Grammar Book

Grammar
Book
1
Table Of Contents
1. Tenses
a. Present Simple……………………pg. 04
b. Be……………………………….…pg. 08
c. Present Progressive……………… pg. 13
d. Past Simple……………………….. pg. 18
e. Be-Past……………………………. pg. 21
f. Past Progressive………………….. pg. 23
g. The Future……………………….. pg. 25
h. More Future……………………… pg. 26
i. Present Perfect…………………… pg. 27
j. Past Perfect…………………….… pg. 31
2. Parts Of Speech 1
a. Nouns…………………..……….… pg. 33
b. Nouns and Quantifiers…..…….… pg. 36
c. Comparison Of Adjectives…….… pg. 37
d. Pronouns……………………….… pg. 39
e. Reflexive Pronouns…………….… pg. 41
f. Adverbs…………...……...…….… pg. 43
g. Participles………...……...…….… pg. 48
3. Parts of Speech 2
a. Modals……….........……...…….… pg. 49
b. Past Form Of Modals……...…….. pg. 56
c. Will vs Would…………………… pg. 57
2
d. Infinitives………………………… pg. 63
e. More Infinitives……….………… pg. 65
f. Gerunds………………………….. pg. 67
g. Phrasal Verbs……………………. pg. 72
4. Clauses
a. Clauses……………………...……. pg. 78
b. Relative Clauses….………...…….. pg. 80
c. More Relative Clauses….....…….. pg. 83
d. Clauses Of Result….....…………. pg. 85
e. Conditonals………………………. pg. 88
f. More Conditionals……………….. pg. 91
g. Subjunctive Mood……………….. pg. 92
5. More Grammar Points
a. Reported Speech………………… pg. 95

b. Passive Voice……………………... pg. 98
c. Causatives or Permissives…..….. pg. 100
d. Conjunctions……………………. pg. 103
e. Logical Connectors……………... pg. 104
f. Negation…………………………. pg. 110
g. Impersonal Statements……...… pg. 114
h. Common Errors…………...…… pg. 115
i. More Common Errors………… pg. 118
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1
USE:
Tenses
PRESENT SIMPLE
To talk about actions, states or events which

happen at any time, repeatedly, or all the time.
STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Verbs take an -s ending in third person singular.
[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]
I/You/We/Theyworkin a bank.
He/She/It has brown eyes.
SPELLING
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -es in third person

singular: kisses, matches, goes, watches
For verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the y and add -ies:
4
carry/carries, try/tries, copy/copies
NOTE: The Present Simple is often used with adverbs and adverb
phrases that indicate frequency: Always, Never, Often,
Sometimes, Usually, Every day/week, On Sundays, Twice a
month, year, etc.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DO NOT/DON'T + VERB + REST]
I/You/We/Theydon't drive in the city.

He/She/It doesn'thave brown eyes.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DO + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Do I/you/we/they know them?
[DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Does he/she/it like milk?
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WH-WORD + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Who lives here?
5
Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

Where does he live?
When do you go home?
ANSWERS
FORM:
SUBJECT
[YES, + DO/DOES]
Yes, I do.
Yes, he does.
SUBJECT
[NO, + DON'T/DOESN'T]
No, we don't
No, she doesn't.
TAG QUESTIONS
If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]

You drive, don't you?
Carl paints, doesn't he?
If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]

You don't smoke, do you?
Mary doesn't drive,does she?
6
vs. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
The Present Simple is used to talk about general time, states, and
repeated actions. The Present Progressive is used to talk about
more temporary situations and actions which are going on around
the present moment.
EXAMPLES:
Present Simple: "Pat plays tennis every Friday."
Present Progressive: "She is playing tennis now."
Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

Present Progressive: "Now he is speaking English to that tourist."
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"BE" PRESENT
USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the
sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Are you the manager?"
"No, I'm not. She's the manager."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT +BE +REST OF SENTENCE]
I am at home.
You are pretty.
He/She/It is here.
We/You/They are at school.
EXAMPLE:
"I am tired."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + REST OF SENTENCE]
I am not tired.
You are not nice.
She/He/It is not here.
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We/You/They are not at work.
EXAMPLE:
"We are not hungry."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm here.
You're here.
He's/She's/It's here.
We're/You're/They're here.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not here.

You're not here. You arn't here.
He's not here. He isn't here.
She's not here. She isn't here.
It's not here. It isn't here.
We're not here. We aren't here.

You're not here. You aren't here.
They're not here. They aren't here.
EXAMPLE:
Frank isn't at home today.
Frank's not at work today.
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YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The
subject and the verb "BE" change places.
Statement: He is at home.
Yes/No Question: Is heat home?
Statement: They are at work now.

Yes/No Question: Are they at work now?
EXAMPLE:
"Are you in the living room?"
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a positive answer to a yes/no question (never used with
contractions).
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE]
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a negative answer to a yes/no question (often used with
contractions).
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FORM:
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + N'T]
No, I'm not
No, you're No, you
not. aren't.
No, he's not. No, he isn't.
No, it's not. No, it isn't.
No, we're not. No, we aren't.

No, you're No, you
not. aren't.
No, they're No, they
not. aren't.
EXAMPLE:
"Are you tired today?"
"No, I'm not."
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM: [QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]
NOTE: The subject and verb change places.
They are at work now.

Are they at work now?
Where are they now? (WH-Question)
EXAMPLE: "What is his name?"
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TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already
expected. Add a short, two-word question-tag to the end of the
statement.
FORM:
If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + BE + N'T + SUBJECT]
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + BE + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"You are tired, aren't you?"
"Yes, I am."
"He isn't at work, is he?"

"No, he isn't."
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PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
To describe actions that are happening now or in
the future.
EXAMPLES:
"That man is following us, isn't he?"
"Yes, he is."
"You aren't leaving, are you?"

"No, I'm not."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + VERB+ing + REST]
I am waiting for Sam.

You are eating my cake.
He/She/It is sleeping now.
We/You/They are going tomorrow.
EXAMPLE:
"I am trying to study."
SPELLING CHANGES
USE:
The spelling of some verbs changes when "ing" is added. For
most verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant, double the
last letter:
stop, stopping
For verbs that end in "e", drop the "e" before adding "ing":
have, having give, giving live, living
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EXAMPLE:
"I'm having fun in Paris."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + VERB+ing(+ REST)]
I am not driving.
You are not listening.
He/She/It is not working.
We/You/They are not studying.
EXAMPLE:
"It is not raining anymore."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm going.
You're going.
He's/She's/It's going.
We're/You're/They're going.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not working.

You're not working. You aren't working.
He's not working. He isn't working.
She's not working. She isn't working.
It's not working. It isn't working.
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We're not working. You aren't working.
You're not working. You aren't working.
They're not working. They aren't working.
EXAMPLES:
"Frank isn't driving to work today."
"Frank's not driving to work today."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The
subject and the form of the verb "BE" change places."
Statement: He is sleeping.
Yes/No Question: Is he sleeping?
Statement: They are working now.

Yes/No Question: Are they working now?
EXAMPLE:
"Are you listening to me?"
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "yes" answer (never used
with contractions).
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE]
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
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EXAMPLE:
"Are you listening to me?"
"Yes I am."
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "no" answer (often used
with contractions).
FORM:
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + NOT
No, I'm not.
No, you're not. No, you aren't.
No, he's not. No, he isn't.
No, it's not. No, it isn't.
No, we're not. No, we aren't.

No, you're not. No, you aren't.
No, they're not. No, they aren't.
EXAMPLE:
"Marie, are you enjoying the party?"
"No, I'm not."
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with the following question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + VERBing + REST]
NOTE: The subject and the form of the verb "BE" change places.
They are working at home now.
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Are they working at home now?
Where are they working now?(Wh-Question)
EXAMPLE:
"What are you doing now?"
TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already
expected. Add a short, two-word question-tag to the end of the
statement.
FORM: If "yes" is expected:

[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + BE + N'T + SUBJECT]
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + BE + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"He's leaving, isn't he?" "Yes, he is."
"You aren't going, are you?" "No, I'm not."
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PAST SIMPLE: STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Regular verbs in the Past Simple end in -ed.
[SUBJECT + VERB+ed + REST OF SENTENCE]
Joe walked home last night.

We played tennis yesterday.
SPELLING
Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live / lived.
With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to

i:
carry / carried try / tried
NOTE: Past Simple is often used with

adverbs: Yesterday, Last week/month/year, ... ago
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT / DIDN'T + VERB + REST]
They did not call me yesterday.
Ruth didn't study before the test.
IRREGULAR FORMS
Here is a list of some of the most frequent irregular verbs:

come - came put - put
do - did read - read
drink - drank say - said
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eat - ate sell - sold
find - found sit - sat
get - got sleep - slept
drive - drove speak - spoke
go - went take - took
have - had tell - told
hear - heard think - thought
know -knew understand -understood
leave - left wear - wore
make - made write - wrote
meet - met
QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DID/DIDN'T + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Did you walk yesterday?
Didn't theybuy the book last week?
SHORT ANSWERS
FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DID]
Yes, they did.
[NO, SUBJECT + DID + NOT / DIDN'T]

No, they didn't..
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WH-QUESTIONS
FORM: Questions about the SUBJECT:

[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERB+REST]
Who told him?

What made that noise?

[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
When did you leave school?

Where did they buy that?
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BE - PAST
STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + REST]
I/She/He/It was in the kitchen.

You/We/They were late.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + REST]
WASN'T/WEREN'T
I/She/He/It was not angry.

I/She/He/It wasn't here.
You/We/They were not early.

You/We/They weren't on time.
QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + REST OF SENTENCE]
WASN'T/WEREN'T
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Were they at home?
Wasn't he your neighbor?
NOTE: Use only contractions with negative

questions.
SHORT ANSWERS
[YES, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE]

Yes, I was
[NO, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT]

No, they were not/weren't
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WHO/WHAT + BE PAST + REST]
Who was at home?

[WH-WORD + BE PAST + SUBJECT + REST]
Where were you?
When was he there ?
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PAST PROGRESSIVE
USE:
We use Past Progressive to talk about a continuous
action or event which was happening at a particular
time in the past.
EXAMPLES:
"Weren't you studying with Linda last night?"
"No, I wasn't. I was shopping for Joe's birthday
present."
"What were you doing when he phoned?"

"I was sleeping."
STATEMENTS
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
I was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
NEGATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + VERB + ing...]
She was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.

They were not (weren't) waiting for the bus.
YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
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FORM:
[WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB+ing...?]
Was she waiting for the train?

Were you waiting for the train?
[YES/NO + SUBJECT + BE (NOT)]
Yes, I was.
No, it wasn't.
Yes, they were.

No, you weren't.
PAST PROGRESSIVE vs. PAST SIMPLE
USE:
We use the Past Simple to talk about a completed action in the
past. We use the Past Progressive to talk about an action that
continued over a period of time in the past.
We can also use the Past Simple and the Past Progressive together
in the same sentence, to show that one short action or event
happened during a longer action or event. If we mention the
shorter action first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence
together with WHILE.
EXAMPLES:
"The phone rang while she was taking a shower."
"The car broke down while Bill was driving home."If we mention
the longer action first, we usually join the two parts of the
sentence together with 'WHEN'.
EXAMPLES:
"She was taking a shower when the phone rang."
"Bill was driving home when the car broke down."
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THE FUTURE
USE:
We use the Future to talk about actions and states
in the future. We can use various verb forms to talk
about the future.
EXAMPLES:
"What time are you leaving for the station?"
"Well, my train leaves at ten, so I'll leave here at
about nine. That will give me time.
But you're going to give me a ride, aren't you?"
Four of the most important future verb forms are:
WILL
EXAMPLE:
"I will go home at six o'clock."
GOING TO
EXAMPLE:
"It's going to rain soon."
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
EXAMPLE:
"We're spending Christmas with my parents."
SIMPLE PRESENT
EXAMPLE:
"The next train to Oxford leaves at 2:45."
Each form carries a slightly different meaning.
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MORE FUTURE TENSES
USE:
These tenses are used to talk about actions which
will take place at or during a particular time period
in the future (FUTURE PROGRESSIVE) and about
actions and events which will be completed by a
certain time in the future (FUTURE PERFECT).
EXAMPLES:
"Could I borrow the car tomorrow, Dad?"
"Well, I'll be using it all day tomorrow;when do you
want to borrow it?"
"In the evening, after dinner."
"That's okay; I'll have finished with it by then."
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PRESENT PERFECT
USE:
To talk about actions or states which began in the
past and are still relevant in the present. The
Present Perfect is often used with expressions
starting with FOR and SINCE, to talk about actions
or states which began in the past and are true up
until the present time. It is also used with the
adverbs JUST, ALREADY, and YET to talk about
actions or events which took place at an indefinite
time in the past. The Present Perfect is also used to
talk about recent actions or events ("news").
EXAMPLES:
"Hi, Karla! I haven't seen you lately. Where have
you been?"
"I've been really busy. I've been playing with a
band called "Wild Thing." Have you heard of us?"
"No, I haven't."
"Well, come and see us on Saturday night!"
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + PAST
PARTICIPLE [V3] + (FOR/SINCE...)]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + BEEN +
VERB + ing + (FOR/SINCE...)]
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EXAMPLES:
"They've lived here for two years."
"She's been here since 4 p.m."
"I've already swept the floor."
"They've been working all night."
NEGATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + PAST
PARTICIPLE [V3]...]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + BEEN +
VERB + ing...]
EXAMPLES:
"We haven't met her yet."
"He hasn't made a sound."
"You haven't been doing your homework."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
Simple:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...?]
Progressive:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB + ing...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Have you finished your work yet?"
"Has Peter come home yet?"
"Have they been living here long?"
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WH-QUESTIONS
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERB + ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Who's eaten all the candy?"
"Who's been sleeping in my bed?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE

SENTENCE
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST
PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB +
ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"Why have you done that?"
"What have you been doing?"
TIME EXPRESSIONS
FOR or SINCE are used at the beginning of a time expression. To

say how long the action or state lasted, we use FOR:"...for ten
minutes," "...for twenty years," "...for two centuries," "...for a very
long time," etc.
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To say when the action or state began, we use SINCE: "...since 2
o'clock," "...since last Monday," "...since 1975," "...since the end
of the war," etc.
HOW LONG is used to start a question about duration.
EXAMPLES:
"How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."
"How long have you been living here?"

"For two years."
EVER is used before the verb, to ask if something has happened,

but not when.
EXAMPLE:
"Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."
JUST, ALREADY, and YET are used to talk about actions or

events which took place at an indefinite time in the past, or recent
actions or events ("news"). JUST (= a short time ago) and
ALREADY (= before now) usually go immediately before the
Past Participle [V3], and YET (before/until now) is often used at
the end of a negative sentence or question.
EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"
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PAST PERFECT
USE:
To emphasize the difference in time between two
states, actions, or events in the past which are
mentioned in the same sentence. We generally use
the Past Perfect Tense when we want to emphasize
that one event or state happened before another.
EXAMPLE:
"I was really surprised when I met Fred at Jill's
party last week. I hadn't seen him for five years,
and he looked really different. I asked him
what he'd been doing since we left school, but he
didn't tell me. Then somebody told me he'd been in
prison..."
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
USE:
To emphasize that one event happened before
another (connected by conjunctions like
WHEN/BEFORE) or in reported speech, when the
"reporting verb" is in the Past Tense and the
"original" statement or idea was in the Past Simple,
Present Perfect, or Past Perfect.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
Past
[SUBJECT + HAD (+Adverb) + Participle[V3]...]
HAD
NOT/HADN'T
EXAMPLES:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time they arrived."
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"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
REPORTED SPEECH
[PAST TENSE + (THAT) + PAST PERFECT]
EXAMPLES:
"I thought (that) you'd already seen this."
"She said (that) she'd never met me before."
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which
continued up to a point in the past.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB +
ING...](HADN'T)
EXAMPLES:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled
in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his
first exam."
"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus
finally arrived."
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2
USE:
Parts Of
Speech 1
NOUNS
Nouns are the names of people, places, and things.
EXAMPLE:
"These men buy their watches in New York."
men (person)
watches (thing)
New York (place)
SINGULAR/PLURAL
USE:
To make a noun plural.
FORM: Add an "s" to the noun.
a dollar two dollars

a guitar many guitars
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Many nouns have spelling changes in their plural
form.
When a noun ends in "s", "ss", "x", "sh" or "ch",

add "es":
a watch/watches
When a noun ends in a consonant + "y", change the

"y" to "i" and add "es": a baby/babies
When a noun ends in "o", sometimes add "es"

a potato/potatoes
BUT: a radio/radios
When a noun ends in "f" or "fe", change the "f" to

"v" and add "es" or "s":
a shelf/shelves
Sometimes the noun plural looks completely different.

foot / feet
a woman / women
a man / men
a mouse / mice
a person / people
a child / children
POSSESSIVE
USE:
To show who/what a thing belongs to.
FORM:
Add " 's " to the name of the person or thing that the noun belongs
to. For plural nouns, put the " ' " after the "s".
34
EXAMPLE:
"The boy's pizza. The boys' pizza."
35
NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS
USE:
Count and non-count nouns have special articles
and quantifiers.
COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of objects, people, ideas, etc.

which we can count. Count nouns have a singular
and plural form:
a dog - dogs the man - men
With count nouns, we can use a/an, the, and numbers.

a dog - two dogs the boy - the boys
NON-COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of materials, liquids, or other things which

we do not see as separate,countable objects: health, love, nature,
water, light, music, cheese, money
Non-count nouns only have a singular form:
The water is cold.
With Non-count nouns, we cannot use a/an or numbers. We can

use the and other quantifiers:
"The music is too loud."
"We have some cheese."
"How much money do you have?"
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
USE:
To compare two persons or things.
EQUALITY
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE: [AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Bob is as tall as Marty.
NEGATIVE: [NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]

Her hair is not as long as mine.
COMPARATIVES
FORM:
[COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE + THAN]
John is older than Bart.
Betty is more beautiful than Barbara.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -er:
long/longer, old/older, tall/taller
Adjectives ending in -e take -r:

nice/nicer, late/later
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:

fat/fatter, big/bigger, hot/hotter
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -ier:

happy/happier, easy/easier
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With most two-syllable adjectives and longer adjectives the
comparative is formed with more:
intelligent - more intelligent
beautiful - more beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular comparative

form:
good - better
bad - worse
SUPERLATIVES
FORM:
[SUPERLATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE]
John is the tallest boy in the class.
They are the most beautiful shoes in the store.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -est:
long/longest, old/oldest
Adjectives ending in -e take -st:

nice/nicest, late/latest
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:

fat/fattest, big/biggest, hot/hottest
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -iest:

happy/happiest, easy/easiest
Long adjectives form the superlative with most:

intelligent - most intelligent
beautiful - most beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular superlative

form:
good - best
bad – worst
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PRONOUNS
USE:
To refer to specific or general nouns without using
proper names.
EXAMPLES:
"Is this your bag?"
"Yes, it's mine."
"Give it to me please."
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
USE:
To refer to the subject of a sentence instead of
using proper names.
To refer to people:I, you, he, she, we, they
To refer to things: it, they
EXAMPLE:
"I am Mack. She is Matilda."
OBJECT PRONOUNS
USE:
To refer to the object (direct and indirect) of a sentence instead of
using proper names.
To refer to people: me, you, him, her, us, them
To refer to things: it, them
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EXAMPLE:
"Do you know him?"
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
To show belonging without using the names of the owners.
ADJECTIVE
Always followed by the noun it describes:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
NOUN
Used without the noun it describes:
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
EXAMPLE:
"Is it your turn?" "No, it's his."
40
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
(a) to talk about actions where the subject and the
object of the verb are the same person.
(b) to mean "that person/thing and nobody/nothing
else".
FORM:
Singular Plural
MYSELF OURSELVES
YOURSELFYOURSELVES
HIMSELF THEMSELVES
HERSELF
ITSELF
ONESELF
EXAMPLES:
"How did you hurt yourself?"
"I decided to teach myself to ski."
"The manager spoke to me himself!"
NOTE: We do not usually use reflexive pronouns with WASH,

DRESS, SHAVE, FEEL or after prepositions, when it is clear
who we are talking about.
"I don't feel very well." (NOT "feel myself")
Notice the important difference between reflexive pronouns and

the expressions EACH OTHER/ONE ANOTHER.
"Mary looked at Tom and Tom looked at Mary."

= "Mary and Tom looked at each other/one another."
Compare to: "Mary and Tom stood in front of the mirror and
looked at themselves."
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The expression BY + Reflexive Pronoun (BY MYSELF, BY
HIMSELF etc.) means "alone" or "without help".
"Fred loves company; he hates being by himself."

"The baby climbed the stairs by herself."
EXAMPLES:
"Be careful with that razor: you'll cut yourself!"
"I myself checked the figures; I'm sure they're right."
"Sharon looked at herself in the mirror."
"Nobody helped me; I wrote the book by myself."
42
ADVERBS
USE:
An adverb often contains the answer to the
question: "How does the subject perform the
verb?".
EXAMPLES:
"He plays the trumpet beautifully, but he
plays baseball very badly."
"John walked towards me very slowly. Then
he spoke quietly."
Some adverbs (e.g. EXTREMELY, TERRIBLY,

REMARKABLY, UNUSUALLY, ESPECIALLY, and
several others) are also used to strengthen
adjectives or other adverbs.
EXAMPLES:
"Fred was extremely angry when you said that."
"That's a lovely hat, but it's terribly expensive!"
FORMATION
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an

adjective: clear/clearly, wonderful/wonderfully, clever/cleverly, st
upid/stupidly, interesting/interestingly, close/closely, dangerous/d
angerously, bad/badly.
If an adjective already ends in -ly (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it

cannot be made into an adverb. In this case we have to make an
adverbial phrase.
EXAMPLES:
"She spoke to me in a friendly way."
"He sat there looking lonely."
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In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding
adjective: EARLY, LATE, FAST, HARD, LEFT, RIGHT,
WRONG, HIGH, LONG.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm afraid the train will leave late."
"He runs very fast."
"Why do you work so hard?"
"Turn right at the next corner!"
The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL.
"Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."
ADVERBS and ADJECTIVES: TOO and ENOUGH
USE:
Used to talk about adjectives or adverbs in terms of excess
(TOO), adequacy (ENOUGH), or inadequacy (NOT...
ENOUGH).
FORM + MEANING:
[TOO + Adjective or Adverb] (=EXCESS)
EXAMPLES:
"This restaurant is too expensive. I'm not coming here again!"
"I'm too fat; I must lose weight!"
FORM + MEANING:
[Adjective or Adverb + ENOUGH] (=ADEQUACY)
EXAMPLE:
"Can you lift that case?"
"Sure, I'm strong enough."
FORM + MEANING:
[NOT (-N'T) + Adjective/Adverb +
44
ENOUGH](=INADEQUACY)
EXAMPLES:
"Don't go skating there. The ice isn't thick enough!"
"We lost the match because we didn't play well
enough."
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
USE:
Used to compare two subjects performing the same action.
COMPARATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + MORE + Adverb + THAN + SUBJECT
2 (+DOES/CAN etc)...]
EXAMPLE:
"I can sing more beautifully than you (can)."
SUPERLATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + THE MOST + Adverb (OF ALL)]
EXAMPLE:
"Of all the students in her class, Sarah does her homework the
most carefully."
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ADVERBS WITH THE SAME BASE FORM AS
ADJECTIVES
FORM:
Comparison: Add -er
EXAMPLE:
"Fred can run faster than Martin can, but Sharon runs the fastest."
FORM:
Superlative: Add -est
EXAMPLE:
"My wife got up earlier than I did this morning, but our
daughter got up the earliest."
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE

FORMS
Base
form ComparativeSuperlative
WELL BETTER THE BEST
THE
BADLYWORSE WORST
THE
LITTLE LESS LEAST
THE
MUCH MORE MOST
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens.
The most important adverbs of frequency are ALWAYS,
GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY,
OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER, OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM,
RARELY, and NEVER.
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AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[ADVERB + VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"I always drink champagne with my supper."
FORM:
[BE + ADVERB]
EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[NOT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
QUESTIONS
FORM:
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
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PARTICIPLES
USE:
A PARTICIPLE is a verb form which can be used like
an adjective in a sentence. All verbs, except Modals
such as MUST, MAY, CAN, WILL, SHALL, and
SHOULD, have participial forms.
FORM:
The Present Participle is formed by adding "-ING" to
the base form. It is used to express an active
meaning: it describes what the noun "is
doing/does." The Past Participle is formed by adding
"-ED" to the verb in regular verbs. The irregular
verbs have special forms.
The Past Participle expresses a passive meaning: it

describes the effect something has on the person or
thing, or what the person feels.
EXAMPLES:
Present Participle Past Participle

confusing confused
exciting excited
pleasing pleased
worrying worried
"Jean is such an annoying person. She never has anything nice to

say about anyone. I get annoyed every time she opens her
mouth!"
48
3
USE:
Parts Of
Speech 2
MODALS and SEMI-MODALS
Modals and Semi-modals are words that are used

with verbs and add a special meaning. Most modals
have more than one meaning.
FORM:
Modals usually go before the verb and have only
one form.
MODALS
AFFIRMATIVE
[MODAL + VERB]
John can swim quickly.
Bill and Mary may visit us later.
NEGATIVE
[MODAL + NOT + VERB]
Diane can't swim.
Beth cannot meet us tonight.
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SEMI-MODALS
Semi-modals also go before the verb, but have the same form as
regular verbs.
AFFIRMATIVE
[SEMI-MODAL + VERB]
He has to leave early.
They have to do their homework.
NEGATIVE
[(DO/DOES NOT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB]
The boys don't have to work today. Three of the most common
Modals/Semi-modals are:
CAN (MODAL):
Joe can speak French. (ABILITY)
You can leave early. (PERMISSION)
It can be hot here. (POSSIBILITY)
MAY (MODAL):
You may leave early. (PERMISSION)
They may visit later. (POSSIBILITY)
HAVE TO (SEMI-MODAL):
He has to leave early. (OBLIGATION)
QUESTIONS
FORM:
MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
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Can you help me?
May I leave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MODAL... VERB...]
When can you help me?
SEMI-MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS

[DO/DOES(NOT) + SUBJECT + SEMI-MODAL + VERB +
REST]
Do I have to leave now?
Doesn't she have to study for her test?
Answers:
Yes, I do.
No, she doesn't.
SEMI-MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + (DO/DOES+SUBJECT) + SEMI-MODAL +
VERB + REST]
Who has to leave?

When do you have to call your parents?
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MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS)
USE:
Modals and Semi-modals are words that are used
with verbs and add a special meaning. Most Modals
have more than one meaning.
MUST
Modal showing strong necessity, obligation, or duty
to do something. There is very little difference
between MUST and HAVE TO. However, in formal
English, MUST is used for public notices about
official rules and regulations. MUST can also be used
to express a strong opinion about a situation based
on existing facts or circumstances.
SHOULD
Modal used to talk about a duty or obligation
(weaker than MUST or HAVE TO) or give somebody
advice.
HAD TO
Semi-modal used to talk about necessity, obligation, or duty in the
past. It is the past form of both HAVE TO and MUST.
BE ABLE TO
Semi-modal used to talk about ability in the present, future, and
past. It is similar in meaning to CAN and COULD.
AFFIRMATIVE
52
FORM:
MUST, SHOULD
Note that there is no final -s on modal forms in the third person

singular.
[SUBJECT + MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"We should invite Paul to the party."
"Bob must be home by now. Let's call him."
"You must have a license to drive."
BE ABLE TO, HAD TO
[SUBJECT + SEMI MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Paul isn't able to come to the party."
"Barbara has/had to babysit tonight."
WITH ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Note that adverbs of frequency (never, often, sometimes, etc.) can

be placed immediately after the Modal in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLE:
"You must always remember your boss's birthday."
Adverbs of frequency are placed immediately before HAD TO in

affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLE:
53
"Bob always had to work after school."
With BE ABLE TO, adverbs of frequency are placed after BE.
EXAMPLE:
"She is never able to understand the homework."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MODAL + NOT + VERB...]
NOTE: NOT is usually shortened to '-n't' and pronounced

together with the Modal (except for might).
EXAMPLES:
"We must not (mustn't) be late."
"You should not (shouldn't) open that box!"
[SUBJECT + DO/DOES/DID + NOT + HAVE TO+ VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"They didn't have to clean the yard yesterday."
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...]

"Peter isn't able to come to our party."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Must we invite Paul?"
"Should we ask someone to help us?"
54
[DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Did he have to leave so early?"
[BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Is he able to fix the TV?"
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
ABOUT THE SUBJECT
[WH-WORD + MODAL/SEMI-MODAL + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who must we speak to?"
"Who had to help her yesterday?"
"Who is able to understand that question?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE

[Wh-Word + MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Why must we invite Paul?"
"When could you type that letter for me?"
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO +

VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"What did Bradley have to do yesterday?"
[WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
55
PAST FORMS OF MODALS
USE:
The Modals COULD, MAY, and MIGHT are used with
HAVE and the Past Participle [V3] of verbs to
speculate or form opinions about possible events in
the past. MUST HAVE is used in the same way to
express logical deductions about the past. SHOULD
HAVE is used to talk about expectations,
suppositions, and obligation in the past.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm worried. Jack should have been on that train,
but he wasn't."
"I'm sure it's OK; he must have taken a later train."
"I don't know. He may have decided to come by car.
He might have had an accident; you know how
badly he drives."
EXAMPLE:
"How is Sarah able to buy such an expensive sweater?"
56
WILL and WOULD
USE:
We use WILL and/or WOULD to talk about a
subject's willingness or capacity to perform an
action, to describe habits, and to make requests
and offers. WILL and/or WOULD can also be used to
talk about future and hypothetical actions, states,
and events.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of
gasoline."
"Cats will often play with mice for hours before
killing them."
"Jack, would you please stop making that noise!"
"Don't worry; I'll explain the contract if you don't
understand it."
"The President's helicopter will land at 2:15."
"I wouldn't open that box if I were you."
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT + WILL/WOULD (+NOT) + VERB [Base

Form]...]
WILL + NOT is often abbreviated to WON'T and

WOULD + NOT is often abbreviated to WOULDN'T
57
QUESTIONS
[(Wh Word +) WILL/WOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...]
WILL/WOULD - WILLINGNESS
USE:
WILL is often used to make an offer or to ask
somebody if they are willing to do something.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"Will you lend me a thousand dollars so that I can
go on vacation?"
WOULD is used as the past form of WILL, and to ask

somebody very politely if they are willing to do
something.
EXAMPLES:
"He told me that he would give me some money."
"Excuse me, would you stop smoking, please?"
WON'T and WOULDN'T are often used to describe a

refusal.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary won't clean her room even when I ask her
politely."
"James wouldn't lend me his pen, although I asked
him several times if I could."
WILL/WOULD - CAPACITY
USE:
WILL is used in the affirmative, negative and
58
interrogative to talk about the subject's capacity or
ability to do something. In this case we are
normally talking about a machine or other object.
EXAMPLES:
"This tank will hold 500 liters of water."
"My car has broken down; it won't start."
"Will this camera work under water?"
We use WOULD in the same way to talk about the

past.
EXAMPLES:
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of
gasoline."
"When I tried to open the door, my
key wouldn't fit the lock."
WILL/WOULD - HABIT
USE:
We use WILL in the affirmative and negative to talk
about present habits.
EXAMPLE:
"John will often put something down, and then
immediately forget where he put it."
When the subject of the verb is a person, the use of

WILL often suggests that the speaker is slightly
irritated by the action.
EXAMPLE:
"He's a clever boy, but
he will frequently interrupt my lessons with
annoying questions."
59
We use WOULD in the affirmative and negative to
talk about past habits and customs.
EXAMPLES:
"When I was a child, I would beg my father to tell
me stories."
"The ancient Britons would paint themselves blue
before battle."
WILL/WOULD - REQUESTS
The interrogative forms of WILL and WOULD are

used to make requests.
EXAMPLES:
"Will you open the window, please?"
"Jack, will you be quiet!"
"Excuse me, would you tell me the time, please?"
Notice that WOULD is far more polite than WILL,

and is normally used when we speak to strangers.
WOULD YOU MIND + VERB + ing is an even politer

way of asking somebody to do something.
EXAMPLE:
"Excuse me, would you mind opening the window?"
WOULD YOU MIND IF + SUBJECT + VERB [Past

Form]..? is a very polite way of asking for
permission to do something.
EXAMPLE:
"Excuse me, would you mind if I borrowed your
newspaper?"
60
WILL/WOULD - FUTURE ACTIONS and STATES
USE:
WILL and WON'T are used to talk about states or
events at some time in the future.
EXAMPLES:
"How will you open the door without a key?"
"John won't be in the office next week."
"I will never forget you."
In spoken English, WILL and WON'T are often used

in a subordinate clause, when the main clause
describes the subject's attitude or beliefs about the
future state or event.
EXAMPLES:
"He hopes (that) you won't be angry with him."
"I'm sure she'll get here soon."
WOULD and WOULDN'T are used in reported speech

when we are repeating something that was said
about the future.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary kissed me and told me (that) she would
never forget me."
"Did he tell you what time he would arrive?"
"Last week she told me that she wouldn't be at
yesterday's meeting."
WILL/WOULD - CONDITIONALS
WILL and WON'T are used in subordinate clauses to

talk about the results of possible present or future
conditions which are described in the main clause.
61
The main clause normally begins with IF or UNLESS,
and contains a verb which takes a present form,
even when it refers to the future.
EXAMPLES:
"If I win the lottery next month, I'll buy you a
diamond ring."
"We won't hurt the hostages unless the police
attack us."
"What will you do if you lose the next match?"

"I'll give up tennis and play chess instead."
WOULD and WOULDN'T are used to describe the

results of impossible, unreal, and very unlikely
present or future conditions which are described in
the main clause. The verb in the main clause
normally takes a past form, although it refers to the
present or future.
EXAMPLE:
"I hate you! I wouldn't marry you if you were the
last man on earth!"
62
INFINITIVES
USE:
Used to refer to a state or action. The Infinitive is
the base form of a verb, preceded by TO.
EXAMPLES:
"Sheila! I'm so happy to see you! I don't know
what to say!"
"I know you didn't expect me to come. I didn't have
to work so I came to help you."
"Great! The party is going to be fantastic!"
AFTER ADJECTIVES
USE:
Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or
event.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
When the subject of a clause is followed by two verbs, the second
verb is usually in the infinitive.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]
63
EXAMPLE:
"Tina decided to study Russian."
AFTER VERB + OBJECT
When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same
clause, the second is sometimes an infinitive.
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]
EXAMPLE:
"I told Maggie to write that letter last week."
INSTEAD OF NOUN CLAUSES
USE:
Used in place of a noun clause starting with one of the following:
WHO, WHAT, WHICH, WHEN, WHERE, WHOSE, HOW,
HOW MUCH, HOW MANY, or WHETHER.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE + WHO, WHAT, etc. + Infinitive]
EXAMPLES:
"I don't know how to get home from here."
(I don't know how I can get home from here.)
"I've no idea who to ask for advice."

(I've no idea who I should ask for advice.)
64
MORE INFINITIVES
USE:
INFINITIVES take various forms which are related
to tense and voice, including Perfect and Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive is used to talk about a past
action or state. It is often used after the passive
form of verbs such as KNOW, THINK, SAY, REPORT,
and BELIEVE. It is also used after the verbs SEEM
and APPEAR to speculate about actions and states in
the past. Passive Infinitives are often used after
adjectives and verbs in the same way as Active
Infinitives to refer to an action when the object (or
receiver) of the action is more important than the
subject (or doer).
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody knows for sure where the escaped criminal
is now, but he is thought to have left the San
Francisco area."
"May I ask you a few questions?"

"Sure! I'd be happy to be interviewed... and I'd love
to be photographed, too."
"Mary seems to be angry, but I don't know why."
65
MORE INFINITIVES
USE:
Infinitives can be used in various ways to replace
longer clauses in a sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"He is generally thought to be a genius."
( = Most people think that he is a genius.)
"John went home early to watch the match on TV."

( = John went home early because he wanted to
watch the match on TV.)
"Agnes opened her bag, only to find that she had

forgotten the key."
( = Agnes opened her bag, and was disappointed
when she found that she had forgotten the key.)
66
GERUNDS
USE:
When a sentence contains a verb which has a
function normally fulfilled by a noun (e.g., as the
subject or object), that verb is usually a GERUND. A
Gerund can also follow "BE".
EXAMPLES:
"Harry loves eating ice cream."
"Smoking is very bad for you."
"I traveled around the world after leaving school."
"My hobby is collecting stamps."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
Gerunds are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of
a noun or pronoun. In some cases, an object verb takes the
infinitive form, but normally it is a GERUND. A Gerund can also
follow "BE".
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]
EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but deniedkilling the security
guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
AS SUBJECTS
USE:
A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun
67
or pronoun. We often use Gerunds in this way to make
generalizations. The Gerund can stand alone, be followed by a
complement (i.e. an object or an adverb) or an adverbial clause.
FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is
inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause)
"Eating cheese before you go to bed can give you indigestion."
(with Adverbial Clause)
AFTER PREPOSITIONS
USE:
A preposition is normally followed by a noun or a pronoun. If it is
followed by a verb, the verb is a GERUND.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary left without saying goodbye."
"James had an accident after drinking too much."
GERUNDS OR INFINITIVES AFTER VERBS
USE:
Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or Infinitives.
In some cases, such as REMEMBER, FORGET, STOP, and USE,
this changes the meaning of the sentence completely.
68
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]
EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action]
EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action]
EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie my shoelace."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see
what the result will be]
EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some
boiling water before putting in the tea."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether
it is possible]
69
EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch
her."
FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something you are doing]
EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."
FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or
enjoyable]
EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately." Note the
difference between USED TO + INFINITIVE and BE/GET
USED TO + GERUND:
FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state
which has now stopped or changed]
EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington. Now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."
FORM + MEANING:
[BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider
something normal or become accustomed to something]
EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to
Britain it felt very strange!"
70
"I can't get used to being a grandmother. I feel so old!"
"Don't worry. You'll get used to having grandchildren."
With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes

very little difference whether they are followed by a Gerund or an
Infinitive, although one form may be slightly more common than
the other. In the following examples, the more common form
comes first.
EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."
71
PHRASAL VERBS
Many English verbs, like TAKE or GET, can have a

large number of different meanings. Some of them
can be followed by a short word (a preposition like
TO or FOR or an adverb like AWAY or OUT) which
gives the verb a relatively precise meaning. The
combination of VERB + PREPOSITION/ADVERB is
called a PHRASAL VERB.
EXAMPLE:
"I'm
always putting clothes on and taking them off again.
"
Some PHRASAL VERBS have no common non-

phrasal equivalent:
PUT ON or TAKE OFF clothes

LOOK UP words in a dictionary
Others are used in informal spoken English instead

of longer, more formal expressions:
GO ON continue
CALL OFF cancel
BLOW UP destroy with explosive
TAKE IN deceive
FORM:
Most phrasal verbs are transitive; in other words
they normally take a direct object. In many cases,
the object comes between the verb and the
preposition or adverb. Such verbs are called
SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS. Notice the following
72
two possible constructions:
[SUBJECT + PREP/ADVERB + OBJECT...]
"The soldiers blew up the bridge yesterday."
[SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + PREP/ADVERB...]
"The soldiers blew the bridge up yesterday."
Notice that if the object is a noun, it can come

either before or after the preposition/adverb. But if
the object is a pronoun, it must come before the
preposition/adverb:
"The soldiers blew it up yesterday."
The following list includes common separable

phrasal verbs which follow this rule followed by
examples of them in use.
BACK UP (give support to)

"He always backs up his employees. (...backs them
up)."
BLOW OUT (extinguish)

"The wind blew out the candle (...blew it out)."
BLOW UP (destroy with explosives)

"The soldiers blew up the bridge (...blew it up)."
BREAK UP (dismantle, destroy)

"They're going to break up the company structure
(...break it up)."
BREAK OFF (snap or interrupt)

"They decided to break off the negotiations (...break
73
them off)."
BRING UP (look after and educate children)

"They brought up the boy (...brought him up) very
strictly."
CALL IN (ask/tell somebody to visit)

"We called in an engineer (...called him in) as soon
as we discovered the fault."
CARRY OUT (perform)

"I carried out his instructions (...carried them out)
immediately."
CLEAR UP (remove disorder, make tidy)

"We cleared up the office (...cleared it up) after the
Christmas party."
CUT OFF (remove part of something)

"He cut off the corner of the book (...cut it off)."
FILL OUT (complete a printed form)

"Please fill out this form (...fill it out) in ink."
FILL UP (make full)

"She filled up my cup (...filled it up) with coffee."
FIND OUT (discover)

"He found out the cause of the fault (...found it out)
by examining the wiring."
FIX UP (organize, arrange, repair)

They fixed up a venue (...fixed it up) in time for the
conference."
GET BACK (obtain in return)
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"Mr. Holden never got back the stolen disks (...got
them back)."
GIVE BACK (return)

"When are you going to give back the pen I lent you
(...give it back)?"
GIVE UP (stop, abandon)

"I gave up smoking (...gave it up) five years ago."
HAND IN (give)
"They handed in their questionnaires (...handed
them in) at the end of the session."
HOLD UP (delay)
"The strike held up the project (...held it up) for six
months."
KEEP UP (continue, maintain)

"The audience kept up their applause (...kept it up)
for ten minutes."
KNOCK OUT (make unconscious)

"The machinery knocked out the operator
(...knocked him out) when it malfunctioned."
LET DOWN (disappoint)

"She forgot about the appointment and let down the
client (...let him down)."
LET OUT (allow to go out)

"Don't forget to let out the cat (...let it out) after
dinner."
LOOK UP (find in a dictionary, phone directory, etc.)

"You must look up those words (...look them up) in
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the dictionary."
PAY BACK (repay a debt)

"They promised to pay back the money (...pay it
back) within three months."
PICK UP (lift)
"I saw you pick up your glasses (...pick them up) in
the canteen."
PUT DOWN (replace on a surface)

"Put down the computer (...put it down) here."
PUT OFF (postpone)

"We'll have to put off the meeting (...put it off) until
next week."
PUT ON (start to wear)

"I pu on my coveralls (...put them on) this
morning."
SET UP (start, establish)

"They set up the company (...set it up) in 1978."
SWITCH ON/OFF (start/stop an appliance)

"Please switch off the radio (...switch it off); it's
distracting me."
TAKE OFF (remove clothes, etc.)
"He took off his shoes (...took them off) before
going into the Japanese restaurant."
TAKE OVER (take control of)

"The bank took over my farm (...took it over) in
1980."
TALK OVER (discuss)
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"I want to talk over your proposal (...talk it over)
with my manager before we decide."
THINK OVER (consider carefully)

"I thought over the plan (...thought it over) for
several hours."
TRY OUT (test)

"We're going to try out the product (...try it out)
before we market it."
TURN ON/OFF (open/close a supply of water, gas,

etc.)
"I forgot to turn off the machine (...turn it off); the
supervisor will be furious!"
WIPE OUT (destroy, annihilate)

"This disastrous project has wiped out our profits for
this quarter (...has wiped them out)."
77
4
USE:
Clauses
CLAUSES
When a sentence contains more than one finite verb

(i.e. verb with its own subject),it is divided into
CLAUSES. Each clause contains a subject and a
verb. The first clause in a sentence is usually the
MAIN CLAUSE, the others are SUBORDINATE
CLAUSES.Two common types of SUBORDINATE
CLAUSES are NOUN CLAUSES and ADVERBIAL
CLAUSES.
EXAMPLES:
"I think that your new dress is beautiful."
"Why don't you call when you're late?"
"I have to go home after I finish work."
NOUN CLAUSES
USE:
A NOUN CLAUSE usually provides or asks for
information about a person or an object that is
introduced in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"I think that your sister is lovely!"
"I don't know who she is."
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Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed
by the normal question form.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
USE:
An ADVERBIAL CLAUSE usually contains information
about the verb in the main clause.Often it explains
the main clause or tells when it happens.
EXAMPLES:
"He drank water because he was thirsty."
"She spoke slowly so that I could understand."
"I always worry when my kids come home late."
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
To provide information which helps to identify one
of the nouns in a sentence. The relative clause
immediately follows the noun it describes.
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who's wearing a black hat."
"The dress which you wore yesterday was
beautiful."
"The apples that you brought are wonderful."
SUBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is the same as
the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
These relative clauses begin with relative pronouns:
WHO (for people),
WHICH (for animals or things),
THAT (for people, animals, or things; for the words
EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING)
WHOSE (for possessives).
[...NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who/that wrote this book."
"Let's see the movie which/that won the prize."
"I've forgotten everything that happened."
"Bill's the man who called me last night."
"Where is the factory that makes those chairs?"
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Remember that the relative clause always contains a verb.
OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is not the same
as the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
These relative clauses begin with relative pronouns:
WHO (for people)/WHOM (in very formal English)
WHICH (for animals or things),
THAT (for people, animals, or things and for the words
EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING).
We can choose to leave out the relative pronoun if it is not the

subject of the verb in the relative clause, except when the relative
clause begins with a preposition (in formal English), or if it
follows a comma.
[...NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN) + SENTENCE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with."
"Here's the book (which/that) you lent me."
"Tell me everything (that) you remember."
If there is a preposition at the beginning of the relative clause we

must use the relative pronouns WHOM or WHICH unless we
move the preposition to the end of the clause.
EXAMPLES:
"The lady with whom you were dancing is my wife."
OR
"The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife."
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"The company for which you work is responsible for your
pension."
OR
"The company (that) you work for is responsible for your
pension." We can also replace IN WHICH, AT WHICH and ON
WHICH by WHERE or WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"That's the house where Shakespeare lived."
"1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the
Atlantic."
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MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
Some relative clauses are used to provide
information about one of the nouns in a sentence
(see Intermediate 1 for RELATIVE CLAUSES).
When the relative clause contains information about

possession and place, the relative pronouns used
are WHOSE and WHERE.
When the NOUN is EVERYTHING THAT or

EVERYBODY THAT or ANYTHING THAT, we can
replace it with WHATEVER or WHOEVER.
EXAMPLES:
"Here comes Mr. Chang. He's the teacher whose car
was stolen from the school parking lot."
"Look, kids! There's the house where your father

grew up."
"Whatever you decide, I will support you."
"Please tell whoever it is you are speaking to that

you will call back later."
NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES contain

additional information which is not needed to
identify the NOUN. They appear set off from the rest
of the sentence by commas, or between a comma
and the period at the end of the sentence.
EXAMPLE:
"My brother, who is a writer, hates using
computers."
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NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES with WHICH
can contain additional information about a particular
noun in the sentence, or relate to the entire idea
being expressed by the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"The company, which was formed three years ago,
develops computer programs."
"John believes that computers will replace books,

which I think is impossible."
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CLAUSES OF RESULT
USE:
To talk about the reasons for or the results of an
action or event.
FORM:
We use SO and SUCH in the main clause to explain
a result in the subordinate clause beginning with
THAT. We use SINCE, AS LONG AS, and NOW THAT
to introduce a subordinate clause which explains the
verb in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good
grades ."
"Dora is such a good teacher that everybody
admires her."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't
know the road very well."
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
SUCH... THAT and SO... THAT
USE:
These are used in the main clause to explain the
reason for an action or event. We use SO... THAT
with adjectives or adverbs and SUCH... THAT with
adjectives and nouns.
FORM:
WITH ADJECTIVES
[SUBJECT + BE + SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT +

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
85
EXAMPLES:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good grades."
"I am so tired that I can't stay awake."
WITH ADVERBS
[SUBJECT + VERB (+ OBJECT) + SO + ADVERB +

THAT + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He walked so slowly that he missed the bus."
"John tells jokes so well that everybody likes him."
WITH ADJECTIVE + NOUN
[SUBJECT + BE + SUCH (+ A) + ADJECTIVE +

NOUN + THAT + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
Notice that we use the indefinite article A(N) before

the adjective with singular countable nouns.
EXAMPLES:
"Dora is such a good teacher that
everybody admires her."
"This is such good wine that I'm going to buy ten
cases."
"Pat and Jo are such good friends that they
do everything together."
SINCE/NOW THAT/AS LONG AS
All of these expressions are used as conjunctions at

the beginning of subordinate clauses. The two
clauses are normally separated by a comma (,).
[CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, + MAIN

CLAUSE]
or
86
[MAIN CLAUSE, + CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE]
SINCE introduces a reason for the action, state, or

event described in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Since you speak perfect English, I want you to
translate for me."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't
know the road very well."
NOW THAT introduces a new or recent condition

which explains the action, state, or event described
in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Now that she is sixty years old, she may decide to
stop working."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
AS LONG AS introduces a necessary condition for

the action, state, or event described in the main
clause.
EXAMPLES:
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"You can drink the water, as long as you boil it
first."
87
CONDITIONALS
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time,"
possible events in the future, unreal/impossible
situations and results in the present or future.
FORM:
Statements and questions of this type often have
two parts: a "condition" (the hypothesis), usually a
subordinate clause beginning with IF, and a "result,"
described in the main clause of a sentence.
We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a

result clause.
[IF (Condition) Clause, + RESULT CLAUSE] or

[RESULT CLAUSE + IF (Condition) Clause]
EXAMPLES:
"What would you do if you won a million dollars?"
"If I won that much money, I'd stop working tomorrow."
REAL CONDITIONALS
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but
possible events in the future.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes
UNLESS). The verb is in the Present.
The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk
about possibilities in "general time") or Future Tense verbs and
Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or SHOULD (to talk about
88
uncertain events in the future).
You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result

clause.
POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME

(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)
EXAMPLES:
CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

"If it's two in New York it's nine o'clock in Paris."
"If it isn't cold enough it doesn't snow."
RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."
UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)
EXAMPLES:

"If you say that again, I'm going to hit you!"
"If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

"They will come to the party if they find a baby-sitter."
"I'm going to buy a dress if I get paid today."
UNREAL CONDITIONALS
USE:
89
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses
in the present and future.
The CONDITION CLAUSE begins with IF/IF... NOT (or

sometimes UNLESS).
The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past
Progressive (to talk about a hypothetical fact), or the Modal
COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).
NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past
progressive form, we use WERE instead of WAS. The verb in the
result clause always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D (to express
a certainty), MIGHT (to express a possibility), or COULD (to
express ability).

"If I had a new car, I'd be very happy."
"If he weren't so tired, he'd go to the party."

"I might pass English if I studied more."
"They'd tell me if they knew."
90
MORE CONDITIONALS
USE:
There are Conditionals which refer to conditions
which existed or could have existed in the past.
These are Past Conditionals and Mixed Time
Conditionals. Past Conditionals are used to describe
conditions that will never be fulfilled because the
time in which they would have occurred has ended.
Mixed Time Conditionals are used to talk about the
present results of past conditions.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or
sometimes UNLESS). The verb in the condition
clause is either Past Perfect or Past Perfect
Progressive:
[IF + SUBJECT + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE
[V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
The verb in the result (main) clause is in the Past
Conditional:
[SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE
+ PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
EXAMPLES:
"If I had known you were sick, I would have
made you some soup."
"If Laura had been taller, she could have been a
model."
"If I hadn't broken my leg last week, I would be
dancing in the competition tonight."
"If she had dressed warmly lastnight, she wouldn't
be sick today."
91
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
USE:
The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD is used for a number of
purposes, including:
talking about wishes, hopes, doubts, desires or

actions which we want to happen;
expressing preference or emphasizing the

importance of something.
AFTER VERBS
USE:
When the main verb in the sentence indicates the
subject's opinion about, or wish or intention for the
action of a second subject, or an event described in
the subordinate clause.
FORM:
The SUBJUNCTIVE usually accompanies a change in
subject in the subordinate clause. The verb in the
subordinate clause is in the base form.
EXAMPLES:
"We insist that he stay for dinner."
"The doctor advised that she lose weight."
AFTER ADJECTIVES
USE:
When an adjective in the main clause indicates the
speaker's (or another subject's) reaction to the verb
in the subordinate clause.
FORM:
The SUBJUNCTIVE is used following certain
92
adjective phrases, when these phrases are followed
by a new sentence. The verb in the subordinate
clause is in the base form.
EXAMPLES:
"It is essential that she have the operation."
"It is important that we be there on time."
AFTER OTHER EXPRESSIONS
USE:
The SUBJUNCTIVE can be used after other
expressions, such as IF, UNLESS, I'D RATHER, IT'S
TIME, I WISH, IF ONLY, to describe states or events
which are impossible or hypothetical, and therefore
unreal.
FORM:
We use the normal SIMPLE PAST form, affirmative
and negative (see Basic 2), to form the Past
Subjunctive. When the verb is BE, WAS is replaced
by WERE, especially in formal and written English.
EXAMPLES:
"I'd rather you didn't go out tonight."
"I wish she were here."
"It's time we went home."
"If she weren't so sensitive, I would tell her the
truth."
"If only he were here with us now."
NOTE: The Subjunctive can also be formed with
SHOULD + BASE FORM. This form is less common
and more formal, however.
EXAMPLES:
"He insists that we should leave immediately."
(instead of "He insists that we leave...")
93
"She recommended that I should take an extra
blanket." (instead of "She recommended that I
take...")
94
5
USE:
More Grammar
Points
REPORTED SPEECH
To report what somebody says or thinks without

using their exact words.
FORM:
The main clause contains the "reporting or question
verb":
REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW,
BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.
QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD
LIKE TO KNOW
The noun clause contains the statement or question
which is being reported.
EXAMPLES:
"I asked Smith why he'd gone there last night."
"He told me that he needed money."
"He said he'd never had any luck."
"He wanted to know if I would help him."
STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS
For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which

is omitted in informal English.
[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."
For questions, we use IF (Yes/No Questions) or
WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW, HOW
95
MUCH, or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions). Notice that
the verb in the noun clause takes the normal
affirmative or negative form and not the question
form.
We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or
KNOW to make a polite request for information.
"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than
"What's your name?"
[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
TIME ASPECTS
When the reporting verb (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is

in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or
question may be modified.
VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE
When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the
Past Tense,the verb in the noun clause is usually
also in the Past Tense, even when theoriginal
statement or idea was in the Present Tense.
INDIRECT/REPORTED
DIRECT SPEECH SPEECH
Be Present Be Past
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Progressive Past Progressive
Past Simple Past Perfect
Present/Past Perfect Past Perfect
Modals Past Modals
EXAMPLES:
96
Mary: "I want to go alone."
Mary said she wanted to go alone.
Tony: "I'll pay you when I see you."
Tony said he'd pay me when he saw me.
PRONOUNS:
Pronouns must also be changed to fit the reported
statement.
EXAMPLES:
Tom:"I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfriend a pin for her
birthday.
Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"
Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
TIME ADVERBIALS
When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, "time

adverbials" may also change.
Here are some possible changes:
DIRECT INDIRECT/REPORTED
Now Then/At that time
Today That day/The same day
Tomorrow The next/following day
Next week, etc. The next/following week, etc.
Yesterday The day before
Last week, etc. The week before
This That
These Those
Here There
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THE PASSIVE
USE:
To talk about actions or events in which the agent,
or the "doer" of the action, is obvious, unknown or
unimportant, or to emphasize the action, the results
of the action, or the receiver of the action. The
Passive is also used to stress a process or event.
FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]
NOTE: The verb "BE" varies according to the tense

of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"The house was built in 1925."
"English is spoken here."
"The new hospital will be opened by the Queen."
"Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center."
"John was asked several questions by his teacher."
"The chocolate was melted over a low flame."
NOTE: Although we generally use the Passive without the agent,

it can be included by using the preposition BY.
EXAMPLES:
"The money was stolen by Bugsy this morning."
"'Romeo and Juliet' was written by Shakespeare."
INDIRECT FORM
Some verbs, such as GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE,

SEND, SHOW, TEACH, and PAY, can have two objects: one
DIRECT and one INDIRECT. Either the direct object or the
indirect object can become the subject in a passive sentence:
98
"My grandmother gave me a watch."
"The watch was given to me for my birthday."
(direct object)
"I was given the watch for my birthday."
(indirect object)
NOTE: We usually use the indirect object as the subject of a

passive sentence in the indirect form.
99
CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
To describe when one person allows, asks, obliges
or wants another person to perform an action.
EXAMPLES:
"My father never let me drive the car when I was a
teenager. He had my brother drive me everywhere."
"Gee, the car's filthy; I must get it washed.

Janice! I want you to wash the car for me."
"Get Frank to do it!"
ACTIVE CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
To describe when one person allows another person to perform an
action (LET) or when one person obliges or persuades another
person to perform an action (HAVE, MAKE, or GET).
FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in Active Causatives (in all
forms including Modals):
LET
HAVE
MAKE
GET
(Also PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE, ASK,
BEG, and EXPECT.)
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + LET, HAVE, MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]
EXAMPLES:
100
"I'll have her call home."
"You're making him get angry."
"She lets them stay up late."
[SUBJECT + GET + Object + INFINITIVE...]
EXAMPLES:
"We'll get him to finish it on time."
"She got him to wash the floor."
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS
We can use LET, HAVE, MAKE, and GET in their normal

negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"The boss didn't let me go home early."
"They are not having their house painted this year."
"He couldn't get them to clean their room."
"When will you let me use your computer?"

"Can't you get him to apologize?"
"Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"
PASSIVE CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
The passive form is used with Causatives as with other verbs to
emphasize the receiver of the action. We use it when we want
something done to someone or something.
FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in PASSIVE
CAUSATIVES:
WANT
WOULD LIKE/'D LIKE
101
(More formal than WANT)
HAVE
GET (Less formal than HAVE) The verb which expresses the
action is in the past participle [V3] form.
If we want to mention the agent (the person who performs the

action), we use the preposition BY after the verb.
NOTE: WANT does not usually take perfect or progressive

forms.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE

[V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"I want the dishes washed!"
"You're getting your car fixed by the best mechanic in town!"
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS
We can use WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE, and GET in their

normal negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"I don't want the house painted blue!"
"I won't have my hair cut today."
"She didn't get the computer fixed last week."
"How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"
102
CONJUNCTIONS
USE:
To connect two clauses of equal importance.
EXAMPLE:
"At Paradise Travel we do everything for you!
You neither have to organize your
journey, nor worry about accommodations.
We both buy your tickets and book your hotel. We
guarantee that you will not only enjoy your
holiday but also remember it for the rest of your
life!"
Conjunctions are also used to make short "echo"

answers to statements and Yes/No questions.
EXAMPLES:
"I remember that holiday very well."
"So do I. It was terrible."
"But I can't remember the name of our hotel."
"I can't either, and I don't want to remember it."
"Well, do you think we'll be luckier this year?"
"I hope so!"
103
LOGICAL CONNECTORS: CONTRAST
We can express a contrast between two ideas by

using the connector ALTHOUGH.
EXAMPLES:
"The children watched television although I wanted
them to go to bed."
"Although it was very cold, it was a beautiful day."
NOTE: The connector THOUGH is sometimes used

as an alternative to ALTHOUGH.
EXAMPLE:
"She decided to go though the doctor had advised
against it."
We can introduce a contrasting phrase (but not a
clause) with the connectors DESPITE and IN SPITE
OF.
EXAMPLES:
"She dances wonderfully in spite of her age."
"Frank decided to marry Elaine despite his parents'
objections."
NOTE: Clauses contain a subject and a verb and

function as a member of a compound or complex
sentence while phrases are groups of two or more
grammatically related words which together have a
modifying or coordinating function.
104
LOGICAL CONNECTORS: SEQUENCE
USE:
In order to describe a sequence of events, we can
join two or more clauses with the connectors FIRST
and THEN, or with the ordinals FIRST, SECOND,
THIRD, etc. We can use FINALLY to introduce the
last element of the sequence.
EXAMPLES:
"First, they asked me about my
qualifications, then they asked about my previous
experience, and finally, they offered me the job."
"First, plug in the hair dryer; second, attach the

diffuser; third, switch the dryer on."
We can express an unexpected change or contrast

in the sequence by using AT FIRST and BUT THEN
or BUT LATER.
EXAMPLES:
"At first, he refused to lend us the money, but
then he changed his mind."
"At first, I really liked her, but later, I discovered
that she was terribly dishonest."
105
LOGICAL CONNECTORS:
PURPOSE and CONDITION
USE:
When the subordinate clause describes the purpose
or intended result of the action described in the
main clause, we use the connector SO THAT.
EXAMPLES:
"The thief shone a bright light in my eyes so that I
couldn't see him."
"The teacher speaks slowly so that everybody can

understand."
When the subordinate clause prescribes the

necessary conditions for the state or event
described in the main clause, we use the connectors
IF, ON (THE) CONDITION THAT, and PROVIDED
THAT.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll cook the dinner provided that you do the
shopping."
"Fred will lend you his car on (the) condition
that you drive very carefully."
"The bank will take away our house if we don't pay
back the loan."
The negative equivalent of IF ( = IF + NOT) is

UNLESS.
EXAMPLE:
"The bank will take away our house unless we pay
back the loan."
When the subordinate clause describes a possible
106
(but uncertain) event which explains the action
described in the main clause, we use the connector
IN CASE.
EXAMPLE:
"I'm taking my umbrella in case it rains."
107
LOGICAL CONNECTORS: CAUSE and EFFECT
USE:
When the subordinate clause describes the cause or
reason for the event or state which is described in
the main clause, we can use the connectors
BECAUSE or SINCE.
EXAMPLES:
"I arrived late because I missed the train."
"John got up early because he wanted to watch the
sunrise."
"Mary knew London well since she had lived there
as a child."
We can give extra emphasis to the cause by putting
the subordinate clause at the beginning of the
sentence. In this case we normally separate the two
clauses with a comma.
EXAMPLE:
"Because I missed the train, I arrived late."
We use the connector SEEING THAT at the

beginning of a sentence to explain a decision or
action which is described in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Seeing that the car wouldn't start, she decided to
go by bus."
"Seeing that I couldn't persuade Frank to help, I
asked his sister."
We use the connector NOW THAT to introduce a
new condition which explains a decision about a
future action.
108
EXAMPLE:
"Now that I've got lots of money, I'm going to buy
you a sports car!"
When the subordinate clause describes the effect or

result of the event or state described in the main
clause, we use the connectors SO and THEREFORE.
Both words are often preceded by a comma; they
never begin the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody invited Jane to the party, so she didn't go."
"I do not know Smith personally, therefore I cannot
describe his character."
109
NEGATION
USE:
English, unlike many other languages, normally
allows only one negative expression in a negative
sentence. A sentence with two negative expressions
has a positive meaning, because one negative
cancels out the other. Thus the sentence "Nobody
does not like John." means "Everybody likes John."
NEGATION OF NOUNS
Both the subject and the object of sentences can be

preceded by the negative quantifiers NO (the
negative equivalent of A or SOME) or NEITHER
(when there are only two).
EXAMPLES:
"No dogs are allowed in the house."
"Neither of the twins likes vegetables."
"Neither half of the audience could see the other."
"We've found no signs of life on Mars."
The subject can be preceded by the negative
quantifiers NOT MANY or NOT MUCH.
EXAMPLES:
"Not many children learn Latin these days."
"Not much snow fell yesterday."
If the noun is preceded by the article THE or by a

possessive (MY, YOUR, HIS, etc. or JOHN's,
PETER's, etc.) we use the negative quantifiers NONE
OF or NEITHER OF.
EXAMPLES:
110
"None of my friends eats garlic."
"Until they got married, she had met none of his
brothers or sisters."
"Neither of my parents can speak English."
NEGATIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
The negative pronouns NOBODY, NO ONE, and
NOTHING can act as the subject or object of a
sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody liked my new dress."
"No one wanted to be the first to leave the party."
"Nothing is impossible."
"I saw nobody, I heard no one, and I felt nothing."
NEGATION OF VERBS
FORM:
Negative verbs are usually formed by adding the
adverbial NOT (often abbreviated to N'T) to the end
of BE, HAVE, and all Modals.
EXAMPLES:
"We are not (aren't) afraid."
"Fred is not (isn't) sleeping."
"James has not (hasn't) got any money."
"I have not (haven't) seen that film."
"You cannot (can't) come in here."
"You must not (mustn't) believe her."
"Louis should not (shouldn't) be late."
"Jack will not (won't) help us."
The auxiliary DO + NOT (DOES + NOT for 3rd
Person Singular) is used to negate Simple Present
Tense verbs.
111
EXAMPLES:
"I do not (don't) believe you."
"Pat does not (doesn't) live here."
The auxiliary DID + NOT is used to negate Simple

Past verbs.
EXAMPLES:
"Geoff did not (didn't) enjoy the play."
"Peter did not (didn't) drive home."
Verbs can also be negated by using the adverbs
EVER, HARDLY EVER ( = ALMOST NEVER), and
NEITHER... NOR. These adverbs are normally placed
immediately before the main verb.
EXAMPLES:
"John has never seen that picture."
"Mary has hardly ever scolded the child."
"I neither like nor understand his jokes."
"Tom neither drives a car nor rides a bicycle."
Notice that when we use NEITHER...NOR we do not

have to repeat the subject before the second verb.
When the verb has three or more elements (e.g.,
SHOULD HAVE BEEN DONE or MAY HAVE BEEN
DOING), the negative adverb is placed between the
two first elements.
EXAMPLES:
"They should never have released that film."
"He may not have been working for long."
In most cases we can emphasize the negation of a

verb by adding AT ALL to the end of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
112
"I don't like fish at all."
"We couldn't understand him at all."
In very formal English, NEVER and HARDLY EVER
can be placed at the beginning of the sentence for
extra emphasis. In this case the verb takes the
interrogative form (including inversion).
EXAMPLES:
"Never will I enter this house again!"
"Never have I seen such an extraordinary painting!"
OBJECTS OF NEGATIVE VERBS
USE:
Since two negative expressions in the same
sentence give that sentence a positive meaning, we
do not normally use a negative quantifier (NO,
NONE OF, etc.) with the object of a negative verb (I
DON'T LIKE, etc.), or with the object of a verb with
a negative subject (NOBODY LIKES, etc.). In this
case we normally use ANY.
EXAMPLES:
"We didn't buy any bread."
"Janet couldn't see any clouds."
"Nobody gave me any money."
We use the pronouns ANYBODY, ANYONE, and
ANYTHING in the same way.
EXAMPLES:
"Paula won't speak to anybody."
"He didn't like anyone in the school."
"Nobody sent Fred anything."
113
IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS
USE:
These are used to talk about time, place, weather,
and other conditions in expressions where the verb
"BE" has no real subject.
FORM:
[IT + BE + Time expression/adjective + REST]
EXAMPLES:
"It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome."
"It's warm and sunny today in Washington."
"It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show."
"It's time to start cooking dinner."
"Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!"
"It's very dusty up in our attic."
114
COMMON ERRORS
There are various different types of commonly made

errors in English. Three of the most common are
GRAMMATICAL (badly-formed sentences), LEXICAL
(wrongly-chosen words), and SEMANTIC (correct
language, wrong meaning or usage). In this lesson,
we focus on the errors involving HAD BETTER vs.
WOULD RATHER, THERE vs. IT, DO vs. MAKE, and
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES.
HAD BETTER vs. WOULD RATHER
These two expressions are commonly confused.

HAD BETTER is normally used to express strong
advice about how a subject should behave. WOULD
RATHER is normally used to describe a subject's
personal choice or preference.
EXAMPLES:
"A: You had better bring your car in to the repair
shop."
"B: I'd rather buy a new car."
THERE vs. IT
We normally use IT or THERE as "dummy subjects" when there

is no obvious "agent" for a verb. IT is also used when the agent or
real subject of the sentence is awkward.
EXAMPLES:
"It isn't that difficult learning to read."
(instead of "Learning to read isn't that difficult.")
"It was a mistake to bring him."
(instead of "To bring him was a mistake.")
115
"There is some ice cream in the freezer."
NOTE: "THERE IS X" is roughly equivalent to "X EXISTS" or

"X CAN BE FOUND".
DO vs. MAKE
These two verbs are often confused by speakers of languages

which have only one word to translate both. MAKE has a similar
meaning to CREATE, CONSTRUCT, or INVENT: the normal
object of the verb is a thing. DO is more similar in meaning to
PERFORM or CARRY OUT; the normal object of the verb is an
action.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you making?"
"I'm making a model airplane."
"What are you doing?"

"I'm resting." There are many special expressions using MAKE or
DO.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you doing?"
"I am doing my homework."
"I am making my bed."
"Your behavior just won't do."

( = is not acceptable)
"Don't make up any more excuses."
( = create)
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
When a single noun is preceded by several adjectives of quality,

they must appear in the correct order. In many cases it is
sufficient to observe the simple rule that "the most objective
adjective stays closest to the noun".
116
EXAMPLES:
"an expensive Oriental rug"
"a hand-made woolen sweater"
When there are several equally objective adjectives, they

normally come in the following order:
1. NUMBER (AN, FIVE, etc.)
2. SIZE (LARGE, SMALL, etc.)
3. AGE (NEW, OLD, etc.)
4. SHAPE (LONG, SQUARE, etc.)
5. COLOR (LIGHT, RED, etc.)
6. MATERIAL (STEEL, CANVAS, etc.)
7. ORIGIN (FRENCH, AFRICAN, etc.)
8. PURPOSE (COOKING, HUNTING, etc.)
EXAMPLES:
"a large old brown German hunting dog"
"five small wooden African statues"
117
MORE COMMON ERRORS
There are various types of errors. Three of the most

common types are GRAMMATICAL (badly-formed
sentences), LEXICAL (wrongly-chosen words), and
SEMANTIC (correct language, wrong meaning or
usage). The common errors covered in this lesson
include:
Like vs. Mind

Prepositions following verbs and adjectives
Parallel Structures
So vs. Such
LIKE vs. MIND
A common semantic error is caused by confusion between the

words LIKE and MIND, especially when they are used in their
interrogative forms with the Modal WOULD.
WOULD + SUBJECT + LIKE +...? is used to make an offer or an

invitation, while WOULD + SUBJECT + MIND +...? is used to
make a polite request for action or permission.
EXAMPLES:
"Would you like to go for a walk?"
"Would Danny like a piece of cake?"
"Would you mind turning off the air-conditioner?"
"Would you mind if I borrowed this book?"
PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWING VERBS AND

ADJECTIVES
Many verbs and adjectives are normally used with particular

prepositions. A common lexical error consists of using the wrong
preposition.
EXAMPLES - VERBS:
118
"He was accused of murder."
"I believe in free speech."
"He insisted on speaking to the manager."
EXAMPLES - ADJECTIVES:
"You should be ashamed of yourself for saying it!"
"Tom is always kind to animals."
NOTE: For a more complete list of verb + preposition and

adjective + preposition combinations, see the separate Language
Index on this subject.
PARALLEL STRUCTURES
A common grammatical error occurs when language users mix up

finite verbs, infinitives, and -ing forms within the same sentence.
All the verbs of a particular subject must be in the same form.
EXAMPLE:
"I like reading, dancing and listening to music."
(NOT: I like reading, dancing, and to listen to music.)
SO vs. SUCH
Another easily confused pair of words is SO and SUCH.
FORMS:
[...SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT...]
[...SUCH (+ A/AN) + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLES:
"She was so happy that she'd passed the test."
"I didn't realize that this was going to be such a
problem."
119

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5. More Grammar Points

a. Reported Speech………………… pg. 95

To talk about actions, states or events which

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -es in third person

For verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the y and add -ies:

I/You/We/Theydon't drive in the city.

Do I/you/we/they know them?

[DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Does he/she/it like milk?

[WH-WORD + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]

[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]

Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

We/You/They are at school.

[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + REST OF SENTENCE]

I'm not here.

We're not here. We aren't here.

Statement: They are at work now.

POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS

NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS

No, we're not. No, we aren't.

FORM: [QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]

NOTE: The subject and verb change places.

They are at work now.

EXAMPLE: "What is his name?"

"He isn't at work, is he?"

"You aren't leaving, are you?"

I am waiting for Sam.

We/You/They are going tomorrow.

[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + VERB+ing(+ REST)]

We/You/They are not studying.

I'm not working.

Statement: They are working now.

POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS

NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS

No, we're not. No, we aren't.

They are working at home now.

FORM: If "yes" is expected:

Joe walked home last night.

Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live / lived.

With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to

NOTE: Past Simple is often used with

Here is a list of some of the most frequent irregular verbs:

[NO, SUBJECT + DID + NOT / DIDN'T]

FORM: Questions about the SUBJECT:

Who told him?

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

When did you leave school?

I/She/He/It was in the kitchen.

I/She/He/It was not angry.

You/We/They were not early.

NOTE: Use only contractions with negative

[YES, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE]

[NO, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT]

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

"What were you doing when he phoned?"

I was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

She was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.

YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

Was she waiting for the train?

[YES/NO + SUBJECT + BE (NOT)]