space. A submenu
or cascading menu is a secondary menu displayed on demand from within a menu. They are
indicated by an arrow at the end of the submenu label. A menu item is an individual command
or option within a menu.
Menus are often displayed from a menu bar, which is a list of labeled menu categories typically
located near the top of a window. By contrast, a context menu drops down when users right-
click on an object or window region that supports a context menu.

Dialog box
A dialog box is a temporary window an application creates to retrieve user input. An application
typically uses dialog boxes to prompt the user for additional information for menu items. A
dialog box usually contains one or more controls (child windows) with which the user enters
text, chooses options, or directs the action.
Windows also provides predefined dialog boxes that support common menu items such as
Open and Print. Applications that use these menu items should use the common dialog boxes
to prompt for this user input, regardless of the type of application.
Desktop
 Desktop is a term commonly used to describe a desktop computer or system unit.
 In reference to software, desktop refers to the desktop environment, which is a Graphical User
Interface metaphor that allows for interaction between the user and the operating system.
 Desktops is a Windows System internals utility that allows users to manage applications on
up to four virtual desktops, all accessible using the tray icon interface.
 When referring to an operating system or GUI, the Desktop is a system of organization of

icons on a screen. The Microsoft Windows Desktop was first introduced with Microsoft
Windows 95 and has been included with every version of Windows since then. The image
below is an example of the Microsoft Windows Desktop.
Control panel
The control panel, in the context of Windows, is a software module used to perform
administrative and management operating system tasks and/or provide access to specific
software features. The control panel is used to configure and manage almost all aspects of
Windows, including keyboard and mouse functionality, users and passwords, power options,
network settings, desktop background, display settings, sound settings, mouse settings,
hardware and software options, installation and removal of programs, parental control, speech
recognition, etc.
System Tools
It's important to perform some basic maintenance from time to time to keep Windows running
smoothly. Luckily, Windows provides you with some basic tools to make the maintenance
process as painless as possible. You can access these tools via the System Tools menu.
Calculator
In windows a simple yet powerful calculator includes standard, scientific, and programmer
modes, as well as a unit converter. It's the perfect tool to add up a bill, convert measurements
in a recipe or other project, or complete complex math, algebra, or geometry problems.
Calculator history makes it easy to confirm if you've entered numbers correctly. The Calculator
can be opened also by typing calculator or calc in the Start Menu search box (in Windows 7)
or in the Start screen (in Windows 8) and opening the appropriate search result.
Its executable can be found in this location: "C:\Windows\System32\calc.exe".

Calendar
In windows with the Calendar app, you can see several calendars—including your work
calendars—all at the same time, all in one place. To use Calendar, you'll need to sign in to your
PC or the app with a Microsoft account. When you open Calendar, you'll see all events from
your Microsoft account. To see events from other calendars, add the accounts to the Calendar
app.
Files
Files: As we know that Computers are used for storing the information for a Permanent Time
or the Files are used for storing the Data of the users for a Long Time Period. And the files can
contain any type of information means they can Store the text, any Images or Pictures or any
data in any Format. So that there must be Some Mechanism those are used for Storing the
information, Accessing the information and also Performing Some Operations on the files.
There are Many files which have their Owen Type and own names. When we Store a File in
the System, then we must have to specify the Name and the Type of File. The Name of file will
be any valid Name and Type means the application with the file has linked.
So that we can say that Every File also has Some Type Means Every File belongs to Special
Type of Application software’s. When we Provides a Name to a File then we also specify the
Extension of the File because a System will retrieve the Contents of the File into that
Application Software. For Example, if there is a File Which Contains Some Paintings then this
will Opened into the Paint Software.
1) Ordinary Files or Simple File: - Ordinary File may belong to any type of Application for
example notepad, paint, C Program, Songs etc. So all the Files those are created by a user are
Ordinary Files. Ordinary Files are used for Storing the information about the user Programs.
With the help of Ordinary Files, we can store the information which contains text, database,
any image or any other type of information.
2) Directory files: The Files those are Stored into the Particular Directory or Folder. Then
these are the Directory Files. Because they belong to a Directory and they are Stored into a
Directory or Folder. For Example, a Folder Name Songs Which Contains Many Songs So that
all the Files of Songs are known as Directory Files.
3) Special Files: The Special Files are those which are not created by the user. Or The Files
those are necessary to run a System. The Files those are created by the System. Means all the
Files of an Operating System or Window, are refers to Special Files. There are Many Types of
Special Files, System Files, or windows Files, Input output Files. All the System Files are
Stored into the System by using. sys Extension.
4) FIFO Files: The First in First Out Files are used by the System for Executing the Processes
into Some Order. Means to Say the Files those are Come first, will be Executed First and the
System Maintains an Order or Sequence Order. When a user Request for a Service from the
System, then the Requests of the users are Arranged into Some Files and all the Requests of
the System will be performed by the System by using Some Sequence Order in which they are
Entered or we can say that all the files or Requests those are Received from the users will be
Executed by using Some Order which is also called as First in First Out or FIFO order.

Files are not made for just reading the Contents, we can also Perform some other operations on
the Files those are Explained below as: -
1. Read Operation: Meant to Read the information which is Stored into the Files.
2. Write Operation: For inserting some new Contents into a File.
3. Rename or Change the Name of File.
4. Copy the File from one Location to another.
5. Sorting or Arrange the Contents of File.
6. Move or Cut the File from One Place to Another.
7. Delete a File
8. Execute Means to Run Means File Display Output.
We can Also Link a File with any other File. These are also called as the Symbolic Links, in
the Symbolic Links all the files are linked by using Some Text or Some Alias.
When a User Clicks on the Special text or on the Alias then this will open that Linked File. So
that we can say that the Files are linked with each other by using Some Names and by using
Some Locations.
These are Also Called as the Symbolic Links and always remember that when we remove the
Link from the System then this will not effect on the Actual file Means the Original File will
be Kept Save into the Locations.

Unit -4
Introduction to Networks and Internet: Meaning and types of networks - LAN, MAN and
WAN, Internet, difference between internet and intranet. Basics: functions, growth, anatomy,
Uses, Wireless and Wi-Fi, Internet services: ISP, types of accounts, World Wide Web: websites
file transfer, browsing, searching.
Network
Networks are everywhere—or so it seems. You can hardly do anything with data that does not
involve a network. Like the human networks that we are all part of, computer networks let us
share information and resources. In business, the reliance on networks is even more pervasive
than in homes or schools.
Networks help individuals and businesses alike save money, but they also help create income.
Without a doubt, networking within the home will catch on over the next few years as it has in
business. Soon, nearly all individuals in even moderately developed nations will have
networked components throughout their homes. Those that don’t will be netologically
disadvantaged because they will not be able to learn or to function at the same level as those
who are networked.
Concept of Computer Network
A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected in order
to share the components of your network (its resources) and the information you store there.
The most basic computer network (which consists of just two connected computers) can expand
and become more usable when additional computers join and add their resources to those being
shared. The first computer, yours, is commonly referred to as your local computer. It is more
likely to be used as a location where you do work, a workstation, than as a storage or
controlling location, a server. As more and more computers are connected to a network and
share their resources, the network becomes a more powerful tool, because employees using a
network with more information and more capability are able to accomplish more through those
added computers or additional resources. That is, one network can be connected to another
network and become a more powerful tool because of the greater resources.
The network can be small as of two computers connected with a single cable
Fig: - Simple Network of Computers
At the same time a computer network may be as large that may be formed by interconnecting
thousands of computers together with the help of networking devices that may be located in
different parts of the world.

Fig: - Multiple computer network system
IN 1961 Leonard
Kleinrock at MIT
publishes the first paper
on
packet switching theory
discussing
communications
using packets rather
than
circuits.
In 1965 First wide area
network (WAN)
is created by MIT
researchers
Lawrence G. Roberts
and
Thomas Merrill.
In 1970 The Network

Control Protocol
In 1969 A small group
at Bell Labs (NCP) was created.
NCP was the
begins to work on what
first standardized
eventually becomes network
UNIX.
protocol used by
ARPANET.

Objectives/ Needs for networking
In the early days of the personal computer (PC), during the late ’70s and early ’80s, often a PC
was used as a stand-alone computer and operated independently from other computers. When,
over the span of just those few years, their use proliferated and more PCs were found relatively
close to each other, users began sharing information. The information was either printed out or
copied from one computer to another using backup or storage devices, such as tapes, disks, or
other digital storage media. The printout or the storage device was then physically carried to
another computer where the information was re-entered or copied from the portable media into
the next computer. This process was referred to as a sneakernet because users actually had to
walk from computer to computer. It was probably the cheapest type of network—unless the
computers were large distances apart or the information needed to be shared among many
computers. Other drawbacks to sneakernets were that printouts were often bulky, and the
storage devices could hold a relatively small amount of data compared to the large amount of
output users produced. Once computers were connected by networks, information sharing
increased dramatically. People found that more data helped them make better decisions, and
companies started saving money. Many original networks were designed to facilitate
communication, but they were quickly expanded as businesses noticed increased productivity
and reduced costs.
Hence, at a point it was decided to connect the computers in various departments to extract the
information and correlate information about the entire company. The following are the
objectives of the computer networks.
Sharing of Information
Computers increase your ability to communicate. Once you begin working with a computer,
you are likely to become more productive. However, what do you do with that increased
productivity if you are not connected to anyone? Communication requires not only someone
with information to share but also someone on the other end with whom to share it. Companies
don’t benefit by creating sheer volumes of output—they benefit when the increased output
helps them make better decisions or increases the likelihood of increased income. Having your
computers networked allows you to do both with your newfound increases.
Sharing Resources
In the sneakernet era, users spent huge amounts of time attempting to share their resources.
They had to physically distribute files that others needed. Expenditures for printers and other
attached computer components rose rapidly while the individual components themselves were
not being used to their full capacity. On top of that, the hard disk storage on each local computer
began filling up, partly because everyone had a copy of every document. One copy of that data,
and even the applications that produced it, could more efficiently be stored in a single location
and shared over a network. The ability to share resources was another reason networks were
created, and it is still one of the main purposes for using networks.
Peripherals
Many companies start with multiple stand-alone computers. Not too long after the initial
computer purchase, however, additional components that attach to a computer, called
peripherals, like printers, scanners, and speakers, are purchased and are connected to that
computer to expand its use. When there are multiple users and computers, it soon becomes

apparent that the peripheral devices are seldom fully utilized. Money can be saved if some of
these peripherals are shared, instead of having to purchase a separate set for each computer.
Networking enables the sharing of peripherals. The ability to share printers was very often
enough of a cost savings for companies to invest in implementing and supporting a simple
network.
Storage
Data was being loaded on the computers of every fledgling network user as they expanded their
network use. Users quickly ran out of space on their own local computers, so the people in
charge of the networks began devising ways to store data centrally so that it was accessible to
any user who needed it. Large amounts of storage capacity, usually in fast, very powerful
computers, were set up to act as storage locations for this data where access to it could be
controlled by the person storing the data.
Applications
Cost and space savings are achieved when computer users can centrally store their software
applications—the computer programs (organized sets of computer instructions) that make a
user’s computer do what needs to be done. Applications, such as those used for preparing taxes,
creating text documents, or playing computer games, have grown in complexity and size and
often take up considerable local storage. Installing an application once on a network and then
sharing it cuts down on the storage space required when multiple users need the same
application.
Assisting Collaboration
Once you have digital information and the ability to share it instantly with others over
networks, you can have multiple people working on the same process collectively. Much of the
initial communication about computer-produced products that occurred during and
immediately after the sneakernet era dealt with co-worker collaboration, with co-workers
discussing each other’s work or possibly even exchanging opinions about what other users had
created. Those early computer users found that once they created something and sent it out for
review, the comments returned often led to important adjustments that would improve the
original product. Such collaboration assisted the widespread use of computers because it
provided a tangible benefit that businesses could associate with the increased costs of installing
computers in the first place.
Facilitating Centralized Management
Just connecting computers to a network meant that some sort of similarity existed among them
(or else the computers would not be able to communicate), and a maintenance capability may
have been available in the early networks. However, it wasn’t until much later (in the mid ’90s)
those maintenance personnel started using networks to assist with the management tasks
associated with the network’s operation and maintenance. It came about as a direct result of
standardization and interoperability, which meant computers, worked the same way and could
work with each other. This was a drastic change to the original networks, where all the different
networked components had different computer programs, or software (a set of instructions that
control the operation of a computer) running them. Having more similarities meant lower
support costs. These savings were usually due to economies of scale brought about by buying

more similar computers and obtaining a lower per-unit cost. Companies soon began directing
technicians to purchase similar equipment to obtain the benefit of those savings.
Managing Software
Using the network helped reduce software costs. Savings occurred when all users on a network
used the same software and when software was bought in bulk quantities for a discount.
Centralizing the installation of that software also reduced operation costs because the
installations could be accomplished remotely—over the network. The computer programs that
were needed to perform the installations were stored on servers and made accessible over the
network. The maintenance personnel would then simply log on to the network from a client
computer and install the needed applications using the installation software stored on the
server.
Maintaining the Network
Purchasing similar equipment for use on the network meant that network maintenance costs
were reduced because there were fewer dissimilar components. Maintenance workers no longer
had to attend numerous training sessions on many different components, which meant they
could spend more time maintaining the actual components.
Backing up Data
Along those same lines, a network minimizes the time spent backing up (saving extra copies,
called backups) of necessary files. In the event of a hardware or software failure that causes
information or applications to be lost, vital information and necessary applications can be
restored if sufficient backups exist. The backup process is normally a regular activity in a
company, and all transactions between scheduled backups are recorded so that the files can be
restored as completely as possible.
In 1974 The Network

Control Protocol
(NCP) was created. NCP
was the
first standardized network
protocol used by
ARPANET.
In 1975 Bill Gates and Paul
Allen write a
programming language
called
BASIC.
In 1976 Apple Computer

founded by
Steve Jobs and Steve
Wozniak..

Application of Networking
1. Marketing and sales: Marketing professional uses them to collect exchange and analyze
data relating to customer needs and product development cycles.
Sales application includes Teleshopping, which uses order entry computers or telephone
connected to an order processing network, and online reservation services for railways, hotels,
airlines, restaurants theatre etc.
2. Financial services: It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment
services and electronic fund transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money without going
to bank.
3. Manufacturing: computer networks are used today in many aspects of manufacturing,

including the manufacturing processes itself. Two aspects that uses network to provide
essential services are computer assisted design (CAD) and computer assisted manufacturing
(CAM), both of which allow multiple user to work on a project simultaneously.
4. Electronic Messaging: E-mails transfer the messages between two and more users in a
network. With this application user can transfer the information in the form of text, picture and
voice.
5. Directory Services: It allows list of files to be stored in central location to speed up the
worldwide search operation. E.g. search engines like Google, Britannia, and Yahoo etc.
6. Information Services: It includes Bulletin Boards and data bank. A ‘www’ site offering the
technical specification for a new product in a information services.
7. Electronic Data Exchange (EDI): EDI allows business information (including documents
such as purchase orders and services) to be transferred without using paper.
8. Teleconferencing: It allows conference to occur without the participant being in the same
location. It includes:
 Text Conferencing: Participant communicates through their keywords and computer
monitors.
 Voice Conferencing: Participant at a number of locations communicates simultaneously
through phone (talk).
 Video Conferencing: Participant can see as well as talk to another.
9. Cellular Telephone: Wireless phone communication even while travelling through long
distance.
10. Cable TV: This is widest usable thing today throughout the world.

Network Devices
Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.
Here is the common network device list:
 Hub  Gateway
 Switch  Modem
 Router  Repeater
 Bridge  Access Point
Hub
A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer or Ethernet-based device
connected to it. Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts
as a repeater in that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over
connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because
it connects LAN components with identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured
to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in
digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then
the hub passes it on in signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all
connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. There are two types of hubs: simple and multiple port.
Figure: Hub

Switch
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is
networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching
to receive, and forward data to the destination device. Switches generally have a more
intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that improves network efficiency. The
switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows
connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using
switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit
them to the appropriate destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit
capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more
difficult to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some
of the best capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data
Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate
at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer
switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.
Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used
to prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important
so be sure to secure switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP
inspection and MAC address filtering.
Figure: Switch
Router
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. It
transmits packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of interconnected
networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and
they store information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be configured
to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in
conjunction with a channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate
from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use different

network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the outside
connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.
Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can
also be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers
establish communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A
router contains information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the
destination isn’t known. Routers usually communicate routing and other information using one
of three standard protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that is
authorized by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static or
dynamic. If they are static, they can only be configured manually and stay that way until
changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them and use information
about those routers to build their routing tables.
Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks.
They are usually dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output
network interfaces for each connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone
of large computer networks like the internet, they have special features that give them the
flexibility and the ability to cope with varying network addressing schemes and frame sizes
through segmentation of big packets into smaller sizes that fit the new network components.
Each router interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own LAN
address (network card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with the
help of a routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its
destination. The routing table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt
of a packet, the router removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by
determining the source and destination addresses and data type, and noting the arrival time. It
also updates the router table with new addresses not already in the table. The IP header and
arrival time information is entered in the routing table. Routers normally work at the Network
layer of the OSI model.
Figure: Router

Figure: Router and Switch Role
Bridge
A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from
multiple communication networks or network segments. Bridges are used to connect two or
more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of bridges in network architecture is
storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge connects. They
use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at
the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or
block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger
logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to
divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments
and managing the flow of data between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components
with identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for
addresses before they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no
modifications to the format or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards
frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is
initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and the addresses
of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either
simple or multiple port.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favour in recent years and have been replaced by switches,
which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport
bridges” because of how they operate.

Figure: Bridge
Gateway
A gateway is a piece of networking hardware used in telecommunications for

telecommunications networks that allows data to flow from one discrete network to another.
Gateways are distinct from routers or switches in that they communicate using more than one
protocol and can operate at any of the seven layers of the open systems interconnection model
(OSI).
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the
Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors;
gateways are used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking
technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more
autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name
service, and network administration procedures and policies.
Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added
translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation between different
network technologies is called a protocol converter.
Figure: Gateway

Modem
A modem (modulators-demodulators) is a hardware networking device that converts data to a

signal so it can be easily sent and received over a phone line, cable, or satellite connection.
Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies
and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the
reverse transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually
a computer. Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use
modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home and personal users.
Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.
Figure: Modem
Repeater
A network device that is used to regenerate or replicate a signal is known as repeater. Repeaters
are used in transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. You can think of repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits
it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100
meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.
Figure: Repeater

Access Point
An access point is a device that creates a wireless local area network, or WLAN, usually in an
office or large building. An access point connects to a wired router, switch, or hub via an
Ethernet cable, and projects a Wi-Fi signal to a designated area. While an access point (AP)
can technically involve either a wired or wireless connection, it commonly means a wireless
device. An AP works at the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either as
a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data
transmissions from one access point to another.
Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used
to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate network devices with
a built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter. APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode
to provide a connection point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. They also have
several ports, giving you a way to expand the network to support additional clients. Depending
on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required to provide full coverage.
Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to expand the range of
the wireless network. Each AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a client can
be from an AP and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance
depends on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions between the
client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered antennas, enabling them to extend how
far the wireless signal can travel.
APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network’s size, firewall
capabilities and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service. Therefore, we get APs
that are a switch, DHCP server, router and firewall.
Figure: Access

SERVER
Server is a computer in a network that is designed and configured to manage network resources.
A server facilitates sharing of hardware, software and data files. If the network is very small,
all the data files are usually stored on the server from where, the users connected to it retrieve
data
It can be of two types
1. Dedicated server
2. Non-dedicated server.
Dedicated server is a single computer in the network that is reserved for serving as server. It
provides access to data files, software, and hardware in the network to other nodes (work
stations).
Generally, a dedicated server is leased and is used for large networks.
Non-dedicated server on the other hand acts both as a server as well as a platform. These
servers are usually used in small networks.
Different types of server used in computer networks are as follows
 An application server is a program in a computer in a distributed network that provides the

business logic for an application program.
 A proxy server is software that acts as an intermediary between an endpoint device, such
as a computer, and another server from which a user or client is requesting a service.
 A mail server is an application that receives incoming e-mail from local users (people
within the same domain) and remote senders and forwards outgoing e-mail for delivery.
 A virtual server is a program running on a shared server that is configured in such a way
that it seems to each user that they have complete control of a server.
 A blade server is a server chassis housing multiple thin, modular electronic circuit boards,
known as server blades. Each blade is a server in its own right, often dedicated to a single
application.
 A file server is a computer responsible for the central storage and management of data files
so that other computers on the same network can access them.
 A policy server is a security component of a policy-based network that provides

authorization services and facilitates tracking and control of files.
Classifying Networks by Their Geography
Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical boundaries the network spans.
Two basic geographical designations for networks—local area network (LAN) and wide area
network (WAN)—are the most common. A third designation, metropolitan area network
(MAN), is also used, although its use has become clouded (because it might not be a clear-cut
classification anymore) as networks continue connecting to the Internet.

Local Area Network (LAN)
If the network is contained within a relatively small area, such as a classroom, school, or single
building, it is commonly referred to as a local area network (LAN). This type of network has
the lowest cost and least overall capability of the three geographic classifications. LAN or
Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computer and
workstations can share data, tools and programs. The group of computers and devices are
connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as
defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on
the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger
WAN. Because the pieces of equipment in a LAN are in relatively close proximity, LANs are
inexpensive to install. Despite their decreased capability, however, their closeness and resultant
low costs typically result in the use of the fastest technology on a LAN. Thus, this network
classification usually has the highest speed components and fastest communications equipment
before the other network classifications see such equipment using the same speeds. This is
because it takes less overall investment to get the smaller network running the faster equipment.
LANs, therefore, are commonly considered the building blocks for creating larger networks.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited. By definition,
the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs,
network adapters and Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited
to a few kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home,
hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used
for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error
and noise are minimized.
Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two
computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically
relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless connections
can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in
this network.
Fig: - Local Area network

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
As the computers get further apart, a LAN becomes more difficult to install, and additional
measures such as additional communications equipment may need to be employed. When the
network spans the distance of a typical metropolitan city, it can be referred to as a metropolitan
area network (MAN).
MAN or Metropolitan Area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area
as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same
or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds of
MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN is moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN
are: Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company
network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a
city.
Although this term is beginning to lose its popular use, the concept of the network outgrowing
its local confines and requiring additional resources still applies. Much of the same technology,
such as the fast networking components and communications equipment used in LANs, can be
used in MANs, but more are required, so this classification is not quite as technologically
advanced as are LANs. Although the speeds achieved in a MAN are typically as high as in a
LAN, it requires high-speed connections, such as fiber optics. Increasing the distance and the
technology levels increases the relative installation and operation costs of MANs.
Fig: -Metro-Politian Area Network

Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be
a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves and may
be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The
technology is high speed and relatively expensive. Because of the extensive distances over
which WANs communicate, they use long-distance telecommunications networks for their
connections, which increase the costs of the network. The Internet is just a giant WAN. Wide
Area Network (WAN) is the largest computer network to which the computers, located across
all over the world, are connected. The computers connected to WAN are often connected
through public network system such as telephone system. WAN is not limited to any
geographical area. WAN’s are often formed by connecting 2 or more LAN’s and MAN’s. The
most popular and largest WAN is the internet. This ensures that computers and users in one
location can communicate with computers and users in other locations. WAN implementation
can be done either with the help of the public transmission system or a private network.
A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas. WANs are
similar to a banking system, where hundreds of branches in different cities are connected with
each other in order to share their official data.
A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the
protocol used for a WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and
modems.
Fig: - Wide Area Network
There are two types of WAN
 Private WAN’s
 Public WAN’s
Private WAN- A private WAN is formed by inter-linking two or more LAN’s of an

organization. For example, ABC ltd. may have its head office in Delhi and regional office at
Mumbai and at Ahmedabad. Each office may be having its own LAN (Local Area Network)

Through leased telephone lines all three LAN’s can be interconnected to communicate with
each other’s forming a WAN.
Private WAN’s are maintained by some big organizations like State Bank of India (SBI) and
Indian Railways maintain their private WAN. Private WAN’s are expensive to create and
maintain but they provide good speed for data communication and high level safety.
Public WAN-Public WAN’s are not owned by any organization. Anyone can get connected to
public WAN with the help of different technologies. Any organization’s network (LAN) may
be connected to a public network. While connected to a public WAN the organization’s LAN
is prone to security threats. To ensure the security of its network a specially designed and
configured system, firewall, is attached to each network connected with WAN. The objective
of keeping a firewall is to ensure:
 Only authorized person has access to organization network (internet).

 The messages and attachments entering into the organization network are scanned for
viruses and files with suspected viruses are deleted, and.
 Any access to potentially harmful websites is denied.
Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Full Form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network
What is it? Systems are close to each Large network which Two or more LANs
other in LAN contained in connects different connected
one office or building one organizations
organization can have Located over large
several LANs geographical area
Distance Limited coverage, about up Limited coverage,
Unlimited (usually in
to 2 miles(or 2500 meters) about up to 100 1000Km) range, uses
Coverage miles(or 200 km) repeater and other
connectivity for range
extension
Speed of High, typically 10, 100 and High, typically 100 Slow, about 1.5 Mbps (May
1000 Mbps Mbps vary based on wireless
Operation technologies used)
Concept of Topology
Introduction
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is
suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of topology
is dependent upon type and number of equipment being used, planned applications and rate of
data transfer required, response time, and cost.
Topology can also be defined as the geometrically interconnection pattern by which the stations
(nodes/computers) are connected using suitable transmission media (which can be point to-
point and broadcast).

Different types of topologies are as follows: -
 Mesh
 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Tree
Mesh Topology
In this topology each node or station is connected to every other station. Mesh Topology is not
flexible and has a poor expandability as to add a new node n links have to be laid because that
new node has to be connected to each of the existing nodes via dedicated link. For the same
reason the cost of cabling will be very high for a larger area. And due to these reasons this
topology is rarely used in practice.
The key characteristics of this topology are as follows:
Key Characteristics:
 Fully connected
 Robust – Highly reliable
 Not flexible
 Poor expandability
Bus Topology
In Bus Topology, all stations attach through appropriate hardware interfacing known as a tap,
directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus. Full-duplex operation between the station and
the tap allows data to be transmitted onto the bus and received from the bus. A transmission
from any station propagates the length of the medium in both directions and can be received
by all other stations. At each end of the bus there is a terminator, which absorbs any signal,
preventing reflection of signal from the endpoints. If the terminator is not present, the endpoint
acts like a mirror and reflects the signal back causing interference and other problems.

Key Characteristics of this topology are:
 Flexible
 Expandable
 Moderate Reliability
 Moderate performance
STAR Topology
In the star topology, each station is directly connected to a common central node. Typically,
each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via two point-to-point
links, one for transmission and one for reception.
Key features:
 High Speed
 Very Flexible
 High Reliability
 High Maintainability
In general, there are two alternatives for the operation of the central node.
 One approach is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion. A transmission of a
frame from one station to the node is retransmitted on all of the outgoing links. In this case,
although the arrangement is physically a star, it is logically a bus; a transmission from any
station is received by all other stations, and only one station at a time may successfully
transmit. In this case the central node acts as a repeater.
 Another approach is for the central node to act as a frame-switching device. An incoming
frame is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing link to the destination
station. In this approach, the central node acts as a switch and performs the switching or
routing function. This mode of operation can be compared with the working of a telephone
exchange, where the caller party is connected to a single called party and each pair of
subscriber who needs to talk have a different connection.

Ring topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to-point links in
a closed loop. The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving data on one
link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as fast as they are received, with no
buffering at the repeater. The links are unidirectional; that is data are transmitted in one
direction only and all are oriented in the same way. Thus, data circulate around the ring in one
direction (clockwise or counterclockwise).
Tree Topology
This topology can be considered as an extension to bus topology. It is commonly used in

cascading equipment’s. For example, you have a repeater box with 8-port, as far as you have
eight stations, this can be used in a normal fashion. But if you need to add more stations then
you can connect two or more repeaters in a hierarchical format (tree format) and can add more
stations. This tree topology is very good in an organization as incremental expansion can be
done in this way. Main features of this topology are scalability and flexibility. This is because,
when the need arises for more stations that can be accomplished easily without affecting the
already established network.

Internet
History
The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal
government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks.
The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for
interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the
National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private
funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of
new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of commercial
networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marks the beginning of the transition to the modern
Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal,
and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used
by academia since the 1980s, the commercialization incorporated its services and technologies
into virtually every aspect of modern life.
The first major internet worm attack happened in the year 1988. The name of the worm was
“The Mooris Worm”.
Meaning
The internet is a huge network of computers through which a computer is connected to another
computer anywhere in the world to exchange all kinds of information such as text, graphics,
audio, video, computer software etc. It is network of networks connected through routers and
switches consisting of millions of private, public, academic, business and government
networks. It uses common set of communication protocols for exchange of information
between two computers. The data travels either through the high speed, fiber optics cables or
through wireless medium owned by telephone companies.
The internet is not centrally governed either in term of technological implementations or for
framing policies for access and usage. However, the Internet Corporation of Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN) directs the two principal names in the internet namely internet protocol
address and domain name. InterNIC (Internet Network Information Centre) maintains the
database of all the registered domain names, IBA (Internet Architecture Board) approves
standard and resource allocation and IETF (Internet Engineering Taskforce) addresses
operational and technical problems.

Internet vs. Intranet
Basis Internet Intranet
Reach Internet is available to Intranet is available only to

everyone in the world the employees of the
organization.
Objective The main objective of having An internet is developed with

an internet is, an objective to improve
communication with the efficiency of the employees.
world to support marketing
in selling products
Uses Internet is a public space Intranet can be used only by

which anyone can access. the employees, business
The users don’t know much partners, executives and one
about the organizations authorized by the
visited on the internet organization to access
intranet.
Focus The focus of the web page The focus is more on

designers remain mainly to consistency of process than
only appearance. appearance.
Contents and functionality The contents posted on A variety of contents, with

internet by an organization focus on tools required by
center around the key employees to perform their
products, services and any jobs, are posted.
other information required
by the users.
Complexity The administration of The administration of

internet is very complex as intranet is easier as compared
billions of computers share to internet as only few
and transfer data among each hundred or a few thousand
other simultaneously. users access the resources, at
one point of time.
Server control Internet is operated by a Intranet is controlled by a

linked set of billions of single tightly managed
computer servers’ server.
worldwide.

Wireless and Wi-Fi
Wireless
Wireless communication is the transfer of information or power between two or more points
that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The most common wireless technologies use
radio. With radio waves distances can be short, such as a few meters for television or as far as
thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses
various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular
telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of
applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless
computer mice, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television,
broadcast television and cordless telephones.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a technology that allows electronic devices to connect to a wireless LAN (WLAN)
network, mainly using radio bands. A WLAN is usually password protected, but may be open,
which allows any device within its range to access the resources of the WLAN network.
The Wi-Fi Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network" (WLAN) product based
on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' standards. However, the term "Wi-Fi"
is used in general English as a synonym for "[Wireless Fidelity]" since most modern WLANs
are based on these standards. "Wi-Fi" is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. The "Wi-Fi
Certified" trademark can only be used by Wi-Fi products that successfully complete Wi-Fi
Alliance interoperability certification testing.
Devices which can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles,
smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players and modern printers. Wi-
Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access
point.
 Wi-Fi Alliance is a non-profit organization that promotes Wi-Fi technology and certifies Wi-
Fi products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-
compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of
costs associated with the certification process. The lack of the Wi-Fi logo does not necessarily
imply a device is incompatible with Wi-Fi devices.
The Wi-Fi Alliance owns the Wi-Fi trademark. Manufacturers may use the trademark to brand
certified products that have been tested for interoperability.
Web Server
Many people know how to drive a car, but have little or no knowledge about how the car
actually works. So, too, are many people familiar with how to view and navigate web pages,
but have limited knowledge of how those web pages do what they do. Here we will answer the
question: "What is a web server?"
At the most basic level, a web server is simply a computer program that dispenses web pages
as they are requested. Internet servers make the Internet possible. All of the machines on the

Internet are either servers or clients. The machines that provide services to other machines are
servers.
The machine that runs on program is usually called a server, and the two references are
interchangeable in everyday conversation. When someone sits down at a computer and enters
an address into an internet browser like Internet Explorer or Firefox, the browser sends a
request off into the internet asking to view the web page found at that address. The web server
is the program or machine that responds to that request, and delivers the content of the page
back to the user.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Short for Internet Service Provider, it refers to a company that provides Internet services,
including personal and business access to the Internet. For a monthly fee, the service provider
usually provides a software package, username, password and access phone number. Equipped
with a modem, you can then log on to the Internet and browse the World Wide Web and
USENET, and send and receive e-mail. For broadband access you typically receive the
broadband modem hardware or pay a monthly fee for this equipment that is added to your ISP
account billing.
In addition to serving individuals, ISPs also serve large companies, providing a direct
connection from the company's networks to the Internet. ISPs themselves are connected to one
another through Network Access Points (NAPs). ISPs may also be called IAPs (Internet Access
Providers).
In India there is a large number of ISP’s, some of them are MTNL, Airtel, BSNL, Tata indicom,
Hathway Etc.
World Wide Web
World Wide Web was invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. He was born in London, and his
parents were early computer scientists, working on one of the earliest computers. After
graduating from Oxford University, Berners-Lee became a software engineer at CERN, the
large particle physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland. Scientists come from all over the
world to use its accelerators, but Sir Tim noticed that they were having difficulty sharing
information.
And In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or the Web) is an information space where
documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs),
interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet.
The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the
primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet. Web pages are primarily text
documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). In addition to
formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, and software components that are
rendered in the user's web browser as coherent pages of multimedia content. Embedded
hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a common
theme, a common domain name, or both, make up a website. Website content can largely be

provided by the publisher or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends
upon the user or their actions. Websites may be mostly informative, primarily for
entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organizational
purposes.
Web Browser
A browser is an application program that provides a way to look at and interact with all the
information on the World Wide Web. The word "browser" seems to have originated prior to
the Web as a generic term for user interfaces that let you browse (navigate through and read)
text files online.
Technically, a Web browser is a client program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
to make requests of Web servers throughout the Internet on behalf of the browser user. Most
browsers support e-mail and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) but a Web browser is not required
for those Internet protocols and more specialized client programs are more popular.
The first Web browser, called Worldwide Web, was created in 1990. That browser's name was
changed to Nexus to avoid confusion with the developing information space known as the
World Wide Web. The first Web browser with a graphical user interface was Mosaic, which
appeared in 1993. Many of the user interface features in Mosaic went into Netscape Navigator.
Microsoft followed with its Internet Explorer (IE).
As of, Internet Explorer is the most commonly used browser, having won the so-called browser
wars between IE and Netscape. Other browsers include:
 Firefox, which was developed from Mozilla (the open source version of Netscape).
 Flock, an open source browser based on Firefox and optimized for Web 2.0 features such
as blogging and social bookmarking.
 Safari, a browser for Apple computers (at this writing, the third most popular browser).
 Lynx, a text-only browser for UNIX shell and VMS users.
 Opera, a fast and stable browser that's compatible with most relatively operating systems.
Search Engines
Search engines are programs that search documents for specified keywords and return a list of
the documents where the keywords were found. A search engine is really a general class of
programs; however, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google, Bing
and Yahoo. It is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search results
are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results pages
(SERPs). The information may be a mix of web pages, images, and other types of files. Some
search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web
directories, which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain real-
time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.


CCSP Final Notes 2019

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COMPUTER CONCEPTS

(CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM)

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Paper 3.4 Computer concepts and software packages

Duration: 3 hours Marks: 100 Lectures: 50

Basic Concepts: Meaning, characteristics and applications of a Computer, Advantages and

Components of Computers: Hardware components: input devices, output devices, system

Office Applications: Meaning and applications of word processing,

MS-Excel – creating a workbook, saving a workbook, editing a workbook, creating a series,

MS-PowerPoint – creating simple presentation including slide transitions, bullets, etc.

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

GUIDELINES FOR THE CONDUCT OF PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

Computer Concepts, Software Packages and Computerized Accounting

Time: 60 Minutes Description of Marks Time Allowed

1 Lab testing of 25 60 minutes

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Basic Concepts: Meaning, characteristics and applications of a Computer, Advantages and

Digital Computer Definition

Four Functions about computer are:

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Figure: - Intel Processor

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

At a local level, the processed data and information can be:

 Viewed as text or video via display monitor

The information to be viewed on the monitor could be:

 The text viewed could be a letter

DATA AND INFORMATION

 Computer Memory (Storage) Hardware

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Computer Classification: By Size and Power

According to functionality, computers are classified as:

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Showing further evidence of the US Department of Energy’s renewed commitment to

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Figure: Sunway Taihu Light

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Nuclear weapons testing

 IBM’s Sequoia, in United States

Popular Mainframe computers

 Fujitsu’s ICL VME

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Figure: - IBM Midrange Computer

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Basic characteristics about computer are:

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

1. Role of Computer in Embedded System:

Characteristics of Embedded System

a) Embedded systems are application specific.

SENSORS PROCESSORS ACTUATORS

Figure: - Embedded System

2. Role of Computer in Simulation:

A computer simulation runs on a computer to show behavior of a system. It represents running

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

a) Simulators are used to give training to pilots.

3. Role of Computer in Artificial Intelligence:

a) Dendral: it is capable of determining the structure of chemical compounds given a

4. Use of Computer in Defense:

Applications of Computer in Defense

ANUJ,ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,COLLEGE OF VOCATIONAL STUDIES,9953146486

Applications of Computers in Medical

b) In radiology, computer-aided detection (CADe), also called computer-aided diagnosis

6. Role of Computer in Biometrics Systems: