Chapter 9 – INTERJECTION

Interjection can be defined as

The words which are used to express a strong or sudden feeling or emotion are
called as interjections.

Kinds of Interjection and their meanings

1. Interjections for Greeting

These interjections are used to indicate emotion of warmth towards the other person
when they meet. These include: Hello! , Hey! , Hi! Etc.
For example,

 Hey! Good to see you today.

 Hello! I am Jane.
 Hi! Would you like to have a cup of coffee?

2. Interjections for Joy

These interjections are used to indicate immediate emotion of happiness on a sudden

happy event that occurred. These include: Hurrah! , Hurray! , Wow!, Yippee Etc. For
example,

 Hurray! My team won the game.

 Wow! I passed the exam.
 Hurrah! We’ve got another day off.

3. Interjections for Approval and Praise

These interjections are used by the speaker when he expresses a strong sense of
approval and agreement on something that happened. These
include: Bravo! , Brilliant! , Well done! Etc. For example,

 Well done! You got the job.

 Bravo! He made the goal.
 Brilliant! You scored 99% percent in the exams.
 4. Interjections for Surprise

These interjections are used by the speaker when he expresses a strong sense of
surprise on something that happened. These include: Ha! , Hey! , What! , Oh! , Ah! , Eh!,
Gosh, Wow, Whoa Etc. For example,

 What! His mother died!

 Ah! I got promoted.
 Eh! That sounds so disgusting.

5. Interjections for Grief/Pain

These interjections are used by the speaker when he expresses a strong emotion of grief
on something unfortunate that happened. These include: Alas! , Ah! , Oh! , Ouch! Etc.
For example,

 Alas! He is dead.
 Ouch! I hurt my foot.
 Ah! The pain of injection.

6. Interjections for Bidding Farwell

These interjections are used by the speaker to bid farewell or say good-bye. These
include: Bye!, good-bye!, farewell! Etc. For example,

 Good-bye! We are leaving.

 Bye! I have to leave for now.

7. Interjections for Expressing Doubt or Hesitation

These interjections are used by the speaker when they are unsure and thinking of what
to say next. These include: Hmm, Uh, Er Etc. For example,

 Hmm, I am not really sure what happened.

 Do you remember, uh, how used to play this game.
 Um, I think she has a question.
 Interjections Are One Part of a Sentence

Interjections are one of many parts of a sentence. The main parts of the sentence are
the noun or pronoun, verb and the object. The noun or pronoun is called the
“subject.” The object follows the verb and sometimes it is there and sometimes it is
not. You need to look at sentences that make up dialog or speech in order to find the
interjection.

In speech we have the subject (noun or pronoun), the verb, adverb, prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections. Of course, not all of those parts are in a sentence all of
the time. Everything is optional. There are times the entire sentence consists of only
the interjection! Typically, though, you have the noun and the verb in the least. Then
you add on from there. With the interjection it can be there or not. It can be there all
by itself without a noun and without a verb, if you want it to be.

Take a look at this sentence: The dog vomited. Dog is the noun. Vomited is the
verb. If you were to add an object, it could be written as: The dog vomited on the
cat. The object is the cat, the poor, poor cat. With an adverb, the sentence could be:
The dog vomited profusely on the cat. With an interjection it can become: Yikes, the
dog vomited profusely on the cat.

http://www.writeawriting.com/grammar/interjections/
https://blog.udemy.com/examples-of-interjections/
1. Woods, G. English Grammar for Dummies.
2. Marsico, K., & Petelinsek, K. (2013). Interjections. Ann Arbor: Cherry Lake Publishing.
CHAPTER 10 – VERBALS

Verbal (noun)
- a word that combines characteristics of a verb with those of a noun or
adjective

Gerund

Gerund definition:
- A gerund is a noun formed from a verb. A gerund will always contain the ending
“-ing.”

Examples of Gerunds:
Verb/Gerund

“to run/running”
“I run every day. / I like running.”

In the first sentence, “run” is used as a verb. I am “doing” the action “to run.” In
the second sentence, “running” is used as a gerund (noun) and “like” is the verb.

“to sing/singing”
“Sara sings. Singing makes Sara happy.”

In the first sentence, “sings” is used as a verb. Sara is “doing” the action “to sing.”
In the second sentence, “singing” is used as a gerund and “makes” is the verb.

Note: A gerund will always be used as a noun and does not replace the
progressive form of the verb.

https://writingexplained.org/grammar-dictionary/gerunds
Participle

A participle is a word formed from a verb which can be used as an adjective.

The two types of participles are the present participle (ending ing) and the past
participle (usually ending -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n).

Participle Phrases
It is really common to see participles in participle phrases. A participle phrase also acts
like an adjective. In the examples below, the participle phrases are shaded and the
participles are in bold:

The man carrying the bricks is my father.

(The participle phrase carrying the bricks describes the the man.)

 She showed us a plate of scones crammed with cream.

(The participle phrase crammed with cream describes the scones.)

 Whistling the same tune as always, Ted touched the front of his cap with his
forefinger as she dismounted.
(The participle phrase Whistling the same tune as always describes Ted.)

 Stunned by the blow. Mike quickly gathered his senses and searched frantically
for the pepper spray.
(The participle phrase Stunned by the blow describes Mike.)

Present Participles
Present participles end in -ing. Examples:

 boiling water
 caring nature
 deserving recipient
Some more examples of present participles (shaded):

 A laughing man is stronger than a suffering man. (Gustave Flaubert, 1821-

1880)
 If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you.
This is the principal difference between a dog and a man. (Mark Twain, 1835-
1910)
 The only thing that comes to a sleeping man is dreams. (Tupac Shakur)
Past Participles
Past participles have various endings, usually -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n. Examples:

 broken window
 painted frame
 destroyed bridge
Some more examples of past participles (shaded):

 A swollen eye is God's way of telling you to improve your interpersonal skills.
 Do not waste time staring at a closed door.
 I like children...if they're properly cooked (W.C. Fields)
(Remember, an adjective can also appear after the noun it is modifying.
See predicate adjectives.)

Perfect Participles
Perfect participles are formed like this:

"Having" + [past participle]

Examples:

 Having taken
 Having eaten
 Having played
Some more examples of present participles (shaded):

 Having heard the news, he quickly sold his brother's record collection.
 Having been promised a steak dinner, she looked less than impressed with her
Happy Meal.

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/participles.htm
Infinitive
An infinitive is a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb in order to express
an opinion, purpose of an object or action, or answer the questions who, what, or why.
An infinitive usually begins with the word “to” and is followed by the base form of a
verb (the simple form of the verb that you would find in the dictionary).
Examples of infinitives include to read, to run, to jump, to play, to sing, to laugh, to cry,
to eat, and to go.
Remember that although infinitives are verbs, they do not function as verbs, instead
they are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs

Infinitives as Nouns

Remember that a noun is a person, place, or thing. When an infinitive is used as

the subject or direct object in a sentence, it functions as a noun.
The sentence’s subject performs the verb, while the sentence’s direct object receives
the verb.

Example 1:
I love to sleep.
 In this sentence, the verb is “love.”

 Who or what receives the action of being loved? The infinitive “to sleep.”
 This makes “to sleep” the direct object of the sentence.
 In this case, the infinitive functions as a noun that expresses an opinion. It could
be replaced with a person, place, or thing, as in, “I love pizza.”

Example 2:
To help others is so important.
 In this example, we have the verb “is.”

 Who or what is so important? The infinitive “To help.”

 In this case, the infinitive “to help” is the sentence’s subject.
 This means that the infinitive functions as a noun in this sentence.
Infinitives as Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies (adds to or describes) a noun. So infinitives function

as adjectives when they modify or describe nouns in a sentence.

Example:
Joel wants a book to read.
 In this sentence, the verb is “wants” and the subject is the noun “book.”

 We also see the infinitive “to read.” What is the purpose of “to read” in this
sentence?
 It describes the book; Joel isn’t looking for just any book, he’s looking for a book to
read.
 In this sentence, the infinitive functions as an adjective.

Infinitives as Adverbs

Adverbs modify or describe adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. They provide additional
information about what, where, how, and to what extent or degree. Sometimes adverbs
also answer the question, “Why?”
Infinitives function as adverbs when they are used to give more information about
adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs in the sentence.

Example 1:
The students were excited to go on a field trip.
 In this sentence, the infinitive is “to go.”

 What is the purpose of “to go” in this sentence?

 The infinitive “to go” gives us more information about the adjective “excited”; it
tells us what the students were excited about (going on a field trip).
 In this case, the infinitive functions as an adverb.

Example 2:
Mom is going to the store to buy dinner.
  In this sentence, the infinitive is “to buy.”
 What’s the purpose of “to buy” in this example?
 The infinitive “to buy” gives us more information about the verb “going”; it tells
us why Mom is going to the store (to buy dinner).
 This is another example of how infinitives can function as adverbs.

Infinitives Without “To”

Almost always, infinitives begin with “to.” But infinitives lose the “to” when they follow
these verbs:
 Feel
 Hear
 Help
 Let
 Make
 See
 Watch
These verbs are followed by a direct object, then by an infinitive without the “to.”

Example 1:
When I heard the alarm clock ring, I knew it was time to get up.
 This sentence uses the verb “heard” followed by the direct object, “alarm clock.”

 When infinitives follow the verb “heard,” they lose the “to.” We wouldn’t say, “I
heard the alarm clock to ring,” or, “I heard to ring.”
 So, “alarm clock” is followed by the infinitive “ring” without the “to.”
 For this reason, this sentence correctly uses the infinitive without the “to.”

Example 2:
My mom helps me do my homework.
 This sentence uses the verb “helps” followed by the direct object “me.”
  When infinitives follow “helps,” they drop the “to.” In English, it doesn’t sound
correct to write, “My mom helps me to do my homework,” or, “My mom helps to
do.”
 So, “me” is followed by the infinitive “do” without the “to.”
 This is another correct example of using an infinitive without the word “to.”

https://englishsentences.com/infinitive/

Comparing gerunds, principle and infinitive

The gerund ends in -ingand functions as a noun. The infinitive is the base form of a verb
with to. Usually it functions as a noun, although it can also function as an adjective or adverb.
A participle is a verb that ends in -ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (past participle).
Participles may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns.

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/english/verb/verbals-gerunds-infinitives-and-participles

CHAPTER 11 – PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Phrases

A phrase is a group of words that stand together as a single unit, typically as part of a
clause or a sentence.

A phrase does not contain a subject and verb and, consequently, cannot convey a
complete thought. A phrase contrasts with a clause. A clause does contain a subject and
verb, and it can convey a complete idea.

Types of Phrases

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase contains a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which modify the noun. It works like a noun in a sentence.

A noun phrase consists of a noun as the headword and other words (usually modifiers
and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase functions as a
noun in a sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before the noun)
Examples:
He is wearing a nice blue shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of juice. (as noun/object)
The boy with blond hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the road was fighting. (as noun/subject)

Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase possesses a preposition, objects of the preposition (noun or

pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers.
Examples: on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the office, under a tree.
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or
pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called an object of the
preposition. A prepositional phrase works as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples:
A boy on the road is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our father. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always treats in a good manner. (As adverb)

Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words that works like an adjective in a sentence. It

consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase works as an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun
in a sentence.
Examples:
He is wearing a nice blue shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with blond hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of juice. (modifies glass)
A boy from China won the race. (modifies boy)
Adverb Phrase

A group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called the adverbial

phrase. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that
make a group work as an adverb in a sentence.
An adverbial phrase works as an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another
adverb.
Examples:
He always treats in a good manner. (modifies verb treat)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always speaks with care. (modifies verb speak)
He sat at a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
They returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)

Verb Phrase

A combination of the main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence is called
a verb phrase.
Examples:
He is eating an apple.
She has completed her task.
You should prepare for the exam.
She has been working for two hours.

Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + simple form of the verb) and modifiers
or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always works as an
adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence.
Examples:
She likes to read novels. (As noun/object)
To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject)
He shouted to inform people about the fire. (As an adverb, modifies verb shout)
He made a plan to buy a flat. (As an adjective, modifies noun plan)
Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words

associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
Examples:
I like writing good essays. (As noun/object)
She started thinking about the future. (As noun/object)
Sleeping late night is not a good habit. (As noun/subject)
Crying of a baby woke him up. (As noun/subject)

Participle Phrase

A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb
ending in -ed or other forms in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associated
words. A participle phrase is separated by commas. It always works as an adjective in a
sentence.
Examples:
The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids)
I received a letter, mentioning about my job. (modifies letter)
The chair, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table)
We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car)

Absolute Phrase

A group of words including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated
modifiers is called Absolute Phrase (also called nominative phrase). The absolute phrase
describes (give information about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it
doesn't have a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of commas from the
rest sentence.
Examples:
She looks sad, his face expressing worry.
She was waiting for her mother, her eyes on the clock.
John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.

https://www.alifseye.com/tutorials/single/10
Clause

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. A clause can be
distinguished from a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a verb (e.g., in the
afternoon, drinking from the bowl).

An independent clause can express a complete thought (and can be a standalone

sentence). A dependent clause is usually a supporting part of a sentence, and it cannot
stand by itself as a meaningful proposition (idea).

Examples of Independent Clauses

 Tara ate a cheese roll after she watched the news.
(Tara ate a cheese roll is an independent clause. It works as a standalone
sentence.)

 Even though his mother was a driving instructor, my cousin failed his driving
test six times.
 A computer once beat me at chess but was no match for me at kick boxing.
(Louis Hector Berlioz)

Examples of Dependent Clauses

Here are the same examples with the dependent clauses shaded:

 Tara ate a cheese roll after she watched the news.

(The clause after she watched the news is a dependent clause. It does not work
as a standalone sentence.)

 Even though his mother was a driving instructor, my cousin failed his driving
test six times.
 A computer once beat me at chess but was no match for me at kick boxing

These three dependent clauses (or subordinate clauses as they're also called) could
have been independent clauses. However, the opening word(s) (in these
examples after, Even though, and but) turned them into dependent clauses. The
opening words are known as dependent words, the main type of which
is subordinating conjunctions.

https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/clause.htm
Types of subordinate clause

A subordinate clause or dependent clause is a clause that can’t exist as a sentence on

its own. Like all clauses, it has a subject and a predicate, but it doesn’t share a complete
thought. A subordinate clause only gives extra information and is “dependent” on other
words to make a full sentence.

Noun Clause
A noun clause is a group of words that acts as a noun in a sentence. They begin with
relative pronouns like “how,” “which,” “who,” or “what,” combined with a subject and
predicate. For example:
The dog can eat what he wants.
Here, “what he wants” stands as a noun for what the dog can eat. It’s a noun clause
because it has a subject (he) and a predicate (wants).

Adjective Clause
An adjective is a descriptive word. Adjective clauses are groups of words that act as an
adjective in a sentence. They have a pronoun (who, that, which) or an adverb (what,
where, why) and a verb; or, a pronoun or an adverb that serves as subject and a verb.
They should answer questions like “what kind?” or “which one?” and follow one of two
patterns: Pronoun/adverb + subject + verb, or pronoun/adverb as subject + verb.
For example:

Whichever flavor of popcorn you have

Whichever (pronoun) + flavor (subject) + have (verb) is an adjective clause that
describes the popcorn. As you can see, it’s not a full sentence.
The dog is the one who ate the popcorn.
“Who” (pronoun acting as subject) + “ate” (verb) is an adjective clause that describes
the dog.
Adverb clause
An adverb clause is a group of words that work as an adverb in a sentence, answering
questions asking “where?”, “when,” “how?” and “why?” They begin with a subordinate
conjunction.
The dog ran until he got to the county fair.
This sentence answers the question “how long did the dog run?” with the adverb clause
“until he got to the county fair.”

After the dog arrived he ate popcorn.

With the adverb clause “after the dog arrived,” this sentence answers, “when did the
dog eat popcorn?”