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3
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THE
CLASSICAL AGE
700 BCE–599 CE
Culturally dynamic civilizations emerged in Greece, Rome,
Persia, India, and China, marking the beginning of the
Classical Age. The impact of Classical developments in
science, art, and politics is still felt to this day.

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700–676 BCE 675–651 BCE

,,
,,
HE EVERYWHERE
SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR
STIRRING UP WAR.
Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome

Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the

7
Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650 BCE .

,,
,,
IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG
HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in
THE IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN
BY ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668–627 BCE) TAHARQA THE GODLESS
771 BCE, and the Western Zhou
capital was transferred east to
NUMBER in 664–663 BCE to defeat the
Egyptians who had rebelled
CAME OUT TO TAKE
Chengzhou. From there, the OF against Assyrian rule, and to push EGYPT.
Eastern Zhou dynasty presided KINGS Assyrian control as far south as

over the fragmentation of China
into as many as 148 states. From
around 700 BCE the Zhou were
ruled by puppet-emperors, while
real power lay with the ba (“senior
one”) among nearby states.
Under Qi Huan Gong (r. 685–
643 BCE), the state of Qi had
supremacy. After Huan Gong’s
death the competition for power
between his five sons weakened
Qi, and Jin Wen Gong (r. 685–
643 BCE), the ruler of Jin, rose to
become ba. By the end of the
century, power in China alternated
among the states of Qi, Jin,
Qin, and Chu.
OF ROME
Thebes (modern Luxor). This Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664 BCE
was not the last rebellion against
the Assyrians—only ten years
In Italy, the city-state of Rome later, the vassal king of Saïs, The new ruler, Cypselus (reign assisted Psammetichus I of
was beginning to acquire an urban Psammetichus I (r. 664–610 BCE), c. 657–627 BCE) relied on force of Egypt in his revolt against the
heart, and the first forum was revolted against his Assyrian personality rather than divine Assyrians. He also adopted an
constructed. The second king masters, driving them out and sanction, and established a aggressive stance towards his
of Rome, Numa Pompilius founding the 26th Dynasty, under dynasty under which Corinth neighbors, the Ionian Greeks of
(r. 716–674 BCE) is believed to have which Egypt’s independence was enjoyed a seven-decade period Miletus and Smyrna.
established the main Roman restored. After the final collapse of dominance, creating colonies According to Japanese tradition,
priesthoods and a calendar. of Assyrian power, in 609 BCE, throughout the western the first emperor, Jimmu Tenno,
In the Near East, the Assyrians Egypt was able to establish a Mediterranean. a descendant of the sun goddess
continued their expansion, foothold in Palestine under On the fringes of the Greek Amaterasu, ascended to the
confronting Egypt, whose Pharaoh Necho II (610–595 BCE). world, in western Asia Minor, the throne in 660 BCE. The stories
intermittent support for rebels In Greece, the rise to kingdom of Lydia was increasing of his migration from southern
against Assyrian rule in Syria had preeminence of a number of city in power under Gyges (685– Honshu eastward to establish
long been a source of tension. In states, notably Athens, Sparta, 647 BCE), its first great king. He his kingdom near Nara are
671 BCE, the Assyrian ruler and Corinth, began. In Corinth, allied with Ashurbanipal of legendary, but may echo real
Esarhaddon invaded, capturing a new type of ruler, the “tyrant,” Assyria to see off a joint threat events of the Japanese Yayoi
the Egyptian royal capital of emerged with the overthrow of to their two lands by Cimmerian period after 100 BCE, when tribal
Memphis. However, Assyrian the Bacchiadae kings in 658 BCE. raiders in 668–665 BCE, but then chieftains began to consolidate
control over Egypt was weak, their territories.
and the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa ASHURBANIPAL (r. 668–627 BCE) The third king of Rome, Tullus
drove the invaders out. Hostilius (r. 673–642 BCE) was
The Etruscans expanded Ashurbanipal initially shared more martially inclined than his
southward from modern rule over Assyria with his precedessor Numa Pompilius, and
Tuscany and Umbria around brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin.

30,000
700 BCE. Their language remains After defeating his brother’s
undeciphered, but lavish tombs revolt in 648 BCE he greatly
indicate a rich material culture. expanded the Assyrian domains.
During their expansion, the As well as annexing Egypt, he
Etruscans founded cities such attacked Elam, sacking its
as Capua, but came into conflict capital, Susa, in 647 BCE. His THE NUMBER OF
with Greek colonies and with
Rome. Although more powerful
latter years saw none of the
military successes of his early
CLAY TABLETS
Nubian Pharoah at first, the Etruscans were reign. At his death a dispute UNCOVERED IN
Taharqa ruled Egypt for 19 years
before an Assyrian invasion forced
politically disunited, and a long
series of wars with the Romans
between his two sons further
weakened the Assyrian Empire.
ASHURBANIPAL’S
him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE. turned against them. LIBRARY
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650–601 BCE

A lion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built around 600 BCE and ran
through the heart of the city to the Ishtar Gate.

THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY to them and the Scythian King 600 BCE. New cities were in the 8th century BCE. The
CONQUERED BABYLON in 691 BCE, Bartatua was even sufficiently established as far west as Spain, hereditary monarchy was
PHRYGIA URARTU
MEDES partially destroying the city. influential to be given an Assyrian and around the Black Sea coast. replaced by nine “archons,”
LYDIA Harran
Carchemish Khorsabad Reconstruction work began under princess as his wife. The alliance In Greece itself, the city-state of chosen annually. Shortly after a
Nineveh
Ashur
Cyprus ASSYRIA Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE), and by with Assyria survived into the Sparta was establishing its damaging popular uprising by
Me

PHOENICIA BABYLONIA 652 BCE Babylon had recovered reign of his son Madyes, but dominance in the Peloponnese. A Cylon in 632 BCE, Athens received
di

Se rran Tyre
te

Damascus Babylon ELAM

a ea
n ISRAEL SYRIAN Uruk
Jerusalem AMMON DESERT
EGYPT JUDAH
MOAB
Memphis
The Assyrian Empire
From its core around Assur and
Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to
encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam,
Urartu, Syria, and Egypt.
led the war against neighboring
Alba Longa, which ultimately led
to that city’s destruction and the
deportation of its population to
Rome, in the first major Roman
expansion. The fourth king,
Ancus Marcius (641–617 BCE),
expanded Roman territory toward
the coast, and founded Rome’s
great port of Ostia at the mouth
of the Tiber. His successor,
Tarquinius Priscus (616–578 BCE)
was the fifth king of Rome and one
of the city’s greatest kings. He
came from an Etruscan
background, a sign of the high
level of Etruscan influence over
the early city of Rome. Tarquinius
Priscus won a series of victories
over the Sabines, the Latins,
and the Etruscans, who all
competed with Rome for
dominance over central Italy. He is
also said to have established the
public games in Rome.
its importance and became the around 615 BCE the Scythians defeat by the city-state of Argos, its first law code, drafted by Draco
Ur
center for a major revolt led by switched sides and played a key in 669 BCE, was followed by in 621 BCE. The Draconian law
Shamash-shuma-ukin against role in Assyria’s destruction. military reforms and victory was later known for the severity of
his younger brother Ashurbanipal. Their Median subjects soon turned against the Messenians (660– the punishments it prescribed.
It took four years of war to on them and around 590 BCE the 650 BCE). By 600 BCE, Sparta had To the south of Egypt the state
suppress the Babylonians and Scythians retreated north. conquered almost all the of Napata became a power of the
their Elamite allies, and the In the Greek world, there was a southern Peloponnese and first order, conquering Egypt
fighting drained Assyria’s ability to growing movement to establish established a stratified social under Piankhy (751–716 BCE) and
hold on to its empire. By 630 BCE, colonies in the Mediterranean. system. controlling it under after the death
Assyria had lost Egypt and Among the earliest were in Italy, Sparta’s future rival, Athens, of Taharqa (690–664 BCE).
Palestine, and in 626 BCE the including Syracuse, founded gradually united the area
Babylonians regained their around 733 BCE. In North Africa, surrounding Attica under its rule
independence. By 616 BCE Greek settlers founded Cyrene (in
Babylon was strong enough to Libya) in about 630 BCE, and
invade Assyria, aided by the Massilia (Marseilles) around
Medes (whose base was in
northwestern Iran). In 612 BCE
the Babylonians, Medes,
and Scythians sacked
the Assyrian capital of
Nineveh. The
Assyrian empire
crumbled.
A remnant of the
Assyrian army
regrouped and
established a small
kingdom around Harran,
but by 609 BCE this, too, stylized
had fallen. body
The Scythians
formed part of a
culture of nomadic
horsemen which held
Scythian stag
a large territory on the
The flowing lines and realistic
steppes north of the depiction of the stag’s muscled
Caucasus from around flanks in this late 7th century shield
800 BCE. In 652 BCE they ornament are typical of the art
forced the Medes to submit of the Scythians.

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600–551 BCE 550–501 BCE

A medieval view of the city of Jerusalem, which was captured by the Babylonians in 597 BCE . It was taken again, Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. These cave paintings
and largely destroyed, 10 years later. After both sieges many of its inhabitants were deported to Babylon. in Dunhuang, China, illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables.

HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE Under the last Median king, The powerful city-state of Athens CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar Astyages (r. 584–549 BCE), Median experienced reforms under Solon KINGDOM OF PERSIS (also called
(r. 626–605 BCE), first king of the armies campaigned in Azerbaijan about 600 BCE, notably a law code Pars) in the west of Persia (Iran),
neo-Babylonian dynasty, and controlled land as far west as that protected the property rights revolted against his Median
embellished the city of Babylon. Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550s BCE, of the poor, forbade debt-slavery, overlords in 559 BCE. By 550 BCE
His son Nebuchadnezzar (r. 605– Media was under pressure from and moderated the more extreme he had conquered the Median
562 BCE) defeated the Egyptians in the Babylonians to the south and parts of the Draconian laws capital of Ecbatana and
605 BCE, repaired Babylon’s main the new power of Persia. (see 650-601). Around 560 BCE, overthrown their ruler, King
ziggurat, and ordered the building The kingdom of Judah had long Pisistratus seized power and began Astyages. Afraid of the increasing
of the famous “Hanging Gardens.” acted as a block to Assyrian and to rule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven power of Persia, the Lydians
The last neo-Babylonian king, Babylonian expansion to the west. out once, he returned in 547 BCE under King Croesus opposed
Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BCE), In 597 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar took and established a stable regime. Cyrus, but he struck west and
moved his royal court to the Jerusalem and deposed King The Greek city of Miletus saw the in 547 BCE, on the Halys River,
Arabian oasis of Tema, but Jehoiakim. The king they installed beginnings of philosophical defeated the Lydian army and
discontent rose among the in his place, Zedekiah, turned thought from about 600 BCE. annexed western Asia Minor. Darius the Great
Babylonians during his reign. against the Babylonians, and in Thales (born c. 624 BCE) tried In 539 BCE Cyrus captured King Darius is shown enthroned and
The Medes of northwest Persia 587 BCE there was another siege. to understand the basic nature Babylon, acquiring most of bearing symbols of power in this
(Iran), consolidated their kingdom Much of the city was burned, the of the universe and thought its Mesopotamia and making the frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him.
under Cyaxares (r. 624–585 BCE) Jewish Temple destroyed, and fundamental element was water. Persian Empire the greatest in
and took part in the destruction many of its inhabitants deported the Middle East. Cyrus died in Cambyses died in 522 BCE and
of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE. to a life of exile in Babylon. 530 BCE while fighting in what after the brief rebellion of Bardiya,
is today Turkmenistan, and was who was either the younger
succeeded by his son Cambyses. brother of Cambyses or someone
In 526 BCE Cambyses sent his impersonating him, Darius, a
armies south into Egypt. The Persian noble, took over as king.
Pharaoh Amasis had just died and Widespread revolts broke out,
his successor Psammetichus III including in Media, but Darius put

,,
,,
I HAVE FOUGHT 19
BATTLES IN ONE YEAR…
I HAVE WON THEM.
The Behistun inscription of Darius

was not well established. them all down. He then

Cambyses defeated the Egyptian
army at Pelusium in 525 BCE and
then captured the royal capital
at Memphis. He installed himself
Lawgiver and reformer as the pharaoh and then subdued
This image shows the Greek statesman and lawgiver Solon teaching. His southern Egypt. Persian rule in
reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens. Egypt lasted until 402 BCE.
expanded the Persian Empire
by annexing lands in central Asia
and on the borders of India from
519 to 515 BCE. In India, the
political power had coalesced
around the Mahajapanadas, a
group of around 16 powerful

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,,
,,
EVEN DEATH IS NOT
TO BE FEARED BY ONE
WHO HAS LIVED WISELY
Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563–483 BCE

482
Roman aristocrats led by Lucius
Junius Brutus and Lucius
Tarquinius Collatinus (the king’s
cousin) won over the army and
barred the gates of the city to
THE NUMBER the king, who was deposed.
consuls were elected by the material life. He is known as the Spring and Autumn period. From
popular assembly each year. Buddha (which means the the age of 15 he devoted himself
Some time around 530 BCE, “awakened one” in Sanskrit), and to scholarship, and the political
Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu his followers, who became known philosophy he developed reflects
prince of Kapilvastu (now in as Buddhists, spread his ideas the turbulent times. He taught
Nepal), had a religious revelation throughout South Asia and, in the that the righteous man (or junzi)

OF YEARS OF The coup leaders then

established a republic in which
THE ROMAN supreme authority was held by
and rejected his noble upbringing
to embark on a quest for
late 3rd century CE, into China and
thence to Korea, Japan, and
must have regard to others and
inflict no unnecessary harm.
“enlightenment.” Six years later Southeast Asia. His philosophy, as developed

REPUBLIC
two magistrates called consuls. he received it and began to preach Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was by his disciples, taught respect for
The power of the consuls was a way of moderate asceticism to born around 551 BCE, in a period of elders and became a cornerstone
limited by the fact that new gain release from the suffering of political instability during China’s of the later imperial system.
kingdoms. Of these, Magadha
was the most important state.
Afterward, Darius subdued most
of the Greek city-states of Ionia,
before he crossed into Europe in
513 BCE to conquer Thrace.
In Italy, Servius Tullius (r. 578–
534), the sixth king of Rome and
said to be a former slave, had
succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in
578 BCE. During his reign he
implemented important reforms,
fixing the formal boundaries of
the city by dividing the Romans
into four “tribes,” a system that CYRUS THE GREAT
would be extended as Roman (r. 559–539 BCE)
territory grew, and also into
classes that were graded by Little is known about the
wealth. The population was early life of Cyrus. He was
divided by what equipment they the ruler of the kingdom of
could afford and what role they Pars when he led a revolt
played in the Roman army. The against his Median overlord
wealthiest class fought as cavalry, Astyages. By defeating
the higher classes as heavy Astyages, Cyrus became king
infantry, and the poor as light of the Medes. He then
auxiliary troops. The votes of the continued to expand Persian
richer classes carried much influence with the conquest
greater weight in the popular of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local
assembly. The last king of Rome, ideas about kingship to cast
Tarquinius Superbus (r. 534– himself as an ideal ruler in
509 BCE) was an Etruscan. the cities he conquered. Persian elite
Concerned at the growing Cyrus died in 539 BCE. These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which
tyranny of his rule, a group of included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan.

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snake-haired
Medusa figure

Medusa antefix
DATE UNKNOWN
This terra-cotta
antefix—an ornament
placed at the cornice
of buildings or at roof
eaves—is in the form of
Medusa, the mythical
creature whose gaze
turned people to stone.
swept-forward
cheek piece

leaf-shaped blade

Corinthian helmet Spearhead

600–500 BCE 600–400 BCE
The Corinthian helmet, made Greek hoplites (armed
from a single bronze sheet, infantry soldiers) carried
was the most common type in a large thrusting spear,
Greece, from around 750–300 BCE. of which this is the tip.
Aphrodite,
the goddess
of love

ANCIENT GREECE
FROM THE FUNCTIONAL TO THE DECORATIVE, THE GREEKS PRODUCED ART OF GREAT BEAUTY

Bronze mirror
While the Greeks created magnificent monumental art, smaller fastening
490–460 BCE
chain This mirror is richly
items such as jewelry, musical instruments, weaponry, and adorned with an image
vases show the Greek love of intricate forms and decorative of Aphrodite flanked
by cupids.
adornment throughout all periods of their history.

Greek art underwent a series of phases that were reflected in all aspects
of artistic production, but particularly on vases. In the Geometric phase
(c. 850–700 BCE), decoration was mainly composed of geometric forms,
replaced in the Orientalizing phase (c. 700–600 BCE) with floral and
animal themes, followed by the more naturalistic representations
of the Classical phase (from 600 BCE).

Bronze cymbals
500–400 BCE Gold earrings
Greek cymbals are bell- or 420–400 BCE
cup-shaped, and are often These delicate gold filigree
depicted on vases being earrings depict boats containing
held by fauns or satyrs, sirens, mythical creatures
or by women in whose beautiful voices lured
Bacchanalian revels. unwary seafarers to their doom.

Mirror lid and fibula

cup-shaped form
Aulos
400 BCE
This wind instrument was
originally a double one (one
wooden pipe has been lost),
silver mouthpiece
played through a reed.
420–400 BCE
This silver fibula (brooch) and
chain may have fastened together
a cloak. The ornate mirror-back
shows Aphrodite with the Gold brooch
half-goat god Pan. 650–600 BCE
This hawk-shaped brooch dates
from a period in which Oriental
(and particularly Egyptian)
finger hole
influences were strong in Greece.

48
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Ostrakon
c. 475–470 BCE
In Athens, influential politicians could be
ostracized (exiled) by public vote. The name retrograde
of the politician each voter wished to be (right-to-left)
banished was inscribed on a piece of pottery. inscription

Boeotian horse and rider figurine Boeotian figurine Discus

550 BCE
The depiction of this horse and
rider has an archaic feel about it,
in contrast to the production of
Boeotian terra-cotta workshops
over 200 years later (see right).
400–200 BCE 600–500 BCE
This terra-cotta figurine of a This fine bronze discus belonged to
woman holding a jar comes an athlete named Exoidas. After he
from Boeotia, where a tradition won a victory in a sporting contest
of such sculptures began as using it, he dedicated the discus
early as the 8th century BCE. to the gods Castor and Pollux.

lotus and Attic askos

honeysuckle 425–400 BCE
pattern The askos was a type of vessel for
pouring liquids such as oil, shaped
in the form of a traditional wine sack.
The design is in the red-figure style
that became popular around 530 BCE.

Attic skyphos Apulian pyxis

525–500 BCE
This drinking vessel shows a
couple at their wedding standing
in a chariot. The vase is painted
in the black-figure style.
500–400 BCE
A pyxis was often used for storing
small items of jewelry and cosmetics.
This south-Italian example is decorated
with geometrical shapes.

checkerboard
pattern

cylindrical
neck
hero Hercules carrying
Erymanthean boar double band
of meanders
lotus bud
pattern
top of foot and
lower base
painted black

Athenian amphora Attic lekythos Epichysis

540–530 BCE 480–470 BCE 375–340 BCE
An amphora was a type of vessel used Greek vases were often painted with The long-spouted epichysis was a vessel
for storing wine. This one is decorated mythological scenes. This black- used for pouring wine. This south-Italian
using the black-figure technique, which figure vase shows the goddess vase has its base decorated with a
predates the red-figure method. Athena beating a giant to his knees. pattern of white chevrons.

49
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500–491 BCE 490–476 BCE

,,
,,
THIS IS GOOD NEWS … IF THE
PERSIANS HIDE THE SUN, WE SHALL
DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE.
Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the Persian
archers shot so many arrows they would conceal the Sun; from Histories

This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas I (center, facing) and his men at the Battle of
Thermopylae in 480 BCE. Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds.

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA
emerged as an important state in
northern India under the rule of
Bimbisara (r. 543–491 BCE), friend
and protector of Gautama Buddha
(c. 563–c. 486 BCE), who founded
Buddhism (see 550–501 BCE).
Bimbisara’s son Ajatashastru
(r. 491–461 BCE) strengthened the
royal capital at Rajagirha and built
a center at Pataligrama on the
Ganges River, which later became
Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal
capital. By conquering Kosala
and Kashi, and annexing the Vrijji
confederacy, Ajatashastru turned
Plebeians withdraw from Rome Magadha into the dominant
The departure of the plebeians (on the left in this engraving) threatened to power on the Ganges Plain.
split Rome irreparably, so the patricians (right) ceded some political power. In China, the political system of
the Spring and Autumn period
THE GREEK CITY-STATES OF IONIA uprising against the Persians. evolved into the Warring States
in western Anatolia had been Sparta rejected his pleas, but only period (481–221 BCE), in which
subjects of the Persian Empire Athens and Eretria sent forces. A seven main states engaged in
since Cyrus conquered Lydia, their failed attack on Sardis led the a constant round of diplomatic
previous overlord, in 547 BCE (see Athenian forces to return home.
550–501 BCE). In 499 BCE, The Ionians gradually lost ground
maneuvers to weaken each other,
periodically interrupted
by outbreaks of war.
In 490 BCE, Darius I (548–486 BCE)
of Persia decided to take revenge
on the mainland Greeks for their
support of the Ionian revolt.
Darius despatched a huge naval
expedition under Artaphernes
and Datis, which sailed from
Cilicia, landing first at Naxos
Persian winged-lion rhyton
The Persian Empire enjoyed
vast wealth, as illustrated by
everyday items such as this
golden drinking vessel. They
directed huge resources toward
the conquest of Greece.
before seizing Eretria, which had
aided the Ionians in 499 BCE.
Although the Athenians appealed
to Sparta for aid, the only help
they received came from Plataea,
which sent 1,000 reinforcements.
The Athenians opted to march
out to meet the Persians rather
than wait for a siege, on the
advice of their general, Miltiades
(550–489 BCE). In 490 BCE at

7
Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus, to a Persian land offensive from
set out to mainland Greece to 497 BCE. The fall of Miletus to the
recruit allies for a planned Persians that year and the death
of Aristagoras undermined Ionian
unity and, after a great naval
defeat at the Battle of Lade in
494 BCE, the revolt fell apart.
In Italy, the young Roman
600 Republic was rocked by social

THE NUMBER
PERSIA dissent in 494 BCE when the
plebeians (the lower social
353 groups) withdrew from Rome en OF WARRING
IONIA
STATES
masse in protest at their
treatment by the patricians (the
higher social groups); they
The Battle of Lade
threatened to set up an alternative
The Ionian Greek navy fought hard at animals were
Lade, but the prearranged defection state. They were persuaded back often the
of the Samians to the Persians led to only by official recognition of their inspiration for a
its utter defeat. own representatives (tribunes). rhyton’s shape

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475–451 BCE

Marathon, the Greek hoplite T HR ACE

(heavy infantry) formation
advanced head-on against a far
more numerous Persian force to
win an unlikely victory.
Chastened, the Persian
expeditionary force withdrew from
Greece after Marathon, but in
481 BCE Xerxes I (519–465 BCE)
dispatched another huge Persian
army, which crossed over the
Hellespont (near modern-day
Istanbul) and proceeded south
toward Athens. Many northern
Greek states chose to submit,
but Athens and Sparta patched
together a league of southern
states. In 480 BCE, a heroic defense
of the pass at Thermopylae by
the Spartan king Leonidas I,
in which he and all his 10,000
soldiers died, bought time for the
Athenians to evacuate. The
Persians burned the city, but soon
after, under the command of
Themistocles (see panel below),
the Athenian fleet inflicted a
serious defeat on Xerxes’s naval
force at Salamis. Further Greek
THEMISTOCLES (c. 524–460 BCE)
A clever politician and strategist,
Themistocles persuaded the
Athenians to use the wealth of a
THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY
Black Sea
SUCCESS under the direction of
MACEDON IA
Cimon (510–450 BCE), wresting
Pella Byzantium Eion on the Strymon River (in
THESSALY Anatolia) from the Persians in
Larissa Abydus 476 BCE and then attacking
M YS I A
Artemisium 480 Aeg e a n Carystos on Euboea (which had
Thermopylae 480 Sea LYDI A submitted to the Persians) in
Plataea 479 Marathon 490
Sardis 498 470 BCE. An attempt by the island
Salamis 480 Athens Anatolia
Peloponnese Ephesus of Naxos to leave the Delian
Mycale 479
Sparta Miletus 494 League around the same time led
GREECE IONIA
to an Athenian expeditionary force
Mediterr anean
that powerfully suppressed the
The Greco– Sea Rhodes breakaway movement. In 469 BCE,
Persian wars Athenian treasury at Delos
Crete Athenian forces won a great All members of the Delian League
Although the Cyprus
victory over the Persians at the
Persians possessed KEY had to deposit funds at treasuries on
vastly superior numbers, the Eurymedon River on the south Delos, but the contribution of Athens
Annexed by Persia
Greek forces were motivated Greek victory coast of Anatolia, establishing was the most important.
Persian campaigns
to win crucial land and sea against Greece Persian victory Athenian supremacy in the Aegean.
engagements. 490–479BCE Indecisive battles Pericles (c. 495–429 BCE), the and by 462 BCE their last stronghold
Athenian statesman largely at Ithome had been reduced. Soon
victories followed in June 479 BCE, After the initial defeats of the responsible for making Athens after, open conflict broke out
on land at Plataea in Boeotia and Persians in 480–479 BCE, Athens the political and cultural focus between Sparta and Athens and
at sea at Mycale off the Ionian sought to formalize the league of of Greece, tried but failed to their respective allies. The First
coast. The Greeks then took the anti-Persian allies. A treasury prosecute Cimon in 463 BCE, on Peloponnesian War was
offensive, and during 478–477 BCE was set up on the island of Delos a charge of having neglected a inconclusive. It ended in 451 BCE
won a string of victories in Ionia in around 477 BCE. The league’s chance to conquer Macedonia. with a five-year truce, extended in
and Cyprus, which reversed most funds were to be deposited here From this maneuver, Pericles’ 446 BCE to a Thirty Years’ Peace
of the Persians’ gains. and regular meetings were to take vision and ideas of expansion for between the two sides.
place. But this Delian League Athens were already evident. Meanwhile, the western part of
soon became little more than an When the leading figure among the Greek world was becoming
Athenian empire, and Sparta and the democrats, Ephialtes, was increasingly important, marked by
its allies refused to take part. assassinated in 461 BCE, Pericles, the rise of the Sicilian city-state of
his protégé, swiftly took his place. Syracuse. Under a series of able
,, Periodically, the Persians had rulers (tyrants) that began with

,,
THE GREAT
silver mine discovered at tried to bribe the Spartans into Gelon (r. 485–478 BCE) and his
Laurium in 483/2 BCE to double diversionary attacks on Athens, brother Hieron (r. 478–467 BCE),
their fleet. However, after the
naval victory at Salamis, he STRUGGLE initially to little effect. In 464 BCE, a
revolt of the Messenian Helots
Syracusan forces subdued the
neighboring city of Acragas and
became the object of increasing
jealousy from political rivals. In HAS COME. (unfree men) in the western
Peloponnese further distracted
expanded territory around Catana.
Although Hieron’s younger
about 470 BCE Themistocles was the Spartans from any attempt to brother Thrasybulus was driven
ostracized from Athens (exiled Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, stem the rising power of the out in 466 BCE, the Syracusans
quoting Pausanias, the Spartan
by public vote). commander, before the Battle of Delian League. The Messenians retained their dominant position
Plataea in 479 BCE; from Histories received little outside assistance, in Sicily beyond the 450s BCE.

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450–431 BCE 430–404 BCE

In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Albán began to build its public
buildings—the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here.

IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two

social classes—the patricians and
the plebeians (see 500–491 BCE)—
villages. Monte Albán’s center
housed large-scale public
buildings—including truncated
ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT
EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451 BCE).
The Athenian Empire had the
,, THE EMPIRE YOU
POSSESS IS BY NOW LIKE A

,,
were still divided. The two sides pyramids, great plazas, and naval advantage as it included
came to an agreement in 451 BCE,
appointing a group of ten men
ballgame courts—as well as
elaborate burial tombs. Within
most of the island and coastal
states around the northern and
TYRANNY—PERHAPS WRONG
(the decemviri) to govern Rome
outside the normal constitution.
150 years, the population of
Monte Albán would swell to
eastern shores of the Aegean Sea.
Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta
TO ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY
In 449 BCE, the decemviri produced
the Laws of the Twelve Tables,
around 17,000, making it the
largest city in Mesoamerica.
led an alliance of independent
states from the Peloponnese and
DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO.
which formed the basis for all central Greece, as well as Corinth, Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the
Roman law codes. and had the strongest army. Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63
Zapotec figure from Monte Albán
Around 450 BCE in Central This elaborate ceramic deity is Despite the Thirty Years’ Peace of
Europe, a new Celtic culture typical of the production of Monte 446 BCE, tensions remained high hostilities in 430 BCE began three force at Pylos southwest of
emerged, called La Tène, which Albán, which became Mexico’s between Athens and Sparta. The years earlier, when Athens had Sparta. Yet neither side could land
supplanted the earlier dominant premier site in the 5th century BCE. events that led to renewed intervened on behalf of Corcyra a fatal blow and in 421 BCE they

12
in a dispute with Corinth; the
Spartans took it as a sign that
Athens had breached the peace.
An attack by Thebes, a Spartan
ally, on Plataea, which supported
Athens, was similarly taken by
the Athenians to indicate Sparta
was fixed on war. Athens, led by
Pericles, achieved early success in
THE NUMBER the Peloponnesian War (431–
404 BCE). In 426 BCE, the Athenians
OF TABLES OF invaded the Peloponnese, and
ROMAN LAW the following year landed a large
agreed the Peace of Nicias, which
was supposed to last for 50 years.
The truce soon began to unravel.
Corinth refused to recognize its
authority, a pro-war leadership
emerged in Sparta, and a complex
set of political maneuvers by
Alcibiades (450–404 BCE), the
newly dominant politician in
Athens, led to the renewal of the
war in 419 BCE. The following year,
Sparta’s allies won a key victory
at Mantinea. Athens struck back

SOCRATES (469–399 BCE)

Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a
warrior aristocracy that buried its One of the greatest Greek
dead with swords, spears, and philosophers, Socrates served
funerary chariots, La Tène had on the Athenian Council in
important centers in Bohemia (in 406 BCE, but his challenges to
what is now the Czech Republic) conventional morality at a time
and around the Marne and of political uncertainty gained
Moselle rivers (in modern France). him powerful enemies. He
In Oaxaca on Mexico’s Pacific refused to mount a conventional
Coast, a new center arose shortly defense against charges of
before 450 BCE at Monte Albán. corrupting the Athenian youth
This proto-city, on a hilltop above and was sentenced to die by
the Oaxaca Valley, drew people drinking the poison hemlock.
from the surrounding agricultural

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52
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403–381 BCE

The Great AFTER ITS VICTORY IN THE (r. 404–358 BCE). Cyrus was
Amphipolis T HRAC E
422
Byzantium Peloponnesian War PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta defeated and killed at the Battle
Abdera
Pella Thasos
Sea of Marmara The period of 431–404 BCE found itself embroiled in a quarrel of Cunaxa in 401 BCE, but in its
Spartolus Thasos Cyzicus saw the destruction of with Persia over whether the aftermath some 10,000 Greek
429 Acanthus
Methone Aegospotami the Athenian Empire at
Lampsacus 410 Ionian Greek cities should regain mercenaries were left trapped in
Potidaea 405
the hands of a coalition of
Lemnos Cynossema PHRYGIA
Sparta and its allies. their autonomy. Through the northern Mesopotamia. Under
EP

411
390s BCE, sporadic fighting and Xenophon, the Greeks marched
IR
US

Corcyra THESSALY PER SIAN

Lesbos EMPIR E
abortive peace talks diverted to the Black Sea coast and
Ambracia Aegean
Sea Mitylene Sparta from a weakening position safety near Trapezus (Trabzon
Arginusae
Leucas 406 in mainland Greece. The “King’s in modern-day Turkey), a feat
Phocaea
Cephallenia Delphi
Delium Chalcis Peace,” a definitive treaty with their commander immortalized
424 Eretria Chios
Gul I O NI A Persia in 386 BCE, deprived the in his book Anabasis.
f of C Thebes KEY
ACHAEA o ri n th Euboea Notium
Corinth 407
Ephesus
Athenian Empire
Ionians of autonomy but allowed In Italy, the Romans widened
Athens
Zacynthus Mantinea Argos Andros the Spartans to quash any threats their territory and annexed the
CA R I A Athenian ally
418 Epidaurus
Miletus to its supremacy. In 385 BCE, they city of Veii in 396 BCE, whose
Do d

Peloponnese Sparta and allied states

Cyc lad es attacked Mantinea in the central submission represented the end
Sparta neutral territory
eca

Pylos
Sphacteria Peloponnese and in 382 BCE of any Etruscan threat. However,
ne

425 se Cnidus Athenian victory

Melos occupied Thebes. Spartan power c. 390 BCE, an army of Celts, who
Spartan victory
Cythera Rhodes seemed unassailable. had been attacking the Etruscan
Lindus In Persia, the death of Darius II city of Clusium, turned south,
(r. 423–404 BCE) was followed by a defeated a Roman army at the
brief civil war, when Cyrus the Battle of the Allia, and then took
7,000 Younger tried to overthrow his Rome itself. This disaster haunted
ATHENIANS
2,800 Spartans 18,500 30,000 Spartans
older brother Artaxerxes II the Romans for centuries.

ATHENIANS BOEOTIANS ATHENIANS

420 3,000

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425 BCE BATTLE OF DELIUM 424 BCE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415–413 BCE

in 416 BCE by capturing Melos—the
only main Aegean island not in
its possession—but fatally
overreached itself in 415 BCE
with an expedition to Sicily, ending
in the total destruction of the
Athenian force by the Syracusans
in 413 BCE. The Spartans,
meanwhile, established a fort at
Decelea in Attica that denied the
Athenians access to the rich silver
mines. An alliance with Persia
further strengthened Sparta’s
position in 412 BCE, and a year later
the democratic regime in Athens
was briefly overthrown. In Magadha in India the
Democracy was restored the Haryanka dynasty founded by
following year, and, although the Bimbisara was replaced c. 413 BCE
Athenians won victories at Cyzicus after the death of Ajatashatru
in 410 BCE and Arginusae in 406 BCE, (c. 459 BCE) and a series of
the total destruction of their ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
fleet at Aegospotami off Ionia in founded a new dynasty, which
405 BCE left Athens defenseless. was responsible for overseeing
The Spartans blockaded the city, the final transfer of the Magadha
and, despite a determined royal capital to Pataliputra.
resistance, the Athenians were The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
forced to surrender. Athens was only 500 years.
deprived of its fleet and in 404 BCE Etruscan tomb painting
a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
was installed to govern it. frescoes in their tombs that much has been learned of their culture.

te
d ns ng ds
n ea le s rta ; lo nd ea ies ion m
sia s ef who an t pa ens n a l of n l nar bell ea ro ty
ne tan d ini mp e S
th dow nci i l ho e e S y f as ur
e
on par ea s ns lly ag atte ther CE
4 B e A d ou
c
un ns rac
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p
lo ; S tin e nia tua h
rt n e 40 ptur ulle n C p as C o e c X
n
e k m s i B l s a t h ca ii
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pr Thir me e
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53
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7 0 0 BCE– 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

plain boss connected circular plate at base

with sliding catch of buckle tongue
on backplate
animal interlace
picked out in circles

Sutton Hoo buckle

Sutton Hoo buckle

Made of solid gold and decorated with an
interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon
Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th- bird’s head central interlace animal interlace with
century ship burial in East Anglia, England. in profile pattern a biting head and tail

c. 1500–1200 BCE c. 900 BCE–100 CE c. 100–700

Prehistory
Use of copper ore
In western Iran and
Anatolia, copper ore is
ground or beaten into
shape to make small
objects such as beads.
Refinement of Using iron Anglo-Saxon
bronze casting Ironworking spreads metalworking
New techniques are from western Anatolia, The Anglo-Saxons
developed for casting reaching Greece around bring a new level
and adorning bronze 900 BCE and West Africa of sophistication to
vessels, such as about 400 BCE, enabling metalworking, often
decorating them by Shang stronger tools and using animal forms
Copper ore beating on the inside. cauldron weapons to be made. Weapon heads as decoration.

2600–2400 BCE c. 1500–30 BCE c. 640–500 BCE

Use of beaten
copper plate
Early copper smelting
methods are refined,
allowing the beating
of copper while still
hot into more
complex shapes.
Purifying gold Metal as money
The ancient Egyptians learn how Metal coins (made of an
to separate pure gold from silver alloy of gold and silver)
in around 1500 BCE and begin to are first used in Lydia (in
use it more extensively for present-day Turkey) around
decorative purposes. 640 BCE. The ancient Greeks
Funeral mask of adopt the idea and spread it
Sumerian copper bull Tutankhamun around the Mediterranean. Greek coin

54
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T H E S TO R Y O F M E TA LWO R K I N G

THE STORY OF
METALWORKING
FROM EVERYDAY OBJECTS TO COMPLEX MACHINES, METALS ARE VITAL FOR OUR CIVILIZATION

Since their earliest known use in the 8th millennium BCE, metals have
played a crucial role in the production of a vast range of objects, and even
today, with the availability of sophisticated polymers and composites,
they still permeate every aspect of modern civilization.

Around 7000 BCE, naturally occurring metals,
notably copper, began to be used for small
items such as pins in western Iran and
eastern Anatolia. These were made by
simply grinding or beating the metal
into shape. Heating copper
to make it more malleable was
probably discovered by accidentally
dropping the metal in fire, but it was
the introduction of smelting in a
crucible around 3800 BCE that led to the
large-scale use of metals.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALLOYS
About 3000 BCE, the first alloy—bronze—was
together in a furnace. This method of production
continued until the introduction of blast furnaces
in Europe in the 15th century. The Industrial
Revolution in the 18th century brought new
techniques and the use of coking coal in blast
furnaces, but it was English inventor Henry
Bessemer’s invention of the Bessemer converter
in 1856 that permitted the large-scale production
of steel, a strong, high-quality, iron–carbon alloy.
Later in the Industrial Revolution, further advances
made it possible to produce other metals, such as
aluminum, magnesium, and titanium, whose light
weight and strength played a vital role in the
development of the aviation and space industries.

1,981°F
produced. Made by smelting tin and copper
together in a crucible, bronze is stronger and
more easily worked than either of its individual
constituents, and it remained the principal metal
for tools and weapons until the invention of
ironworking around 1250 BCE. The technology to
melt pure iron was not invented until the 19th
century, so early iron objects were made by first
smelting iron ore to an impure iron “bloom,” then
separating out the iron pieces and welding them
HOW ALLOYS ARE MADE
An alloy is a mixture of metals or of a metal with
a nonmetal (such as iron with carbon in steel).
Many metals occur naturally in alloyed form, but
THE MELTING POINT OF synthetic alloys were not produced until around
3000 BCE, when copper was melted with tin to
COPPER. WHEN COPPER produce bronze. The technique spread, reaching
IS ALLOYED WITH TIN, Mesopotamia soon after 3000 BCE and Egypt by
2000 BCE or possibly earlier.
THIS DROPS TO 1,742°F

c. 15th century 1950s

700–800 Weapons from cast metal Titanium aircraft
Sword-making Cast iron is developed. Because Because of its high
In Europe, sword-makers it is strong and can be used strength-to-weight
develop stronger swords by to make shapes such ratio, titanium starts to
welding together successive as tubes, it finds an be used extensively in
layers of iron with carbon added, immediate use in Medieval military aircraft. It is
Viking
or by beating out thin iron strips cannon now also widely used in
sword making artillery.
then welding them together. Lockheed Blackbird commercial aircraft.

800–1300/1450 1810 1856 1910

Christian objects in
precious metals
Medieval Christians make
sacred objects, such as
crucifixes and reliquaries,
from gold and other
precious metals, sometimes
encrusted with gemstones.
Tin can
English inventor Peter
Durand patents the tin
can for preserving food.
His patent was for a can
made of iron and coated
with tin to inhibit rusting
The Verdun Altar of the iron.
Bessemer converter Aluminum foil
Englishman Henry The first aluminum foil
Bessemer invents a is produced. It was made
converter that enables possible by the invention in
large-scale production 1886 of a method of mass-
of high-quality steel. producing the metal by
passing an electric current
Bessemer converter through molten ore.

55
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380–371 BCE 370–356 BCE

A carving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo I, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods, The ruins of Thebes, Greece’s
including the crocodile-headed Sobek. dominant city-state in the 360s BCE .

150
EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM
Persian control after the revolt
of Amyrtaeus, who founded the
28th Dynasty in 404 BCE. However,
the Persians had not given up on
Egypt. Nectanebo I established
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in
380 BCE. He was able to repel a
force sent by the Persians and
their Greek allies in 373 BCE.
Persia was diverted from further
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by
the Great Rebellion of the
Satraps in the 360s BCE. This
rebellion was partially aggravated
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of
Nectanebo I, in Persian-ruled
Palestine from 361–360 BCE.
Nectanebo II (r. 360–343 BCE)
succeeded Nectanebo I, and
continued to meddle in the Persian
civil wars. In an ill-judged
intervention in 346 BCE, he sent
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon
(Lebanon). In response,
Artaxerxes III of Persia marched
11,000
SPARTANS
9,000
THEBANS AND
ALLIES
Battle of Leuctra
At Leuctra in central Greece, the
Thebans exploited the tendency of
the Spartans to shift right by
concentrating their attack on the left,
enabling them to defeat an enemy
with larger numbers than theirs.
COUPLES
FORMED
THE ELITE
MILITARY UNIT
THE SACRED
BAND OF
THEBES
into the Nile Delta region in
343 BCE, and Egypt was defeated
within two years. Now under
Persian rule, Egypt was never
again ruled by a native dynasty.
In Greece, the Spartan
occupation of Thebes, which had
begun in 382 BCE, was short-lived.
In 379 BCE, the Spartan polemarch
(governor) of Thebes was
assassinated, and the Thebans
drove out the Spartan garrison
with the aid of two Athenian
generals who arrived on their own
initiative to help. In retaliation,
the Spartans mounted an
expedition under King
Cleombrotus (r. 380–371 BCE). This
expedition failed to retake Thebes,
but it so alarmed the Athenians
that they executed one general and
exiled the other, and temporarily
abandoned the alliance with
Thebes. The Spartans invaded
the region of Boeotia in 378–
377 BCE but made little headway,
although the Athenians were
alarmed enough to revive the
Theban alliance and try to
establish a Second Athenian
Confederacy in opposition to
Sparta. In 375 BCE the Thebans,
Athenians, and Spartans signed a
“Common Peace,” but it broke
down almost immediately. The
Thebans then took the offensive,
aided by a new elite force of citizen
soldiers, the Sacred Band, which
consisted of 150 male couples. The
Sacred Band supplemented the
mercenaries who largely fought
Greek city-states’ wars by this
period. Theban attempts to
conquer the region of Phocis and
retain dominance in Boeotia
rankled with Sparta, and
scuppered Athenian attempts to
broker a peace in 372 BCE. At
Leuctra in 371 BCE, the Theban
army under the general
Epaminondas fought a tactically
brilliant battle to smash the
Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s
mercy just eight years before,
Thebes was now the dominant
power in Greece.
In Sicily, Syracuse continued to
flourish under the strong rule of
ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS
brokered a general peace in
Greece in 371 BCE, the Thebans did
not participate. Thebes built up a
coalition of allies and invaded
Sparta in 370–369 BCE. As a result,
Messenia was finally detached
from Spartan control, but further
Theban success was hampered
by the temporary deposition of
Epaminondas, who was tried for
allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
in exchange for a bribe. Once
Temple of Thoth
Situated at Hermopolis in Upper
Epaminondas was back in control,
the Thebans won Persian backing
Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates
from the New Kingdom but was
for their anti-Spartan alliance in
367 BCE, and a further invasion of
renovated in the 4th century BCE.
the Peloponnese in 366 BCE gained
recruits for the Theban coalition.
Dionysius I (402–367 BCE), who However, Theban successes relied
fought the third in a series of wars too narrowly on the personality of
against the Carthaginians from 383 one man, and when Epaminondas
to 375 BCE. At first, the war went
badly for Dionysius, whose fleet Ancient theater
was wrecked in a storm. The Odeon was a temple built in the
Carthaginian efforts to mount an town of Messene, which was founded
expedition to Sicily were hampered by Epaminondas of Thebes in 367 BCE.
by plague in 379 BCE and a revolt by
subject cities in Libya, so that it
was only in 377 BCE that an army
was landed. Dionysius, who had
been campaigning against
Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
returned to Sicily and crushed
Mago’s force—10,000 are said to
have died. Dionysius allowed the
remnants to slip away, and they
regrouped and returned the
following year under Mago’s son
Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
to the Syracusans. Both sides were
war-weary and in 375 BCE made
peace, leaving Dionysius in
possession of most of eastern
Sicily and parts of southern Italy.

d
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

355–337 BCE
,,
,,
AN ARMY OF DEER LED BY A LION
IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER.
Attributed to Philip II, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

88
was killed in battle in 362 BCE,
Theban power was rapidly eclipsed.
In India, the Nanda dynasty
began its expansion in the
370s BCE, and continued to expand
until it was able to take power from
the Shishunaga in 345 BCE. The
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma
Nanda conquered much of north
IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382–336 BCE)
Macedonia died and his successor,
Philip II (r. 359–337 BCE) began to
transform the position of what Philip II reformed the
had been regarded by other Macedonian army and forced
Greeks as a very minor kingdom. the Greek states to join a
In 357 BCE, he made his first major League of Corinth under
conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace. Macedonian control. After his
THE AGE OF He became involved in the Third return to Macedonia, he took a

India, building up a huge army.
He operated an efficient
administrative system with
centrally appointed tax collectors
and undertook irrigation works.
However, the deposition of Dhana
Nanda in 321 BCE was followed by
the absorption of the Nanda
empire into the Mauryan empire.
The state of Chu was the most
southerly of China’s Warring
States, centered on the Middle
Yangzi River. Throughout the 5th
century BCE it annexed a number of
states, becoming the dominant
power by 380 BCE. In 366 BCE a
resounding victory by the state of
Qin against the armies of Hann and
MAGAPADMA
NANDA AT
HIS DEATH
Wei, followed by another defeat of
Wei at the battle of Shimen in
364 BCE led to Chu’s decline and the
shift eastward of Wei’s royal center
to Daliang. A rejuvenated Wei was
strong enough to force the rulers of
four other Warring States to attend
its court in 356 BCE. Wei’s
supremacy was short-lived, and
defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies
at Guiling in 353 BCE and Maling in
341 BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal.
Sacred War (356–346 BCE), which new wife, Cleopatra, but was
was fought over perceived stabbed to death at his wedding
violations by Sparta and Phocis of
the sacred oracle at Delphi, using
feast, possibly on the orders of
his son, Alexander the Great,
this to cement his position as an who stood to lose his position
important player in the power if Cleopatra bore another heir.
politics of central Greece and the
Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
strengthened his position in Athenians and annihilated the advantage of Rome’s exhausted
Thessaly and became involved in Theban Sacred Band (see state to launch an attack. During
petty disputes between the 380–371 BCE). Macedonian power the first year of the war, at a battle
city-states, as rival factions in Greece was now unchallenged. near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
turned either to him or to Athens Rome’s steady expansion in Decius Mus is said to have
for support. In 340 BCE open war central Italy had caused alarm dedicated his body to the gods
broke out between Philip and the among its neighbors. This led to a of the underworld and then
Athenian-Theban alliance. Just bitter six-year struggle with the undertaken a suicidal charge
two years later, at Chaeronea in town of Tibur from 360 BCE, among against the Latin ranks that
Boeotia, Philip defeated the other conflicts. In 340 BCE, a turned the tide of battle in the
general war broke out between Romans’ favor. By 338 BCE, the
Rome and the Latins, who Romans had defeated the Latin
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus inhabited the modern region League. The peace terms were
Mausolus was the Persian satrap of Lazio around Rome. The favorable, with many Latins being
(governor) of a region of south- Romans had just emerged from granted Roman citizenship. The
western Turkey. After his death in
353 BCE his wife built a tomb for a war with the Samnites, a League was then dissolved, and
him, which became one of people who inhabited the many of the former Latin cities
the Seven Wonders of the central Apennines, and were absorbed into the Roman
Ancient World. the Latins took state, moving Rome further
toward complete dominance of
central Italy.
In Peru, the Nazca culture
began around 350 BCE. These
people created mysterious
geoglyphs, huge lines in the
desert creating animal and
abstract shapes, which cannot be
made out from the ground.

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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

336–330 BCE 329–323 BCE

Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse

30
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to win a stunning victory over King Darius III.

AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, of Macaranda (Samarkand) and

Bessus declared himself the new pacify Sogdiana, although the
king of Persia (as Artaxerxes V), fortress of the “Sogdian Rock”
but some of the Persian satraps managed to hold out against the
submitted to Alexander instead of Macedonian forces until 327 BCE.
Bessus. During 330–329 BCE, Alexander then crossed into the
Alexander pursued Bessus into Kabul Valley, and the following
the easternmost regions of the year, at the Hydaspes River, he
Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu overcame the local ruler Porus. THE AGE OF
Kush and into Bactria. Finally, His plans to push further into
in Sogdiana, north of the Oxus India were stymied by his soldiers ALEXANDER’S
River, the local nobles, led by the
Sogdian warlord Spitamenes,
who, demoralized and disease-
ridden, mutinied and demanded
FAVORITE
betrayed Bessus and handed him to go home. Part of the army HORSE,
Ruins of Persepolis
over to Alexander. Once Alexander
had continued his march north,
returned home by sea under
Nearchus, but a detachment
BUCEPHALUS,
AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF The Persian ceremonial capital of however, Spitamenes revolted. It under Alexander marched WHEN IT DIED
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336 BCE Persepolis was burned to the ground took Alexander a year of bitter through the harsh Gedrosian
(see 355–337 BCE), his 20-year-old by Alexander’s troops in 330 BCE. campaigning to relieve the siege desert, suffering heavy losses.
son Alexander (often referred to His army reached central Persia advance of the Romans
as Alexander the Great) became led by Darius III himself. In 331 BCE, early in 324 BCE, but Alexander, into Campania after
Alexander the Great’s conquests
commander of the major Greek the Macedonians defeated Darius still planning new expeditions their abolition of the
Alexander penetrated the farthest
city states. The next year Alexander III again at Gaugamela (in corners of the Persian empire. To into Arabia, died of a fever at Latin League
invaded Thrace, but a rumor that modern Iraq). The next year Darius cement his rule, he founded a series Babylon in May 323 BCE, at age 33. in 338 BCE
he had been killed caused a major was stabbed to death by Bessus, of new cities, almost all named after In central Italy, the Samnites of alarmed the
revolt centered on the Greek city of one of his generals. Alexander himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt. the central-southern Apennines, Samnites, and
Thebes, supported by Darius III of now seemed to have acquired the who had lost a war against the the Roman placing
Persia (r. 336–330 BCE). Alexander whole of the vast Persian Empire. CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER Romans in 342–340 BCE, fought of a colony in their land in
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were Macedonian Empire 336-323BCE them once more in the Second 328 BCE and tensions over the
defeated and their city razed. Route taken by Alexander’s forces Samnite War (326–304 BCE). The control of Neapolis (Naples) led
The other states soon submitted. to the outbreak of war in 326 BCE.
In 334 BCE, Alexander hurried to In 321 BCE, the Samnites defeated
Anatolia, where a Macedonian HIA Alexandria Eschate a Roman army at the Caudine
SCY T A
IAN
S OG D
Ca

army was already established, Forks. The Romans were

sp

B la ck S e a Alexandria ad Oxum
ia

totaling perhaps 43,000 infantry COLCH h Bucephala humiliated by being forced to bow
nS

A
THRACE Byzantium IS Alexandria BACTRId u Kus
ea

and 6,000 cavalry. Although this MACEDONIA Heraclea ARMENIA H in down and “pass under the yoke”
Pella Troy ARACHOSIA
Gordium CAPPADOCIA Alexandria Areion
figure was dwarfed by the forces HELLAS Sardis
ME
SO Nineveh Alexandria (an arch made from their captured
PO MEDIA PARTHIA Arachoton
of the local Persian satraps Ephesus PISIDIA spears). Four years of peace
Sparta TA Ecbatana Quetta
M
I A B PERSIS
(governors), Alexander’s cavalry Crete
M ed it Cyprus SYRIA AB
Susa Pasargadae
Nad-i-Ali followed before the Romans
e r r an e a n S e a YL
INE

Tyre Babylon Patala

smashed the lines of the satrap Jerusalem
O Alexandria renewed the war and, despite
T

Cyrene
NI

Persepolis
ES

Alexandria Gaza Pe
Arsites at the Granicus River in dogged resistance by the
A

rs
L
PA

Arabian ian Gwadar

northwest Turkey. He pushed on Gul f Samnites, finally emerged
Memphis
Aristotle SA
Peninsula
toward the heart of the Persian HA EGYPT victorious in 304 BCE.
The philosopher Aristotle was Arabian
Re

R A Thebes
d

Empire. In 333 BCE, at Issus, employed by Philip of Macedonia Sea

Se
a

northern Syria, he routed an army as Alexander the Great’s tutor.

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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

Samnite-style helmet
The Romans admired the Samnites
as fighters. This gladiator helmet is
based on the Samnite style of armor.
322–301 BCE
ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not
provided for an orderly succession
after his death in 323 BCE, and his
most experienced generals were
also dead—except for Antipater,
who had been left as regent in
Macedonia. Alexander’s wife
Roxane was pregnant, and he
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus,
who was, unfortunately,
mentally unstable. A clique of
generals who were present at
Alexander’s deathbed—
Ptolemy, Cassander,
Seleucus, and Lysimachus—
engineered a solution by which
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander
IV (323–310 BCE) notionally shared
power with Arrhidaeus, who
became Philip III. In reality, this
military clique carved up the
empire between themselves and
four other generals. Perdiccas
emerged as the main power in
the center; Antipater and
Craterus took
Europe;
Antigonus
Monopthalmus
(“the one-eyed”) was given
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt;
and Seleucus and Cassander
were promoted to senior
military commands.
These generals, who became
known as the Diadochoi
(“successors”), then fought a long
series of wars for dominance in
Alexander’s former empire, at
first pitting the others against
Perdiccas, who was assassinated
in 320 BCE. Antipater rose to
power next, but he died of natural
causes in 318 BCE, leaving
Antigonus to make a bid for power
,,
Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a
question about who would succeed him
80,000
ANTIGONUS
75,000
LYSIMACHUS
Battle of Ipsus
Although slightly outnumbered,
Lysimachus deployed his archers
against his enemy’s flank, causing
Antigonus’s infantry to flee in panic.
against the four remaining
principal players: Cassander in
Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt,
Lysimachus in Thrace, and
Seleucus in Babylon. War between
the parties raged inconclusively
until 311 BCE. But when it was
renewed again in 308 BCE, it
looked as if Antigonus might
overcome all the others. Then, in
301 BCE, Lysimachus crushed the
Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
annexed most of Antigonus’s
former territories, so cementing a
tripartite division of Alexander’s
empire between himself, Ptolemy,
and Seleucus.
In India, in around 320 BCE,
Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 320–
297 BCE) overthrew the last of the
Nandas (see 370–356 BCE) to
become ruler of Magadha and the
Ganges plain. An energetic ruler,
he then gradually absorbed the
TO THE STRONGEST!
,,
outlying regions of the Nanda Confucian tradition. His surviving
Empire, pushing his control as work, the Shi Ji, is written in the
far as Gujarat and the Punjab. form of dialogues with several
In 305 BCE, he began a campaign
against one of Alexander’s
contemporary kings. Meng Zi
stresses the value of de (virtue)
successors, Seleucus, which for a king and, more practically,
ended in a treaty in 303 BCE, under recommends lower taxes, less
which the Greeks ceded control harsh punishments, and ensuring
of eastern Afghanistan and that the people have enough to
Baluchistan to Chandragupta. eat. He believed that if a king
Having established the Mauryan acted benevolently, everyone
Empire in 307 BCE, Chandragupta would want to be ruled by him,
decided to abdicate in favor of and he would have no need of
his son Bindusara (r. 297– conquest. Meng Zi’s benevolent
272 BCE). He then retired to view of human nature had a
become a Jain monk, ultimately widespread appeal, and politically
starving himself to death. his views were most influential in
In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius) the time of the Song dynasty
(c. 372–289 BCE) arrived at the Wei (960–1279 CE).
court around 320 BCE and rapidly
earned himself a reputation as
the “second sage” of the
ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356–323 BCE)
At age 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.

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59
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

300–281 BCE 280–266 BCE 265–241 BCE

,,
,,
ANOTHER SUCH
VICTORY AND WE
ARE UNDONE.
Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy II in around At the Battle of Mylae, in 260 BCE ,
280 BCE . It guided ships into Alexandria harbor at night. Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy.

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337– IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys 500 20 IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
out between the Romans and 283 BCE), the son of Antigonus from the southern Italian city of (c. 294–232 BCE) to the throne in
Samnites in 298 BCE, apparently (see 322–301 BCE), was now Tarentum for protection against 268 BCE had marked a watershed

2,0
provoked by Samnite harassment rebuilding his strength from bases the Romans provided Pyrrhus, for the Mauryan Empire. On his

00
of their neighbors, the Lucanians. in the Aegean islands and in the king of the Greek state of 3,0 father Bindusara’s death (see
Despite two Roman victories in Cyprus. He was able to exploit the Epirus, with a perfect excuse 00 322–301 BCE), Ashoka had to fight
297 BCE, the Samnites, this time need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for for fulfilling his ambitions and a four-year civil war with his
allied with the Gauls, could still allies against the now overmighty intervening there. He arrived with brothers before he was enthroned.
field a huge army against the Lysimachus. In 294 BCE, Demetrius an army more than 25,000 strong, Around eight years later, he
Romans at Sentinum in 295 BCE. invaded Macedon, whose ruler including war elephants. He beat launched a campaign against

275
Cassander had died three years
before, leaving his two young
the Romans at the River Siris in
280 BCE, but the Roman senate
20,000 Kalinga (modern Orissa), which
was so bloody that around 100,000
sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus people are said to have died. So
war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army KEY struck with remorse was Ashoka
Lysimachus’s Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his Infantry Slingers at this slaughter, that he ever after
but in 292 BCE he was brought losses were so severe that it Cavalry War elephants rejected war and promoted the
back to Greece by a revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After Archers Buddhist concept of dharma,
Aetolia. By 289 BCE, Demetrius invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated meaning mercy or piety. He set up
Pyrrhus's army
THE NUMBER had suppressed the revolt, but he
had lost most of his island bases
back to Epirus in 275 BCE, nursing
huge losses in troops and having
The army that Pyrrhus took over to a series of edicts carved in rock
throughout the empire—many of
Italy included a small number of war
OF YEARS to Ptolemy’s Egyptian fleet. He made no territorial gains. elephants, whose presence caused them on pillars topped with a
retreated to Asia, and died in The defeat and death of the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. lion—promoting his adherence to
THE 283 BCE, a captive of Seleucus. Lysimachus in 281 BCE in battle dharma. Under his patronage the
PTOLEMAIC Of Alexander’s successors, against Seleucus, and the latter’s Third Buddhist Council met at

DYNASTY Ptolemy inherited the weakest

RULED EGYPT
The equally vast Roman army—at
45,000, the largest they had ever
fielded—was threatened with
defeat until the Roman consul
Publius Decius Mus (d. 295 BCE)
dedicated himself and the enemy
army as sacrificial victims to the
gods of the underworld and led a
suicidal charge that shattered the
Samnite line. A string of Roman
successes followed in 293 and
292 BCE, and two years later the
Samnites finally surrendered and
their lands were annexed. Roman
territory now stretched across the
Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea.
position. A naval defeat in 306 BCE
by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined
his ambitions temporarily to Egypt.
Yet here he shrewdly chose to
exploit the existing mechanisms
of power, establishing himself as
a pharaoh in the old style and
setting up an administration that
melded the best of Greek and
Egyptian traditions. By 295 BCE,
Ptolemy’s naval forces had
recovered and conquered much of
the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy’s
position was sufficiently secure
that, at his death in 283 BCE, aged
84, he passed the kingdom on to
his son Ptolemy II Philadelphos
(r. 283–245 BCE), the second king
of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would
rule Egypt until 30 BCE.
Pyrrhus of Epirus
Despite his many campaigns, when
Pyrrhus died he ruled little more
than the kingdom he had inherited.
assassination, soon led to
instability on the frontier between
Pataliputra around 250 BCE, and
Ashoka sought to export his ideas
the Seleucid Empire (now ruled abroad, exchanging diplomatic
by his son Antiochus I) and the missions with foreign rulers, such
Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II as Antiochus II of Syria and
Philadelphos. Finally, in 274 BCE Ptolemy II of Egypt. At his death
the First Syrian War broke out in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire
between them. The Egyptians had reached its greatest extent
emerged victorious, annexing and seemed securely established.
parts of the Syrian coast and In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
southern Anatolia. This position his father to the throne of Qin in
was in part reversed by Egyptian 246 BCE. From 228 BCE, ably advised
losses in the Second Syrian War by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
(260–253 BCE) and then renewed unleashed a final war of conquest
in the Third Syrian War (246–241 against the remaining Warring
BCE), which was fought between States (see 370–356 BCE). Zhao
the Seleucid Antiochus II and and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
Ptolemy III. These three Qin armies captured Wei and, in
debilitating wars left the Seleucids 223 BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
particularly vulnerable to the now still held out but, in 221 BCE, Zhao
growing power of Parthia. Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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60
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

23
YEARS
THE LENGTH OF
THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

little headway. However, after they Aegades Islands. This defeat

ROMAN RELIGION
had built their first-ever fleet, the caused Hamilcar Barca, the
Romans’ fortunes changed. In Carthaginian general, to sue for
Early Roman religion combined 260 BCE, they won an important peace. The peace terms involved
the worship of the great gods, victory over the Carthaginians at the Carthaginians leaving Sicily.
such as Neptune (shown here), Mylae. A Roman invasion of North The two sides’ spheres of
with that of more local deities. Africa in 256 BCE failed to capture influence remained uncomfortably
There were several different Carthage only through the overlapping, creating the seeds
types of priest: haruspices ineptitude of the consul, Regulus. of two future conflicts.
made predictions from the On land, the Romans took the
entrails of sacrificed animals; Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily
,,
,,
augures determined the divine
will from signs, such as the
one by one until, by 249 BCE, only
Drepana, in western Sicily, held
IF THEY WILL
flight of birds; and pontifices out against them. A massive NOT EAT, LET
controlled the complex Carthaginian naval victory there THEM DRINK!
calendar of religious festivals. set back the Roman cause, but
In their homes, Romans had in 241 BCE, a new Roman fleet Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
appeared off Drepana, took it, consul and general, ordering the
shrines to household gods and
drowning of the sacred chickens
the spirits of their ancestors. and the next year smashed when they refused to eat grain
a Carthaginian fleet at the before the Battle of Drepana, 249 BCE

him the master of all China. The expelled the nomads, but wars the nomadic Parni, led by EUR OP E Alps
same year he proclaimed himself with Egypt (280–272 BCE and Arsaces, entered Parthia in the
Tolosa
P Placentia
yr
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi 260–253 BCE) overstretched the mid-240s BCE. Numantia e n Narbo Massalia
ee
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the kingdom’s resources. On the Rivalry over Sicily, where the s Ariminum
Pisae
Iberian Emporiae Rhodae
new Qin dynasty. death of Antiochus II (r. 261–246 Carthaginians had possessed Peninsula
Dertosa
Tarraco
Corsica
Perusia
Ad
In Persia, the Greek Seleucid BCE), civil war broke out between colonies since the 8th century BCE, to Rome 238 Aleria ri
at
Saguntum s Rome
le a r e Ostia ic
dynasty, which had inherited the the king’s widow Berenice and his was at the root of the First Punic Ba Olbia Se
a
Gades Sardinia Capua
region after Alexander the Great’s former wife Laodice. This led to War (264–241 BCE), a conflict Malaca to Rome 238 Tarentum
Tingis Mediterr
ane Carales
death in 323 BCE, faced a series of the breakaway of Bactria under between Rome and the North Cartenna
an Panormus Thurii
Rusaddir Se 260BCE Croton
nomad incursions Diodotus and Parthia African power of Carthage. In 264 Iol a 241BCE Mylae
Saldae Rhegium
Utica Agrigentum
after 280 BCE. under Andragoras. BCE, the Romans sent an army to Carthage Ecnomus
Syracuse
Antiochus I (reign Taking advantage help the Mamertines—a group Hadrumetum
256BCE
Sicily
c. 292–261 BCE) of this instability, of south-Italian mercenaries to Rome 241

occupying the Sicilian city of

Messana—in their conflict with A F R I CA
the city of Syracuse, which was Leptis Magna

in turn aided by Carthage. The

Carthaginian’s resistance was so Charax

stubborn that the Romans made

KEY
The First Punic War
Carthaginian Empire in 264 BCE
Great Stupa at Sanchi The two decades of fighting was
This Buddhist stupa in central India Roman gains by 264 BCE concentrated around Sicily, but
was begun by the Mauryan ruler Roman gains by 238 BCE also saw Roman invasions of
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.

ac r
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m h S i e t h s u e d u R
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240–220 BCE 219–211 BCE

36
THE NUMBER OF
COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR QIN
SHI HUANGDI

This rendition of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist

Jacopo Ripanda. Amazingly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage.

IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the In the aftermath of the First Second Punic War
AT L A N T I C
first emperor of China, divided his Punic War (see 264–241 BCE), There were three principal theaters OCEAN EUR OP E
empire into 36 commanderies on which Sicily and Sardinia lost, of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
the advice of his minister Li Ssu. Carthage turned its attention Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians
ALPS
were confined to Africa. Tolosa
The dispossessed aristocrats and to Spain. In 238 BCE, Hamilcar P Placentia
Numantia yr Trebia 218 20
nobles of Qin’s former enemies was sent there, and he conquered e n Narbo
e es
Massalia 7
Ariminum
I b e ri a n 208 2 1 0 Pisae
were moved to the capital Xianyang almost all of southern Spain. He Pe ni ns ul a Tarraco 21
8 Rhodae River Metaurus 207
Emporiae Corsica Perusia Lake Trasimene 217
to keep them under close control. died in battle against the Oretani, Aleria Ad
Baecula 208 Saguntum Dertosa Rome S e r ia t
To further encourage a sense of a Celtic tribe, in 229 BCE, but by Ilipa 206 Ostia a ic
209 Olbia
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a then he had won a new empire Capua Cannae 216
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Gades Baleares Sardinia
single script and a standardized for Carthage and a strong power Tarentum
218–202 BCE Tingis Malaca Carthago Me dite Carales
Nova rra Thurii
system of weights and measures base for his family, the Barcids. Carthaginian Empire 281BCE C Rusaddir
ne
an Croton
Cartenna Iol Messina
Motya
for China. Further conquests were Despite their victory in the First Carthaginian territory 200BCE R Saldae Utica Mylae Rhegium
204 Sicily Agrigentum
made to the north and south in Punic War, the Romans’ position Roman territory 218BCE H
Zama 202 Carthage
219 and 214 BCE, and thousands of in northern Italy was still weak. In Syracuse
Roman gains by 200BCE H Hadrumetum 203
colonists were sent to the new 225 BCE, the Celtic Insubres and Melita

S
Massalian territory 218BCE S

e
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt Boii tribes tried to drive them out.

a
Carthaginian victory
A F R I CA
firmly with opposition. In 213 BCE, At the Battle of Telamon, the Celts Roman victory
he ordered the “burning of the were trapped between two Roman Leptis Magna
Hannibal (219–202)
books,” by which the writings of armies and routed. Although the Hasdrubal (208–207
Charax
philosophers opposed to the Qin Boii accepted defeat in 224 BCE and Scipio Africanus (210–206
state were burned, and in 212 BCE the Insubres sued for peace two and 204–202)
he had many intellectuals who years later, the Romans rebuffed
opposed him brutally killed. them and pushed on for total ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN decided to strike first. He Romans—including one of the
victory. The king of the Boii was EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE marched with 50,000 infantry, consuls. Faced with many
killed in single combat against a the Romans sent an embassy to 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants defections among the allied
Roman consul, and their capital Hasdrubal—son of Hamilcar and into northern Spain, across the cities, the Romans turned to
Mediolanum (Milan) captured. the new Barcid commander Pyrenees, through southern delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
The Romans established colonies there—and secured an Gaul and—to the Romans’ at bay. But this was a temporary
in the Celtic territories in 218 BCE, agreement that the Carthaginians astonishment—crossed the Alps. measure, and the Romans
including at Piacenza. would not move north of the Ebro Although he now had only around suffered one of their worst ever
A revolt led by Arsaces (see River. In return, the Romans half the force he had started with, defeats at Cannae in 216 BCE, when
265–241 BCE) in Parthava, a pledged not to move south— his presence encouraged the
former satrapy in the northeast of although they did forge alliances north Italian Celts to revolt and, 100
the Seleucid Empire, could not be with cities in the south, such as 50,000 casualties
at Trebia in late 218 BCE, he
quelled by Seleucus II (r. 246–225 Saguntum. In 221 BCE, Hasdrubal routed a Roman army. The FORCES IN THOUSANDS 80
BCE), and a separate Parthian was assassinated; two years following year he smashed 6,000
kingdom emerged in the region later, Hannibal, his brother and another large Roman force at 60 casualties
of modern Iran. The Parthians successor, attacked Saguntum, Lake Trasimene, killing 15,000
40
gradually annexed more territory rapidly leading to the Second
to the west, especially under Punic War (219–201 BCE). 20
Suppressing opposition Battle of Canae
This watercolor-on-silk painting Mithridates I (r. 171–138 BCE). By With the prospect of the Some 35,000 Romans survived the
shows Shi Huangdi, China’s first the early 1st century BCE, only a Romans sending one army to battle of Cannae, but half of those 0
emperor, overseeing the burning of small area of Syria was under Spain and another via Sicily to were captured by the Carthaginians, Roman Carthaginian
books and the execution of scholars. Seleucid control. invade North Africa, Hannibal and many were sold into slavery. TROOPS

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210–201 BCE

After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 6 ft 6 in (2 m) tall, were placed.

HANNIBAL (247–182 BCE)
A brilliant tactician, Hannibal’s
string of victories against the
Romans from 218 BCE was
not matched by the strategic
judgment to convert them
into final victory. Following
the surrender of Carthage in
201 BCE, Hannibal served
as the city’s suffete (chief
magistrate) until the Romans
had him exiled in 195 BCE.
He then offered his service
to a succession of Rome’s
enemies before poisoning
himself in Bithynia.
Hannibal’s army massacred up to
50,000 of them. But Hannibal
did not march immediately on
Rome, and his campaign lost
momentum. Although Hannibal
captured much of southern Italy,
including the key city of Capua in
211 BCE, by 212 BCE the Romans
had raised 25 fresh legions and
stood ready to carry the war back
to the Carthaginians.
WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR position there. The Roman senate at Utica in North Africa, the fleet was reduced to a mere 10
DIED IN 210 BCE, resentment sent the young general Publius Carthaginians recalled Hannibal ships; they were not allowed to
against his autocratic rule erupted Cornelius Scipio (c. 236–183 BCE) to head off a threat to Carthage make war outside Africa at all,
in a series of peasant revolts. A to Spain, where he captured the itself. The Romans offered and inside it they needed Roman
number of new kingdoms broke Carthaginian capital of Carthage relatively lenient peace terms, but permission to do so. An annual
away from the center, while the Nova. In 206 BCE, he crushed a the Carthaginians rejected them, tribute of 10,000 talents payable
anti-Qin forces found a talented large Carthaginian force at Illipa. and Scipio captured their towns to the Romans completed the
military leader in Xiang Yu. In In 207 BCE, Hannibal’s brother one by one. Aided by the Numidian humiliation of what had once
208 BCE, Li Ssu was executed and Hasdrubal was defeated and prince, Massinissa, Scipio been Rome’s greatest enemy.
a new army, led by Liu Bang, a killed at the Metaurus River in defeated Hannibal’s last army at
man of peasant origins, emerged northern Italy, denying Hannibal Zama in 202 BCE. The peace terms
The Continence of Scipio
to challenge the Qin. By 206 BCE, crucial reinforcements. By 204 BCE, the Carthaginians now had to Scipio was noted for his mercy. In
the Qin Empire was fragmented many of Hannibal’s south-Italian accept were much harsher. All of this 19th-century painting, he is
and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at allies had deserted him, and when their territory was forfeit save a seen handing back a captured
war with one another. In 202 BCE, Scipio landed with a Roman army band around Carthage itself; their Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.
Xiang Yu committed suicide after
being defeated at Gaixia. With no
one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
had himself declared emperor as
Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
dynasty (see 200–171 BCE).
With Hannibal making little
headway in southern Italy, the
Romans embarked on a policy of
picking off the allies of Carthage.
Their first target was Philip V of
Macedonia, whose attacks on
Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the
First Macedonian War (215–205
BCE) with Rome. In 211 BCE, the
Romans allied with the Aetolians,
who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
naval attacks. Philip’s invasion
of Aetolia in 207 BCE forced the
Aetolians to sue for peace the next
year, and though the Romans sent
fresh forces in 205 BCE, the war
ended with a recognition of the
status quo between the two sides.
In Spain, the Romans had
retaken Saguntum in 212 BCE, but
a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman

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700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

owl, the sacred

bird of Athena

crescent symbol in
post-490 BCE coins

Athenian coin
The Athenian
silver tetradrachm
has an image of an
owl on one side and
a helmeted head on
the other. It was also
stamped with the Greek
letters for “ATHE” to identify
the city of its origin.

1200 BCE
Shells as money
Beginning from the 465–454 BCE
Maldives, the use Greek coins
of cowrie shells Almost every Greek city-state
as money spreads issues its own coinage, often with
throughout the Pacific, the name of the state inscribed on
and, by the 19th century, it. Silver replaces electrum as the
into Africa. Cowrie shells main metal used.

Prehistory 1000–500 BCE c. 640–630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE–14 CE

Cattle as capital Tool money
Prehistoric people In China, common
use cattle as money, tools are cast in
with animals such as metal, punched
sheep or chickens with holes (for
sometimes acting Cattle stringing several
as small change. together), and
used as money.
First true coins Augustan aureus
The state of Lydia Emperor Augustus
produces the first true reforms the Roman
coins, made of electrum coinage system and
(an alloy of gold and issues a new version of
silver) and stamped with the standard gold coin,
Knife an image of a lion or stag. Gold the aureus, worth
money aureus 25 silver denarii.

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T H E S TO R Y O F M O N E Y

THE STORY OF
MONEY
THE ADOPTION OF MONEY ENABLED EARLY SOCIETIES TO FLOURISH AND GROW INTO COMPLEX CIVILIZATIONS

As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of

exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfill this role, and it evolved
from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and bank notes. Today, money
is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers.

The earliest forms of money—used in ritual
exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying
fines—included physical items such as cattle.
In the 4th millennium BCE, the growth of trade in
Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and
portable forms of money. For thousands of years,
precious metals were used, often in the forms of
bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi’s law
100
90
80
PERCENTAGE OF SILVER
code mentions loans paid in silver. In 640 BCE,
in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the
development of money went a stage further with
the invention of coinage, which later spread to
the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic
system had been adopted, with coins of gold,
silver, and bronze (of least value) circulating across
the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped
on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use.
EXCHANGE NOTES
In 1189, paper money came into use in China during

70
Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations
60
and, therefore, were more convenient than coins.
50
Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue TRADE AND PAPER MONEY
40
notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an
30
equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as The growth in paper money in Europe after
20 the Middle Ages was fueled by the needs of
the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis
10 merchants. Traders would deposit funds in a
following World War I forced countries to abandon
0 bank in one city and receive a promissory note,
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of
which allowed them to withdraw the amount
YEAR notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on in any other city where the bank had a branch.
The debasement of Roman coins a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici,
Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took were rich enough to fund the military campaigns
of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from of European kings through their loans.
around 90 percent silver under Marcus Aurelius this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on
(r. 161–180) to 4 percent during Gallienus’s rule (r. 260–268). nothing save the promise of payment at a later date.

806–821 1519 1694 1949

Paper money Thalers
In China, Emperor Coin minted from
Xianzong issues the silver found in the
earliest bank notes during Joachimsthal mine,
a period of copper Bohemia, becomes
shortage. The Jin dynasty Song standard in the
issues the first true bank dynasty Spanish and Austrian
notes around 1189. note Habsburg empires.
First bank note
The Bank of England
is founded to fund
England’s growing
national debt. It issues
its first bank notes,
Joachimsthal backed by the bank’s
thaler own gold reserves.
Credit and debit cards
The first credit cards
appear in the US in
1949. By the 1980s,
debit cards, which
operate as electronic
cash (without deferred
payment) appear. Credit cards

1158 17th century 1862

Making change Modern check First dollar bill
Henry II of England By the 17th century, the use The US Treasury
creates high-quality of checks, often backed issues the first
coinage, based on a by goldsmiths, becomes dollar bills for
silver penny, with widespread in national circulation.
a cross design that Europe. These are known
will last over the next British check as “greenbacks”
100 years. Henricus penny from 1659 for their vivid green color. First one dollar bill

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200–171 BCE 170–147 BCE

The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han, depicted in the mountains of China. This wall painting shows Judah
Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF the beginnings of political Mauryan general, assassinated including the Satavahanas, the THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 195 BCE, consolidation in central Japan, the last Mauryan ruler (see Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek ended In 168 BCE, when Paullus
when his successor, Hui Ti, was especially around the lower Nara 265 BCE). He is said to have kingdoms of Bactria. defeated Perseus at the Battle of
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway basin (near Osaka). persecuted Buddhists, marking Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
of his mother, the empress Lu, In India, the Sunga dynasty the beginning of the religion’s had broken away from Seleucid elements swept through the
who took power for herself on took power in Magadha in 185 BCE, decline in its Indian homeland. control around 275 BCE, but a Greek cities, and Macedonia was
his premature death in 188 BCE. when its founder Pusyamitra He also fought a long series of series of Greek kings continued broken up into four republics to
Under her rule China was Sunga (r. 185–151 BCE), a former wars with Magadha’s neighbors, to rule there, starting with prevent it recovering its strength.
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from Diodotus around 250 BCE. Another In 150 BCE, Spartan attempts
the north and the kingdom of Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in to get the Romans to intervene
Nan-yueh to the south, and it India, and became powerful in a quarrel with the Achaean
was only under Gaozu’s grandson under Menander I (c. 165– League (a group of Greek

13
130 BCE), an important patron of city-states) coincided with an
Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
geometrical kings, a new school of art By 148 BCE, the Macedonians had
patterns emerged around Gandhara, which been defeated and the Romans
and shapes fused Buddhist iconography and turned their attention to the
Greek naturalism. Gradually, Achaeans. The Roman consul
these easternmost Greeks came L. Mummius quickly routed the
under pressure from Scythian Archaeans and took Corinth,
and Yuezhi nomads and in 125 BCE which he razed to the ground. The
Bactria collapsed. The last various leagues of Greek cities
THE NUMBER Indo-Greek kingdom of the were dissolved and Greece lost
OF REGIONS Punjab survived until 10 CE.
The Roman victory against
its independence, becoming the
Roman province of Achaea.
THAT MADE UP Philip V of Macedon (see
HAN CHINA 210 BCE) in the Second
Macedonian War (200–197 BCE)
50

NUMBER OF SOLIDERS (IN 1,000s)

Total
did not lead to permanent
40 Total
Wen Ti (r. 180–157 BCE) that acquisitions in Greece,
stability was restored. and the Romans withdrew Captured
By 143 BCE, the number of their army in 194 BCE. 30
commanderies (regions) After the death of Philip V
under central Han control had in 179 BCE, his son Perseus 20
risen from 13 to a total of 40. presided over worsening
Killed
In Japan, the Middle Yayoi relations with Rome, and 10
period (c. 200–100 BCE) saw an in 171 BCE a Third Macedonian Killed
increase in population—possibly War broke out. Initial Roman 0
to as high as 600,000 people—and campaigning achieved little Romans Macedonians
except the alienation of their COMBATANTS
Greek allies, but a more
Yayoi vase Battle of Pydna
The Yayoi period in Japanese history disciplined approach under Philip V of Macedon’s army was
(c. 300 BCE to 250 CE) is named for the consul Aemilius Paullus completely destroyed at the Battle
the site near Tokyo where its pottery (see 170 BCE) yielded better of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
was first found. results. Macedonians and captured 11,000.

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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

146–131 BCE

The ruins of Carthage, which was burned and ritually cursed after its capture
in 146 BCE . A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48 BCE .

After the end of the Second Punic the Elder, who made a series of ,,I SHUDDER TO THINK

,,
War, in 202 BCE, the Romans had speeches to the Senate calling for
allowed their ally King Massinissa
of Numidia to encroach on
the destruction of Carthage.
The first two years of the Third
THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
Carthaginian territory. The peace
conditions that ended the war
Punic war saw ineffective Roman
attacks on towns around Carthage.
MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
forbade the Carthaginians to wage In 147 BCE, a new commander was
appointed, Scipio Aemilianus,
FOR ROME.
,,
,,
who transformed Rome’s fortunes Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
CARTHAGE in the war within a year. to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apothegmata

MUST BE Carthaginean tophet

A memorial stone from the tophet
In 167 BCE, the Seleucid ruler
Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish
DESTROYED. (cemetery) at Carthage, showing religious practices in Judaea, IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC capital, under which a Jewish
Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. leading to the revolt of Judah HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 177 BCE dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
Cato the Elder, Roman statesman Maccabee and his brothers in gravely threatened the Han captured by the Romans in 63 BCE.
made to pay an annual fine 164 BCE. Judah Maccabee entered dynasty’s northern borders. In On the Iberian Peninsula, the
of 500 talents. In 151 BCE, the Jerusalem, reconsecrated the 139 BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang Romans had conquered most of
war without Roman approval. Carthaginian government sent a temple, and reestablished Qian, set out to Central Asia to southern Spain and parts of
Unable to act, the Carthaginians military force to relieve a town that Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom seek out possible allies against Portugal (where the Lusitanians
were reduced to sending had been besieged by Massinissa, then continued to decline (see the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey vigorously resisted them) by
embassies to Rome to protest and the Romans reacted by also 280 BCE), with the overthrow helped scout the way for Chinese 174 BCE. A revolt by the Lusitanian
Massinissa’s behavior. However, declaring war. This was the Third of its ruler Demetrius I in 150 BCE expansion as far as Dunhuang, and leader Viriathus from 147 BCE was
Rome sided with its ally, and one Punic War (149–146 BCE). Rome’s by Alexander Balas rapidly leading the foundation of a number of new joined by several Celtiberian
Carthaginian embassy in 162 BCE war was encouraged by the to the loss of the key satrapies Central Asian commanderies by tribes in 144 BCE. This rebellion
even resulted in Carthage being anti-Carthaginian senator Cato (provinces) of Media and Susiana. 104 BCE. Zhang Qian was held petered out after Viriathus was
captive by the Hsiung-nu for some murdered in 140 BCE. In 133 BCE,
years during his journey before he Numantia, the main center of the
was able to make an escape. revolt, finally fell to the Romans
Under emperor Wu (141–87 BCE) after a bitter siege. Its population
the Chinese launched several was sold into slavery and Rome
offensives against the Hsiung-nu, was left in control of all of Iberia,
particularly in 121 BCE and 119 BCE, except the far north of Spain.
after which the frontier was quiet The Third Punic War came to
for almost 20 years. an end when Scipio Aemilianus
In the Near East, the shrunken blocked Carthage’s harbor then
and near-helpless Seleucid launched a successful attack on
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC realm (see 170 BCE) was riven by the city itself in spring 146 BCE.
civil wars and prey to interference The last Carthaginian defenders
After the overthrow of the last king in 507 BCE, orders. Later elections for the consulate became from the Parthians, the died in an inferno in the city’s
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually bitterly contested as the office provided great Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, main temple. The defeat of
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came potential for enrichment and personal and family the Romans. In 142 BCE, the Carthage brought its 118-year
to be supported by other magistrates (praetors glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27 BCE Maccabees succeeded in wresting struggle against Rome to an end.
and quaestors), and tribunes of the plebs who had the office of consul lost any real power, being Jerusalem from Seleucid control The Romans burned the whole
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. and established a Hasmonaean city and deported its population to
kingdom, with Jerusalem as its prevent any Carthaginian revival.

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67
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

130–111 BCE 110–91 BCE

,,
,,
HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY
TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO
MEET THE SAME DEATH AS I DID.
Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his
brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

This 17th-century silk painting from a history of Chinese emperors

shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

SAKA (SCYTHIAN) TRIBESMEN

invaded Punjab, northern India,
in about 125 BCE. They gradually
In southern and central India,
the Satavahanas began their
rise to power after the breakup of
IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN
KINGDOM (see 146–131 BCE) had
continued its expansion until the
In North Africa, the Romans
faced a serious challenge when
Micipsa, the son of their former
,, YOU DO
WELL TO
occupied more territory, ending
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity
the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd
century BCE (see 200–171 BCE).
fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid
Antiochus VII in 131 BCE. However,
ally Massinissa of Numidia (see
170–147 BCE), died in 118 BCE. The
CONSIDER
THE OFFICE

(see 200–171 BCE) under the reign From his capital in the Deccan, the
of Antialcidas around 110 BCE. Led third Satavahana king, Satakarni,
by King Maues, the Sakas took extended his sway considerably
the kingdom of Gandhara and its around 50 BCE, although he and
capital Taxila in about 80 BCE. later Satavahana rulers struggled
After Maues died (c. 60 BCE), the to contain the Saka and Kushan
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it threats from the northwest.
was revived under his son Azes I In Rome, social turmoil had
(r. 58–c. 30 BCE), who conquered erupted over the distribution of
much of northwest India. The public land held by the Senate.
Sakas held this region until the Tiberius Gracchus, who was
rise of the Kushan Empire during tribune of the plebs in 133 BCE,
the 1st century CE. sought to ensure that plots of this
land would be handed over to
poorer families. When the Senate
obstructed his plans, he tried to
extend his tribunate so that he
could pursue his aim. A mob
organized by senators opposed
to the plans beat him to death in
the Forum. Tiberius’s brother
Gaius became tribune in 123 BCE
and tried to carry on his brother’s
work. He also reduced the
Senate’s role in dispensing justice,
and pushed through a law to allow
the sale of subsidized grain to the
poor. In 122 BCE, the Senate
declared Gaius an enemy of the
state, due to his plans to extend
Roman citizenship more widely
in Italy. He killed himself, and
thousands of his political
supporters were executed.
Amravati relief carving
This carving depicts the life of the
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one
of the capitals of the Satavahanas.
,,
during the reign of John Hyrcanus Romans ordered the kingdom be
(r. 134–104 BCE) it recovered much divided between Micipsa’s nephew YOUR OWN,
of the ground that had been lost. Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha
Alexander Jannaeus (r. 103–76 rejected this, killing one cousin FOR YOU
BCE) enlarged the kingdom until it and attacking the other, Adherbal, BOUGHT IT.
occupied most of modern Israel who fled to Rome. After a brief
and the West Bank. After defeats division of Numidia between Julius Caesar’s father chastising
the future dictator Sulla for having
by the Nabataean king Aretas III in Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha
corruptly bought office in 94 BCE;
84 BCE and internal strife following renewed his attack on his cousin from Lives by Plutarch
Alexander’s death, the and the Romans became involved.
Hasmoneans were
increasingly vulnerable Following several disastrous
to Roman interference. years of campaigning from
111 BCE, the Romans sent Quintus
Caecilius Metellus, who captured
Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
one. In 108 BCE, Gaius Marius
replaced Metellus. Finally,
trapped in the far west of his
territory, Jugurtha was handed to
the Romans by his father-in-law
Bocchus of Mauretania.
In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
the Cimbri and Teutones, had
been defeating the Romans since
107 BCE, notably at Arausio in
105 BCE, where Roman losses
reached 80,000. Marius took
command of the defense against
ROMAN MILITARY REFORMS the Germans on his return from
North Africa, and in 102 BCE
By the late 2nd century BCE, the Roman army was experiencing vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed
Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below the Cimbri at the Battle of
the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal Vercellae in 101 BCE. He was
legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves rewarded with an unprecedented
were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward sixth consulship in 100 BCE.
Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary” In China, Emperor Wudi (r.
units, which were recruited from noncitizens. 141–87 BCE) strengthened the Han
Empire’s administrative system

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68
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

90–71 BCE

Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after

it was begun around 600 BCE , reaching its final form about 500 years later.

AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, Senate had voted to put Marius in

Captured in stone
The Danzante carvings at Monte
Alban, Mexico, were once thought
to be of dancers, but they are now
believed to represent the mutilated
bodies of enemies captured in war.
by beginning civil service
examinations. Official positions
for academics had been
established in 136 BCE,
consolidating the ruling house’s
stranglehold on the intellectual
life of China. In 106 BCE, Wudi
appointed 13 regional
inspectors to monitor the
behavior of government officials,
raised taxes, and forbade private
coin-minting. His armies pushed
deep into Central Asia. By 108 BCE,
the Han Empire had reached its
largest extent.
In Mexico, the population of
Monte Albán had reached about
17,000 by around 100 BCE. Monte
Albán’s control began to reach
beyond the immediate vicinity of
the Valley of Oaxaca, and many
large stone platforms and public
monuments were built in the city.
(see 110–91 BCE) Marius became
Rome’s dominant politician, but
the brutal behavior of his ally
Saturninus, tribune of the plebs,
provoked the Senate. Political
violence flared, and in 100 BCE
Marius had to march an army into
Rome. Saturninus was killed in the
ensuing riot. As Marius’s power
waned, discontent rose among
Italians without Roman citizenship.
In 91 BCE, this erupted into the
Social War. A protégé of Marius,
Lucius Sulla (c. 138–78 BCE), took a
key role in suppressing the revolt,
which was largely over by 88 BCE ,
albeit with some concessions
offered by Rome to the rebels.
Sulla was elected consul in 88
BCE. That same year, while waiting
to sail with his army to Greece to
counter the threat posed by the
king of Pontus, Mithridates VI
(134–63 BCE), Sulla heard that the
70,000
SPARTACAN
REBELS
6,000
spartican rebels
crucified
The rebellion by Spartacus
Crassus crucified slaves along the
Appian Way, which led to Rome, as
a warning to any others who might
plan a similar insurrection.
charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Sulla entered Rome with his troops
and seized power. He moved
against Mithridates in 89 BCE, and
had driven him out of Greece by
84 BCE. Sulla returned to Rome,
defeated his remaining opponents
(including the aged Marius), and
was appointed dictator in 82 BCE.
Sulla took savage revenge on the
Marians, packed the Senate with
his supporters, and curtailed the
powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
forces regrouped around Quintus
Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
After Sulla died in 78 BCE, the
Senate sent Pompey to deal with
Sertorius. His military efforts were
ineffective; only the assassination
of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
return victorious to Italy in 71 BCE.
In 73 BCE, a slave revolt led by
the gladiator Spartacus broke
out near Naples and grew into the
most serious revolt Rome had ever
faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
were trapped in southern Italy and
defeated by the Roman general
Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BCE.
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
peoples of southern Britain had
started to expand their existing
hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
that were defended by extensive
fortifications. The greatest oppida
were formidable obstacles to
attackers and some were royal
capitals, complete with palaces.
Sacred offering
This 1st-century BCE British Celtic
shield was discovered in the Thames
River, where it had probably been
thrown as an offering to a river god.

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69
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

70–61 BCE 60–51 BCE

Mound City, Ohio contains a cluster of more than A reconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds. where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.

3
AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TO ITALY GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME area of southern Gaul. He took
(see 90–71 BCE), he was elected CONSUL OF ROME for the first time advantage of the migration of the
consul for the year, despite still in 59 BCE. Having served a term as Germanic Helvetii across Gaul
being below the legal minimum governor of Spain, he was popular toward Italy to cross over the Alps
age. When war broke out with among the equestrians (wealthy and defeat Ariovistus, the
Mithridates of Pontus again, the THE NUMBER nonsenators), but resistance to Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
Romans, under general Lucullus,
forced Mithridates to retreat to OF MILITARY him from the Senate (and the
obstructiveness of his coconsul
Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,
stayed in Gaul and the following
Armenia, which was ruled by his TRIUMPHS Bibulus) led him to join with year he pressed on to conquer the
son-in-law Tigranes. However, Pompey and Crassus, Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By
Lucullus’s troops mutinied in AWARDED and the three 55 BCE, Caesar had subdued most
68 BCE, and Pompey was sent to
replace him. Tigranes surrendered
TO POMPEY dominated Rome
until 53 BCE
of Gaul and had acquired a vast
new province for Rome, without
and Mithridates retired north of the as the “First ever receiving any approval
Black Sea. Having achieved his in Central Asia were replaced by Triumvirate.” from the Senate.
aim, Pompey entered Syria, where the establishment of small, In 58 BCE, In 56 BCE, an anti-Roman revolt
he deposed the last Seleucid king, permanent colonies. Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of
and then captured Jerusalem. In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in appointed northern Gaul, apparently
In China, the Han Dynasty the south of the Valley of Mexico governor of supported by the Celtic tribes of
retreated from modernizing was destroyed by a volcano some Narbonensis, Britain. Caesar responded by
policies under Zhaodi (r. 87–74 BCE) time in the 1st century BCE. Its the Roman- crossing over to Britain in 55 BCE
and Xuandi (r. 74–49 BCE). The disappearance opened the way for occupied with two legions. A storm
Huo family, which had dominated Teotihuacán, to assert its control
the government for decades, was over the whole valley and become
removed from power, and its Mexico’s dominant power for
leading members executed. more than 500 years.
Government expenditure was By the end of the 1st century
cut, and aggressive expeditions BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,
in eastern North America, were
beginning to develop into the
Hopewell bird Hopewell culture. These people
Clay pipes, often in
lived by hunting and gathering,
the shape of birds,
are one of the most but they also built large,
characteristic products elaborate burial mounds
of the Hopewell culture. for their chieftains. Caesar at
the Louvre
Wearing the laurel
wreath of a victorious
general, this statue is
part of Caesar’s cult
of personality.

ia y em
th r ra
l pe sal ea he he
ar afte ane
s
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70
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50–44 BCE
,,
,,
…[CAESAR] DREAMED THAT HE WAS FLYING
ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER.
Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar’s dream the night before his
murder in the Senate House in 44 BCE; from Lives of the Caesars

prevented the arrival of KEY just before a session of the

reinforcements, causing him to Caesar’s movements Senate. If they had hoped to seize
retreat, but he returned the next E U R O P E Siege power, the conspirators were
Gallia
Transalpina
year with five legions (around Gallia Caesar’s victories disappointed: Mark Antony, one
Cisalpina
30,000 men). The Britons did not of Caesar’s leading supporters,

49B
Massilia Black Sea
resist at first, but later, led by came to the fore in Rome, while

CE
a 47BCE
ni Tarraco Rome
Cassivelaunus, chief of the isp
a
47BCE Zela Caesar’s great-nephew and
H 45BCE Carthago PARTHIAN
Catuvellauni, they vigorously Nova CE Brundisium Pharsalus EMPIRE adoptive son Octavian received
45B Ephesus
E
BC

opposed the Romans all the Gades 48BCE widespread support in a bid to

47BC
Antioch
46

Munda Athenae
Sicily Syria Roman Civil Wars

48
way to the Thames River. When Carthage Me take up the mantle of his father.

E
MA

BC
URE TAN IA Thapsus dite Caesar won Italy easily, but he had

Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at
Wheathampstead fell, he sued
for peace, and Caesar returned
to Rome with hostages and the
promise of tribute.
At the end of 54 BCE, shortly after
Caesar’s second expedition to
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this
time led by the Senones, wiped out
much of the Roman force there.
After putting down the revolt,
Caesar’s attentions were diverted
to Rome, where political violence
had resulted in the murder of his
former ally Clodius, and where
Pompey had been elected sole
consul in 52 BCE, rupturing the
Triumvirate. Emboldened by the
turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes
revolted in Gaul. They were
joined by the Averni, led by
Vercingetorix, who won several
skirmishes against Labienus.
Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar
E
rran Cyprus
46BCE ean Sea
to fight hard to overcome Pompey In India, Kalinga (modern
Hierosolyma
Cyrene
in his Greek stronghold, and then Orissa), which had been a client
AF R I CA Alexandria
kingdom of the Mauryas (see
Cyrenaica
PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM Pompey’s sons and remaining
OF EGYPT supporters in Africa and Spain. 200–171 BCE), rose to prominence
under Kharavela in the mid-1st
CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT 49 BCE, he forced the Pompeians March 45 BCE he defeated Gnaeus century BCE. Kharavela expanded
by the end of 51 BCE, but by this there to surrender. In December, Pompey at Munda, effectively Kalinga far to the north and east,
point the Triumvirate had ended: Caesar set off for Greece in ending the civil war. conquering the Sunga capital of
Pompey’s supporters had turned pursuit of Pompey. A military Caesar was now all-powerful. Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong
against Caesar, and Crassus had engagement at Dyrrachium in He was made dictator in 48 BCE , patron of the Indian religion of
been killed in battle in 53 BCE. The July went against Caesar, but he and in 44 BCE he was given the Jainism, Kharavela established
Senate ordered Caesar to disband fought back before Pompey’s office for life. Concerns over trading contacts as far afield
his army or be declared an enemy support could grow, and won a Caesar’s power—in particular, as Southeast Asia.
of the state. Instead, he crossed resounding victory at Pharsalus. fears that he planned to make
the Rubicon River into Italy with Pompey took refuge in Egypt, himself king—led a group of about
Murder of Caesar
his troops in 49 BCE. This was where he was murdered on the 60 conspirators to form around Conspirators struck Caesar down
illegal, constituting a declaration orders of Ptolemy XIII, who senators Cassius and Marcus with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
of war against the Senate. hoped (in vain) to ingratiate Brutus. They murdered Caesar Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,
As Caesar marched toward himself with Caesar. on the Ides of March (March 14) and cried out “you too, child?”
Rome, town after town submitted After a short time in Egypt,
to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey Caesar returned to Rome,
left Rome and fled to Greece. where he raised money by
Caesar turned first to Spain, confiscating property from the
where seven legions had supporters of Pompey. In late

himself at Gergovia, but was then
trapped at Alesia in September
52 BCE. The Romans constructed
an encircling rampart around the
Gauls’ position and managed to
beat off a Gaulish relief force. With
no hope left, Vercingetorix
surrendered and was taken back
to Rome, where he was strangled
in 46 BCE after appearing in
Caesar’s triumphal parade.
,,
declared for Pompey. In August 47 BCE, Caesar set sail for Africa,
,, THE DIE
IS CAST.
where he defeated a new
Pompeian army at Thapsus
(in modern Tunisia). Pompey’s
sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
to Spain to continue the
resistance from there, and
Caesar annexed the kingdom of
Julius Caesar to his troops on
King Juba of Mauretania, who
crossing the Rubicon in 49 BCE; had supported them. Caesar then
from Plutarch’s Parallel Lives proceeded to Spain, where in

in y r
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71
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43–28 BCE 27–20 BCE

This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
in 31 BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian’s side as a result. with an imposing new temple to Mars.

10
IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE agreed, with Mark Antony ruling 500 HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar the east and Octavian governing Octavian did not take on the title
saw rising tensions between Mark the west; Lepidus had to make do 400 of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.

Antony and Octavian, whom many
viewed as Caesar’s rightful heir.
The two almost came to blows
early in 43 BCE, when Octavian
marched to raise the siege of
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark
Antony was besieging Decimus
Brutus, one of Caesar’s assassins.
Mark Antony was forced to retreat
to Gaul. When the Senate voted
to transfer Octavian’s legions to
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized
he was being sidelined and formed
a three-way alliance with Mark
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This
became the Second Triumvirate.
The Triumvirate conducted a war
against Cassius and Marcus
Brutus, two more of Caesar’s
assassins, who had seized much
of the territory in the east.
In 42 BCE, Mark Antony
and Octavian defeated
NUMBER OF WARSHIPS
with Africa. The Triumvirate was He instead ruled informally as the
renewed in 38 BCE for a further 350 princeps—the first man of the
THE NUMBER five years, but it was clear that state. Having acquired control of
OF YEARS conflict between Octavian and
Mark Antony could not long
200
Antony’s legions, he now had an
army of about 500,000 men. He
THE SECOND be postponed.
However, Mark Antony was 100
disbanded more than half of these,
retaining 28 legions (about 150,000
TRIUMVIRATE occupied with a war against soldiers), settling the remainder
RULED ROME the Parthians, who were allied
with remnants of Cassius’s army
0
Octavian Anthony and
in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
27 BCE, Octavian gave up all his
Cleopatra
and attacked Syria in 39 BCE. In powers, ostensibly restoring the
Battle of Actium
them at Philippi, in northern 36 BCE, Mark Antony invaded Octavian’s fleet outnumbered that of
Republic. The Senate responded
Greece, after which Cassius Parthia itself—ostensibly to Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with by granting him personal control
committed suicide. Three weeks recover the legionary eagles smaller more manoeuvrable ships, of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
later, they destroyed the remnants captured by the Parthians at the and fresher, better trained crews. and Syria. He was also given the
of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark Battle of Carrhae (see 53 BCE)— title “Augustus” and, cementing
Antony stayed in the east until and advanced to the capital sufficient resources to besiege it. his position further, he was consul
40 BCE, when he returned to Italy to Phraata, but he did not have In 33 BCE, the Triumvirate each year from 27 to 23 BCE. Over
try to undermine the expired and Octavian had the time, the Senate voted Augustus
growing power of Senate declare Mark Antony a further powers, including that of
Suicide of Cleopatra
Octavian. Their two This 19th-century painting depicts public enemy. The latter had lost imperium maius in 23 BCE, which
armies refused to fight, the death of Cleopatra, who killed popularity through his relationship gave him supreme authority in the
and a de facto division herself to avoid being captured by with Cleopatra, the Egyptian provinces he had not previously
of the Roman world was Octavian and taken to Rome. queen, and Octavian quickly governed, and the permanent
rallied public opinion to himself. powers of a tribune of the plebs
A fleet was rapidly assembled, in 23 BCE. Although the Senate was,
and this destroyed Mark Antony’s in theory, the supreme authority
naval force at Actium, off western in Rome, in practice no one could
Greece, in September 31 BCE. match Augustus’s power, and he is
Mark Antony’s land army then seen as the first Roman emperor.
defected to Octavian, and Antony North Africa had been a center
and Cleopatra fled to Greece, of strong resistance to both Julius
where Octavian caught up with Caesar and Augustus, who settled
them in the summer of 30 BCE. many army veterans there. In
The Roman warlord and the 25 BCE, Augustus gave Mauretania
Egyptian queen both committed (western North Africa) to Juba II
suicide, and Egypt was annexed to of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
the Roman empire. Octavian was was the daughter of Mark Antony
now the unchallenged master of and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
the whole Roman world. Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

ce
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72
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

20–10 BCE 9–1 BCE

,,
,,
THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER
I DROVE INTO EXILE… AND…
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE.
Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

La Maison Carré, in Nîmes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving

Roman temples. It was built around 16 BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

In western Asia, the ruler of ,, HE COULD JUSTLY BY 9 BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED

Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to
retain his position by Octavian,
even though he had supported
Mark Antony. He was even given
extra territories, including parts
of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been
appointed by Mark Antony in 42 BCE,
and by 37 BCE he had conquered
the remains of the Hasmonean
kingdom (see 146–131 BCE).
Herod remained a reliable ally
of Rome until his death in 4 BCE.
Emperor Augustus
Augustus, seen here dressed as a
priest, acquired the title of pontifex
maximus (chief priest) on the death
of Lepidus in 12 BCE.
BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND
IT BUILT OF BRICK AND
LEFT IT IN MARBLE.
Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the
city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars
AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND
POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied
largely on the abilities of Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from
a minor family to become consul in
37, 28, and 27 BCE. After Agrippa
had married Augustus’s daughter
Julia, he received numerous
promotions, including tribune of
the plebs in 18 BCE. Augustus’s own
appointed heir had died in 25 BCE,
so he adopted Agrippa’s children,
renaming them Gaius and Lucius
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to
succeed Augustus, but in 12 BCE he
died unexpectedly, throwing open
the question of succession.
By threatening to invade Parthia
in 20 BCE, Augustus had engineered
the return of legionary standards
captured by the Parthians at
Carrhae (see 53 BCE). In 16 BCE, the
Roman governor of Macedonia
began pushing toward the River
Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius,
Augustus’s stepson, the son of his
second wife Livia, moved north
from Illyria to create the Roman
province of Pannonia (modern
Austria and Hungary). Tiberius’s
brother Drusus pushed Roman
control across the Rhine toward
the Elbe between 12 and 9 BCE,
,,
when he died. Around this time,
the Romans annexed the provinces
of Raetia (in modern Switzerland)
and Noricum (between the Alps
and the Danube), moving the
empire’s frontiers almost to a line
along the Rhine and the Danube.
Supporters of Tiberius, now the
most high-profile general, tried
to have him displace Lucius and
Gaius Caesar as Augustus’s heir.
Augustus himself did little to
resolve the question of succession.
ROMAN LITERATURE AT THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS
The end of the Republic and
the reign of Augustus saw a
golden age in Latin literature.
The orator Cicero and the
historian Sallust marked the
height of late Republican
literature. After Augustus’s
rise to power, the poets Virgil
(right; 70–19 BCE), author of
the Eclogues and the epic
poem The Aeneid, and Horace
(65–8 BCE), author of the
Odes and Carmen Saeculare,
both flourished under the
patronage of Maecenas, a
close confidant of Augustus.
THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
had reached the Elbe River. After
his death, Augustus appointed
Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
won a series of victories in 8 BCE,
but then mysteriously resigned
his offices and went into exile in
Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius
Caesar (both underage) as heirs
apparent to the Roman Empire.
In China, the reign of Yuandi
(49–33 BCE) saw the economic
retrenchment begun under Xuandi
(see 70–61 BCE) continue. Some
semi-independent kingdoms that
the early Han had suppressed
began to reappear. Yuandi and his
successors Chengdi (r. 33–7 BCE)
and Aidi (r. 7–1 BCE) also created
numerous marquisates, many of
which were granted to the sons of
the new kings, weakening the
state’s central control. Chengdi
lacked a male heir, resulting in
Khazneh at Petra
The Khazneh is one of Petra’s finest
monuments. Carved out of a sheer
cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb,
perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9 BCE–40 CE).
the succession of his half-nephew
Aidi in 7 BCE. This caused dissent
among nobles whose candidates
for the throne had been overlooked.
The Nabataean kingdom of
northern Arabia grew rich on its
control of the spice trade from
southern Arabia, reaching its
height in the mid-1st century BCE
under Malichos I (c. 59–c. 30 BCE).
It then faced a growing threat on
its northern borders from Herod I.
A disputed succession in 9/8 BCE
between Aretas IV and his chief
minister Syllaeus led the Romans
to take an interest in the area. An
expedition led by Gaius, grandson
of Augustus, may even have
briefly annexed Nabataea in
3–1 BCE, but the Romans pulled
back, allowing Nabataea another
century of independence.

le , ; his der
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73
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants
700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

THE RISE OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE
FROM CITY, TO REPUBLIC, TO DOMINANT EUROPEAN EMPIRE

AT L A N T I C
Soon after its foundation in 753 BCE, the city of Rome began fighting its OCEAN
neighbors to gain new territory. Gradually, the Romans became entangled
in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE,
the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen.

The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars their military successes to bolster their position in Rome. A

T
RR
against neighbors often threatening the survival of Rome itself. It was in this period that Pompey annexed Syria and Julius AC
By 290 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy and began Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51 BCE. ON
expanding into the Italian Peninsula. Rivalry with Carthage led The collapse of the Roman Republic and the accession of
to the three Punic Wars between 264 and 146 BCE, but victories the first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE did not end the empire’s
brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and expansion. The quest for security along the existing frontiers LU S ITA NIA
Olisipo
then North Africa itself. resulted in the frontiers being pushed even farther forward. Toletum
Emerita
In the early 2nd century BCE the Romans fought campaigns in Rome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns Augusta
the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43 CE, and

,,
BA ETICA
146 BCE. The pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of Trajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern
the Republic, as generals competed for political power and used Romania) and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117 CE.

,,TO THE ROMANS I SET NO

BOUNDARIES IN TIME OR SPACE.
Tingis

MA U RETA NIA
TING ITA NA

Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future
greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid
ION
MI 4.5
LL

100 CE
By around 100 CE, the Mediterranean had
Roman population become a Roman “lake," and the acquisition

7:1 Around 1 CE, the Roman

Empire contained about
one-seventh of the world’s population—
KEY
Roman territory
of territories in northwest and Central Europe
had brought the northern Roman frontier as
far as the Rhine and the Danube.
45 million out of 300 million people.
45
MILLION

An empire of noncitizens A GROWING EMPIRE

In 1 CE, only a tenth of the
Roman population were full
citizens. The rest were slaves
1,900,000 mi² or had limited civic rights.
117 CE
Expanding empire
1,000,000 mi² Between the accession of Augustus and
25 BCE the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire
almost doubled in size, acquiring vast
new territories in northwestern Europe
and western Asia.
It took the Romans nearly 500
years to complete the conquest
of Italy, but only half that time to
enlarge their territories to include
Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany,
most of the Balkans, much of North
Africa, and large parts of western
Asia. Over the following 100 years
they acquired Morocco, Britain, and 240 BCE The Romans dominated most of
the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First
Dacia, and made small advances
Punic War (264–241 BCE) brought new
into western Asia, but the empire territory in Sicily, but the Romans still faced
began to contract after 250 CE. resistance to their rule in northern Italy.

74
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ia
C aledon
North
Sea
60,000
ia

a
rn

Se
be

Eburacum tic MILES

Hi

l
Ba
Lindum Camulodunum THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH
BRITANNIA G OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS
Colonia e r ndians
Londinium Agrippina m Burgu AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT
a
GERMANIA Augusta n
INFERIOR ia
Treverorum
Durocortorum Mogontiacum S a r m a t i a n s
BE

LUGDUNEN Marcomanni Quadi

SIS GERMANIA
LG

SUPERIOR Vindobona Carnuntum MOSIA

ICA

BOSPORAN
Brigetio INFERIOR
TI

Lugdunum M KINGDOM

AE CU
ORI
P EN O N I A
R IOR
R N Virunun Aquineum Apulum
AQU ITAN IA Aquileia ni
Mediolanum N
PANNONIA
INFERIOR x ola
PAS U Ro
ALPS GRAIAE
ck Sea
DACIA Durostorum
Bla
ALPS COTTIAE
ET POENINAE
Ravenna Sirmium
RBONE
D

Viminacium Trapezus
NA SI
A

S L
ENS
ALPS
M MODESIA
IS MARITIMAE
A SUPERIOR Byzantium
Massilia T Philippopolis PONTUS

ET
IA
Rome

A
I

A
Corsica THRACIA

CI
YN Ancyra O Samosata
s Aleria ITALIA Thessalonica BIT H D
eare PA
Bal MACED
ON AP
Sardinia IA C
ASIA Zeugma
Carales EPIRUS
Valentia GALATIA A
Messana
Delphi
Ephesus
L CI
Carthago Nova IL
Me Corinth Miletus LYCIA C Antioch
Utica
di Sicilia
MA URE TANIA te ACHAIA Cyprus SYRIA
CAESA R IE N SIS Carthage r r Syracuse Sparta
Athens
Thugga
an Damascus
ea Creta Tyrus
n S ea
JUDEA
Sabratha Jerusalem
Bostra
A

Ptolemais
F

R Leptis Magna Alexandria

IA
IC
Cyrene Petra
S A

AB
CYRENE
AR
ET CRETA Memphis
a
h AEGYPTUS Re
a d
r S
ea
a

200 BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage
in the Second Punic War brought new
possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By
200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained
in northwestern Greece.
120 BCE Most of Spain had fallen
into Roman possession, as well as
Carthaginian territory in North Africa.
Greece and parts of western Anatolia
were also acquired.
60 BCE New North African territories
were gained in 96 BCE, and in 63 BCE Syria
and parts of Palestine were annexed.
The frontiers in Anatolia were also
pushed forward.
14 CE The Roman borders had expanded
to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well
as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum
(Switzerland, south Germany, and
Austria), and Pannonia (Hungary).

75
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1–23 24–40
,,QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE
ME BACK MY LEGIONS.
Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9 CE
,,
WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF (China’s administrative regions), Consolidating ruler GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the and reimposed several state Rather than extending EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
government under Emperor Ping monopolies. Serious floods on the Roman territory through foreign alienated the Red Eyebrows and
Di (r. 1 BCE–6 CE). He strengthened Yellow River in 4–11 led to famine conquests, Tiberius concentrated on angered many of China’s nobility
strengthening the existing empire.
his influence by marrying his and revolts in rural areas. In 23, and bureaucrats by moving the
daughter to the young emperor. the peasant rebels called the “Red capital from Luoyang back to
On Ping Di’s death, many of the Eyebrows” joined forces with Han When Emperor Augustus (see Chang’an. Much of China had
loyalists and overwhelmed Wang 20–2 BCE) died in 14, Tiberius was already slipped from Gengshi’s

28
Mang’s armies. When the capital his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius grasp by 25, when Chang’an was
Chang’an fell, Gengshi became Caesar having died). Tiberius sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
the first emperor of the restored already possessed most of emperor was deposed and
Han dynasty. One of his first acts Augustus’s powers and had the replaced by Guang Wudi (25–57),
was to make Luoyang his capital. loyalty of the Praetorian who is regarded as the first
THE NUMBER In Europe, Tiberius (see 20–2
BCE) returned to Germany in 4 to
Guard—the elite army unit based
in Rome, which Augustus had
Eastern Han emperor. The new
ruler had first to face a civil war;
OF DIFFERENT subdue the tribes there. The established. Although there were by 27, he had defeated the Red
TYPES OF COIN Marcomanni resisted, but a
planned attack on them in 6 was
moves in the senate to restore
the Republic, Tiberius rapidly
Eyebrows, but it took him until
36 to overcome the last of the
ISSUED BY postponed because of a revolt in squashed them. His reign (to 37) warlords who opposed him. In 37,
WANG MANG Pannonia, which took three years
to quell. A new Roman commander,
was quiet at home. Germanicus,
Tiberius’s nephew, campaigned Guard, took day-to-day power, but
he abolished all except three of
the kingdoms that had sprung up
Quinctilius Varus, was sent to extensively in Germany up to 16, his rule was tyrannical and in 31
nobility rejected Wang Mang’s Germany, but his corrupt rule but his efforts led to no permanent Tiberius suddenly reasserted
MONGOLIA Sea
choice of successor and rose up angered the German tribes. In 9, reacquisition of territory beyond himself and had Sejanus executed. of
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put Varus was ambushed in the the Rhine and he died of poisoning Gobi Japan
JAPAN
them down, and in 9 he took the Teutoberg Forest, and his three in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son, Pingchang KOREA
Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy Luoyang
title of first Xin emperor. He legions were annihilated. Augustus died in 23, the emperor tired of Completed in the reign of Tiberius, Chang’an Gaixia
reissued the currency, forbade then ordered a withdrawal to the public life and retired to the this bridge carried the Via Aemilia Mawangdui
East
China
the selling of private slaves, Rhine, where the Roman frontier island of Capri, off Naples. (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza) Sea
reorganized the commanderies remained for the next 400 years. Sejanus, head of the Praetorian across the Marecchia River.
Guanzhou Taiwan

South
China
Sea

KEY
Qin China in 206BCE
Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 206BCE–9CE
Great Wall under the Han

Chinese Han Empire

When Guang Wudi began the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
Asia. Much of this territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

us d es ts d n
so s
ns an ns rib fea an t i o n
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et
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1 B c ea m ver a es -s e f A d b riu Ca to R e o dy pita g nt rocu dae cifi hris
c. s to uth land oc her Ro go g N n pr rge amm g M nese blis sty h o ede ibe 17 xed po e ps n a n o u u
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Su bu a Ov
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76
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41–50

This ornamental brick from China’s Eastern Han period shows

a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages.

IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI Colchester, the capital of the

JESUS CHRIST (c. 4 BCE–33 CE)
Jesus, a carpenter from
Nazareth, began his ministry in
his early 30s . He taught in the
Jewish tradition, calling for
the reform of the Temple and
for the love of one’s neighbour
to take precedence over the
strict observance of religious
law. Jesus gathered a group of
twelve disciples around him,
but was targeted by Jewish
conservatives afraid of his
growing influence. In 33, the
Roman authorities in Judaea
executed Jesus by crucifixion,
but the disciples, convinced
that Jesus had risen from the
dead, continued his teaching.
under his predecessors, and
reinstated Luoyang as the capital.
He faced renewed tension with
the Hsiung-nu on China’s
northern frontier, but failed to take
advantage of their split into two
rival chiefdoms in 49.
The Roman Empire once again
faced an unclear succession at
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had
named two heirs, but Gemellus
was soon pushed aside because
Gaius, nicknamed Caligula (“little
boots”), was popular with the
senate and the army. Caligula’s
behavior as emperor became
increasingly erratic—he had
Gemellus executed, and had many
of Tiberius’s supporters killed.
He also had his sister’s husband—
his heir apparent—condemned to
death. After visiting the Rhineland
legions in 39, Caligula marched
them to the coast opposite Britain
to launch an invasion; when they
got there, he merely had them
collect seashells along the beach.
Independent Jewish kingdoms
in Palestine collapsed as Roman
power grew, creating a powerful
ferment of religious change.
John the Baptist preached in
the 20s, followed in around 30
by a new preacher, Jesus. After
Jesus’s death in 33, his disciples
began to spread his message
more widely. By around 50,
communities of Christians,
as Jesus’s followers were known,
would be established throughout
Western Asia, with particularly
large groups in Antioch and
the first appearance of
Christians in Rome.
NOMADS occupying land in Bactria
united under Kujula Kadphises
(30–80), who founded the Kushan
Empire and conquered parts of
Gandhara. Although few details
of Kujula’s reign are known, he
minted coins in imitation of both
Greek and Roman models,
demonstrating that Bactria and
northwestern India remained very
much a cultural crossroads.
In northwestern Europe, a group
of disgruntled officers of Rome’s
Praetorian Guard assassinated
Caligula in January 41, tired of
his cruel and irrational behavior
(see 24–40). In 43, the new
emperor, Claudius (r. 41–54), sent
an invasion force of four legions
led by Aulus Plautius, governor
of Pannonia, to conquer Britain.
The Romans landed unopposed
at Richborough, pushed on to
London, and then captured
Christian catacomb, Rome
At first, Roman Christians did not
have their own cemeteries. Later,
they buried their dead in underground
complexes called catacombs.
principal British resistance leader,
Caractacus. Claudius himself
made a brief appearance at the
fall of Colchester, before returning
to Rome to bask in the glory of
having acquired a new province.
In 47, the Romans paused briefly
in their conquest of Britain, having
reached a line roughly between
the Humber River in the east and
the Severn River in the west. They
began establishing legionary
fortresses in their new province,
including at Exeter and Lincoln.
Aulus Plautius’s replacement, EMPEROR CLAUDIUS
Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales, (10 BCE–54 CE)
where Caractacus was continuing
the resistance. In 50, he defeated Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
an army of Silurian and Ordovician was an unlikely candidate for
tribesmen, and Caractacus fled Roman emperor. However, he
to the imagined safety of the turned out to be intelligent
Brigantes tribe in northern and forceful, putting down
England. However, the Brigantian two revolts in 42, after which
queen, Cartimandua, handed he executed more than 300
Caractacus over to the Romans, senators. He was unfortunate
and Roman Britain remained in his choice of wives: he had
relatively trouble free during the his wife Messalina executed
following decade. after she had an affair, and
The 40s saw a struggle in the her successor Agrippina
early Christian community (Caligula’s sister) is reputed
between those who wanted to to have poisoned him.
remain within the Jewish tradition
and those, led by Paul, who
favored the inclusion of gentiles the Jews within the Roman
(non-Jews) in the Christian church. empire, Paul ensured that
Paul began a series of missionary Christianity spread sufficiently
journeys in 46 which led him to help it weather the storms of
through Anatolia and Greece to persecution that began under the
Rome, where he was martyred Emperor Nero in 64. By the late
around 62. A charismatic preacher, 4th century, Christianity would be
Paul also wrote a powerful series the majority religion within the
of epistles (letters) to various Roman Empire .
fledgling Christian groups. In
appealing to a wider group than

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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

51–61 62–72

70
THOUSAND
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA’S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt against the Romans,
which began in 66.

WHEN CLAUDIUS DIED IN 54, the Roman procurator (chief Britain, was away on campaign in IN THE EAST, Rome faced further After Nero’s suicide, four men
the Roman imperial throne fell to financial official) ruled that Wales, and by the time he troubles with Parthia over the became emperor in rapid
Nero (37–68), his adopted son and Boudicca could not inherit her returned, Camulodunum had border region of Armenia, where succession, making 69 the “Year
son-in-law. The young emperor’s lands, and that they would be been sacked by the Iceni. The the Parthian king had installed of the Four Emperors.” First,
reign began well when he annexed by Rome. rebels then burned Londinium his own candidate, Tiridates, the praetorian guard recognized
promised the senate he would Boudicca raised an (London) and Verulamium (St. as king in 53. A Roman force Galba (3 BCE–69 CE) as emperor,
avoid making any arbitrary army and marched on Albans) before they were finally invaded Armenia in 59, took its but he made himself unpopular
measures. However, the first sign Camulodunum trapped and defeated by capital cities of Artaxata and by refusing to give the praetorians
of Nero’s tyranny surfaced in 59, (Colchester). Paullinus. It is said the Iceni lost Tigranocerta and put in place a the donative, a customary bonus
when he had his mother Suetonius Paullinus, 80,000 warriors and pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His payable on the accession of a
Agrippina (15–59) murdered. In the governor of Boudicca herself was ill-advised invasion of a Parthian new emperor. In January 69, the
62, a new praetorian prefect captured, though she ally in 61 led to his removal, and governor of Upper Germany,
(commander of the imperial died, possibly poisoned, Tiridates was restored. A new Aulus Vitellius, revolted, and
bodyguard), Tigellinus (c. 10–69), soon after. Roman army was then roundly one of Galba’s former supporters,
took office. Tigellinus pandered to beaten by the Parthians in 62, and Salvius Otho (32–69), angered
the less desirable side of only a Roman push into Armenia when Galba recognized another
Nero’s personality, the following year ended the war. senator as his heir, had the
whose rule became Boudicca Tiridates was allowed to keep emperor murdered and took the
This statue of Boudicca
increasingly the throne, as long as he throne. In April 69, the armies of
stands outside the
despotic. Following a Houses of travelled to Rome to seek Otho and Vitellius clashed at
fire that destroyed Parliament in Nero’s approval, which he Bedriacum near Cremona in
much of Rome in 64, London, a city eventually did in 66. northern Italy, and the Vitellian
Nero is said to have that the Iceni Nero’s position as emperor army won. Otho committed
taken terrible queen razed to became increasingly precarious suicide, but Vitellius soon faced
retribution on Rome’s the ground. when Calpurnius Piso led a a further conspiracy when
small Christian conspiracy in 64, which prompted T. Flavius Vespasianus
population, who proved Nero to order further
convenient scapegoats. executions, including those of
Later, during the many senators. In early 68,
reconstruction of Rome, a revolt broke out, led by
Nero alienated senators Gaius Julius Vindex,
by seizing their land to
build himself a new
governor of Gallia
Lugdunensis.
960
palace. He also ordered Shortly after the COMMITED
SUICIDE
additional taxes in revolt of Vindex, the
Palestine, which sparked legion based in Spain
a Jewish revolt in 66. proclaimed the
In Britain, the Romans governor, Sulpicius 7
faced a serious Iceni Galba, as emperor. Vindex’s
revolt in 60. When the revolt was put down by Verginius Survivors
king of the Iceni died, Rufus, the governor of Germany,
Roman invasion
he left his lands to his but Nero panicked and When the Romans finally breached
queen, Boudicca. committed suicide, believing the walls of Masada, all except seven
The revolt was Rufus would be the next to try to defenders committed suicide rather
triggered when claim his throne. than fall into Roman hands.

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73–90

A fresco from Pompei—many of Pompei’s elaborate frescoes survived for

nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

Jewish revolts between BY THE MID-70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT destroyed by a volcanic eruption. far into Scotland, until a final
66 and 74 Ptolemais had fizzled out and the rest of Showers of ash came raining defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
Although the Jewish GALILEE
Sea of Vespasian’s reign was largely down from Vesuvius, and those Graupius (possibly near
Galilee
rebels of 66 initially
n S ea

Nazareth peaceful. With a reputation for who did not escape in time were Aberdeen) made it likely that all of
managed to gain control Caesarea frugality, he restored the empire’s overwhelmed by the pyroclastic Scotland would be annexed. But
anea

of a large part of

DECA PO
Palestine, by 69 they had finances, imposing levies on a flow (a fast-moving mass of hot emperor Domitian (81–96) was
i te r r

lost control of all but the SAMARIA number of provinces, including gases, ash, and debris) from the facing trouble on the Danube and
area around Jerusalem. J UDA E A LI S Egypt. By the time he died in 79, volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the a legion was withdrawn from
Me d

Beth
Gadara stability had been restored to population of 20,000 died, Britain around 86, leaving an
KEY Horton such an extent that the succession including the naturalist Pliny the insufficient force to garrison
Emmaus
Jericho
Area of major revolt 66 Jerusalem of his eldest son, Titus (r. 79–81), Elder, who was commanding a northern Scotland, which was
Bethlehem 70 CE
Area of revolt in 69 was unopposed. naval unit nearby and perished in evacuated.
S ea

Gaza
Siege Two months after the accession a failed rescue attempt. Domitian had managed to fend
Dead

Machaerus
Jewish victory of Titus as Roman emperor, on In Britain, the Roman- off the threat from the
Masada
74 CE August 25, 79 the city of Pompeii, controlled area continued to Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and
(Vespasian) (9–79)—the near modern Naples, was expand, with governor Petillius Quadi along the Danube by 84,
general in charge of Cerialis (71–74) occupying the but war then erupted with the
suppressing the Jewish northern English kingdom of Dacians (of modern Romania)
revolt—set himself up as yet Jewish laws caused great Brigantia. Julius Frontinus who crossed the Danube and
another rival emperor. The whole discontent. In 60, the rebuilding (74–77) completed the subjugation killed the governor of Roman
of the East and the Balkans of the Temple that Herod had of Wales, defeating the Silures, Moesia. By 86, Domitian had
defected immediately to ordered built decades before was but it was left to Julius Agricola defeated the Dacians, under their
Vespasian. At a second battle finished, and 20,000 unemployed (77–83/4) to send Roman armies new king, Decebalus. Dacia was
near Cremona in October, workmen added to the rising not occupied by Rome, leaving
Vitellius’s forces were crushed. tension. The Roman procurator Decebalus in place to cause the
ii
By December Vespasian’s army of Judaea aggravated these on Romans further trouble.
C al e d
had taken Rome and Vitellius feelings with his heavy-handed Inchtuthil
was executed shortly afterward. rule, and in 66 an uprising broke
Rome had an unchallenged out. Although the commanders of Du m n o nii Vo North KEY
vae
ta
ruler once again. the uprising were competent, it lgo Sea Atrebates, absorbed 70s
din
Se
Vespasian moved quickly to lacked political leadership and Novantae i Iceni, conquered 60–61
reestablish the loyalty of the army, the Jewish strongholds were Brigantes, conquered 69–74
dismissing Vitellius’s praetorian gradually reduced, first by Stanwick Roman expansion 43–47
s
guard and recruiting another. He Vespasian and then by his son ante
Brig Roman expansion 47–50
Eboracum
also had to face a serious revolt Titus (39–81). In 70, Jerusalem Irish Sea Roman expansion 69–74
along the Rhine, where Julius came under siege, and in late Anglesey ni Roman expansion 79–84
rita
Civilis, a noble of the Batavian August the city fell and the Deva
Cor Co Lindum
Or n ov ii
do
people, joined forces with Temple was destroyed. Perhaps vic
es Virconium Ca
tu Iceni
dissident legionaries and almost as many as 200,000 people died, ve
Dob lla
e s unn un s
r i te
established an independent many sacred Jewish treasures Si
lu Burrium Glevum
i
ov
an
Gallic empire. were taken to Rome, and Tr
in Camulodunum Romans in Britain
Figure from Pompeii Isca Verulamium By 74, Roman legions
thousands of Jews were Londinium
Judaea had been under direct The bodies of those who died in the Calleva
had reached the north
Durotriges Cantiaci
Roman rule since the death of enslaved. Resistance continued Pompeii eruption were coated in Dumnonii of England. They then
Noviomagus
King Agrippa I in 44. Foreign rule at Masada until 74, when it fell volcanic ash, which then solidified, Isca Dumnoniorum
Hengistbury pushed north into
Maiden Castle Gallia
and Roman insensitivity toward after a two-year siege. leaving their outlines behind. Scotland until 83.

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77 79
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91–100 101–117
,,[AN EMPEROR] UNDER

,,
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS
PERMITTED TO DO
EVERYTHING.
Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns

against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN (51–96) BECAME ROMAN
EMPEROR after the unexpected
death of his brother, Titus (39–81).
Domitian had never commanded
armies and was unprepared for
the exercise of supreme
power. He had some success
in his early campaigns, but
he over-extended himself
against the Dacians, and in
putting down a legionary
revolt led by Saturninus,
the governor of Germania
Superior. This distraction
allowed Decebalus, King of
the Dacians (r. 87–106), to renew
his war against Rome, and
Domitian was forced to pay off the
Dacians with an annual subsidy.
The conspiracy of Saturninus
led Domitian to become
paranoid and he had many
senators executed for treason.
In September 96, he was
murdered in a palace conspiracy
and the Senate chose the aged
M. Cocceius Nerva (30–98) to
replace him. The Senate then
voted to destroy all statues of
Domitian and to recall those he
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva
faced a mutiny of the praetorian
guard, who demanded the
punishment of Domitian’s
murderers. Nerva was forced
to give in, weakening his
authority. His position was
further diminished by his lack
of an heir. To rectify this he
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus
(Trajan), the governor of Upper
Germany, a man with a strong
military backing. Nerva died
soon afterwards and Trajan
became emperor.
Emperor Domitian
Domitian’s reign began well, but
his descent into tyranny proved too
much for his opponents, who had
him assassinated.
In Central Asia, the northern
Hsiung-nu confederation (see
146–131 BCE) collapsed in 89,
allowing the Han to make large
gains in the region, led by general
Ban Chao (32–102). Ban Chao
became protector-general of the
Western Regions in 92, and
reestablished control over the key
oases along the Silk Route. By
the time he retired in 102 the
Han controlled most of the
Tarim Basin. Chinese state
organization became very
complicated under the Han. Three
supreme officials supervised
large, complex departments. Each
of these was subdivided into nine
ministries. Governors oversaw
each region, with regions divided
into over 1,000 counties, each
supervised by a magistrate.
Eunuchs became increasingly
influential at the Han court.
EMPEROR TRAJAN (98–117) WAS
FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had
settled in Spain—he was the first
emperor to come from a Roman
province rather than Italy. Having
returned to Rome from Germany
in 100 to claim his throne, he
started a new Dacian War against
Decebalus in 101. From a base at
Viminacium (in modern Serbia),
he pushed into central Dacia, and
fought a major engagement at
Tapae, in which both sides
suffered serious losses. When
Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian
royal capital at Sarmizegetusa
Regia, Decebalus sued for peace,
agreeing to give up his army’s
weapons and siege equipment,
and to demolish his remaining
forts. The Roman army did not
withdraw totally, establishing a
legionary base near the mountains
Sacred city
This ruined temple is in the Dacian
capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia (in
modern-day Romania). It contained
the kingdom’s most sacred shrines.
and building a bridge across the
Danube at Drobeta to allow easier
access across the river. Three
years later, in 105, the Senate
declared that Decebalus had 331,000 kg
SILVER
violated the treaty, and Trajan
embarked on his Second Dacian
War. This time the legions
reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa
in 106. Decebalus fled and then
committed suicide to avoid 165,500 kg
capture. The Romans acquired GOLD
an enormous amount of treasure
in Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
embark on a building spree,
The Dacian Fortune
including the construction of a The large amount of treasure Trajan
new Forum in Rome. Dacia was acquired in Dacia allowed him to
annexed as Rome’s first province build impressive monuments to
across the Danube. It remained in commemorate his Dacian victory.
imperial hands for over 160 years.
Some time around 106 the campaign against Parthia itself
Roman governor of Syria annexed that gave him greater success
the Nabataean kingdom, which in the east than any previous
became the Roman province of Roman emperor. By late 114 the
Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last Armenians had submitted to him,
acquisition in the east—in 113 he and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
set off on a campaign against capturing the Parthian capital of
Parthia. He began by attacking Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,
Armenia in 113–114, but it was his Trajan had reached the Persian

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80
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

118–135

The remains of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. The central portion of the
wall occupies a high position that vastly enhances its defensive value.

Gulf near modern Basra, Iraq,
where he is said to have remarked
that, had he been younger, he
might have pressed on to India.
The newly conquered territories
were organized as the provinces
985
TRAJAN’S SUCCESSOR HADRIAN are found from the Oxus river in slaughter, after which the revolt
(r. 117–135) rejected his Afghanistan to as far south as petered out. Hadrian proceeded
predecessor’s policy of expansion Varanasi and Sanchi. He was a with his plan to outlaw Judaism
and concentrated on better strong patron of Buddhism and in Palestine, and many of the
defense of the imperial presided over the fourth Jews who had survived the
frontiers. In 122, Hadrian visited THE NUMBER Buddhist Council, as well as rebellion fled abroad.

of Mesopotamia and Assyria, but
they were already in revolt when
Trajan returned home in 117. The
Parthians rejected Trajan’s puppet
king Parthamaspates, and by the
time Trajan died in August 117
almost all of his gains in the east
had been lost. On his death-bed
Trajan adopted Publius Aelius
Hadrianus (Hadrian), the governor
of Syria, effectively appointing
Hadrian as his successor.
In 109, Trajan appointed the
historian Pliny the Younger
(61–c. 112) as his personal
representative to govern Bithynia-
Pontus on the Black Sea coast of
Anatolia. This was a controversial
move, as Bithynia-Pontus was
theoretically a senatorial province.
The provinces of the empire had
been divided between the emperor
and the senate at the accession
of Augustus in 27 BCE, with the
emperor receiving only the
provinces that held legionary
garrisons. This division of the
provinces persisted into the time
of Trajan. Pliny stayed in Bithynia-
Pontus for at least two years,
trying to sort out the finances of
the main cities, which had fallen
into confusion. His letters to Trajan
are an invaluable insight into the
imperial government of the time.
OF VILLAGES
Britain, where there had been building a great stupa
frontier troubles. He ordered the at his capital
building of a huge barrier from
the Solway Firth in the west to
RAZED Purushapura
(Peshawar).
the Tyne River in the east. It took DURING THE Hadrian’s ban
governor Aulus Platorius Nepos
two years to complete Hadrian’s
BAR-KOCHBA on circumcision,
his plan to turn
Wall (part in stone, and part in REVOLT Jerusalem into the
turf), which ran 76 Roman miles Roman town of Aelia
(113 km), and was equipped with III (r. 105–147) who ruled the Capitolina, and his
a series of forts and milecastles eastern portion, and Osroes intent to ban Jewish
for its garrison. Hadrian’s Wall (r. 117–129) then Mithridates religious practices in
acted as the northern frontier IV (r. 129–140) in the west. Jerusalem caused a
line of Roman Britain for the There was no further conflict furious revolt in
next 40 years. between Parthia and Rome for Jerusalem in 132, as
The Parthian kingdom was left the time being. religious Jews rose up
in some confusion by the In India, the Kushan empire against religious
campaigns of Trajan. His puppet expanded enormously under reforms. Led by Shimon
king, Parthamaspates, was Kanishka (127–140), who Bar Kochba, the rebels
expelled in 117, but the Parthian conquered Magadha and had early successes
kingdom then seems to have campaigned against the Chinese against Rome. They set
been divided between Vologeses in Central Asia; his inscriptions up the beginnings of an
independent government
HADRIAN (76–138) and minted their own coins.
In response, Hadrian
Hadrian came from a Spanish summoned Julius Severus,
background and was the the governor of Britain, to
adopted son of his predecessor, conduct a war against the
Trajan. He was mocked by rebels. Severus commanded
some for his grecophile an army formed of
tendencies, and was the first detachments from 12
emperor to sport a beard—a legions. The rebels had no
Greek fashion. Hadrian was the large towns under their
first emperor to travel widely control, and so adopted
throughout the Roman empire, guerrilla warfare while still
Treasured goblet
giving him first-hand attempting to defend the smaller This beautiful vase was found in
knowledge of the provinces, forts they held. In 135, the rebel’s Kapisa (Bagram) near Kabul, which
from Britain to North Africa. last main stronghold at Bethar was the Kushan summer capital in
was captured amid great the 1st century.

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81
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

136–160 161–170

200
THOUSAND
THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF
TEOTIHUACÁN
AT ITS PEAK

The Pyramid of the Sun at The ruins of Hatra, which was

Teotihuacán in modern Mexico. a Parthian-controlled city.

THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACÁN famed for his moderation MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED
IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO and rarely left Rome. TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly
experienced massive Disturbances in Dacia (in with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus
growth during the 1st and present-day Romania) was the more capable of the two,
2nd centuries, with its around 140 and an uprising but it was Lucius who was sent,
population reaching over in North Africa in 145 did in 162, to rescue the situation in
80,000 before 200. The city not unduly disturb the the east after the governor of
was planned on a grid, empire’s calm. Antoninus Cappadocia was defeated and
with two huge extended the frontier in killed by the Persians following a
pyramids—of the both Scotland and Upper disastrous invasion of Armenia.
Moon and the Sun—at Germany, ordering the By 163–164 Lucius had brought
either end of the main construction of a new Armenia back under Roman
street. The Teotihuacán turf barrier around control, and renamed its capital
II phase of the city 100 miles (160 km) to the Kaine Polis (“New City”). A new
(0–350) saw the building north of Hadrian’s Wall pro-Roman king was installed
of the enormous (see 188–135 BCE) in there before the legions moved
Temple of Quetzalcoatl Britain. This Antonine on, pushing deeper into Persian
and the acquisition of an Wall was 39 miles (63 km)
empire, with Teotihuacán
dominating vast areas of
Mexico and overseeing
in length. The Hadrian’s
Wall garrison was moved
north to a new set of forts, but
,,IF IT IS NOT
RIGHT, DO NOT

,,
client kingdoms as far south their stay was short—Marcus
as Guatemala. Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s DO IT: IF IT IS
Hadrian had adopted Antoninus
Pius (86–161) as his son and
successor, ordered a pull-back
to Hadrian’s Wall around 161,
NOT TRUE, DO
successor, a stop-gap until where the Roman frontier NOT SAY IT.
Antoninus’s relative, Marcus of Britain remained until the
Aurelius (121–80), was old enough 5th century. Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
Meditations, 161–180
to rule, but Antoninus survived As Christianity grew, so did the
Hadrian by 23 years, and became problem of defining a single
Roman emperor in 138. He was doctrine. Among the alternative territory, taking Edessa in
doctrines that sprang up in the Mesopotamia, and reaching the

39
2nd century was Marcionism,
turquoise
which taught that the God of
mosaic pieces
Christians was distinct from the
Jewish God of the Old Testament
and that Jesus Christ did not have
Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in
165. The Roman general Avidius
Cassius (c. 130–175) burned the
Parthian palace and then turned
back westward. A swathe of

MILES
a human nature. Justin Martyr Parthian territory down the
(c. 103–165) argued that Euphrates River was annexed as
Mexican mask
THE LENGTH OF This sumptuous
Christianity was the fulfillment
of Jewish prophecy and that
far east as Dura Europos (in
southeastern Syria). However,
THE ANTONINE mask from Teotihuacán
bears the smooth, flat
necklace made
from coral beads
Christians were the new chosen victory celebrations were
WALL IN features that are
characteristic of work
people. Justin also wrote to
Marcus Aurelius, seeking to
short-lived, for the troops
brought the plague back to
SCOTLAND from the city. explain Christian doctrine. Rome and by 167 it had spread

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82
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171–180

A painted stucco of the Moche’s most important god, Al Apaec, who is often
depicted with the fangs of a snake.

widely throughout the THE MOCHE CULTURE EMERGED

Mediterranean.
Barely had the Parthian War
ended than the Marcomannic
War began. In early 167, a group
of Germanic warriors from the
Langobardi and Obii tribes
crossed the Danube to attack the
Roman province of Pannonia.
They were pushed back
fairly easily, but in spring
168 Marcus Aurelius
resolved to visit the region
to assess the situation.
Two more Germanic tribes,
the Marcomanni and
Quadi were threatening to
force their way across the
frontier unless they were
admitted to settle in the
empire, but Marcus’s
presence deterred them.
However, the expedition
was cut short by the death
of Lucius Verus from
plague in early 169. Marcus
returned to Italy, but was back in
Pannonia later in the year to
launch a massive offensive
across the Danube. It was a
disaster, with the Romans
suffering around 20,000 dead and
the Marcomanni and Quadi
pouring into Italy, where they laid
siege to Aquileia. Far from
providing an easy victory for
Marcus, the war dragged on for
another 10 years.
In China, the eunuch faction at
court had become increasingly
powerful and had even engineered
the murder of the emperor Shaodi
in 125. Under Emperor Huandi
(146–68) a series of natural
disasters weakened the authority
Marcus Aurelius
This statue shows Marcus Aurelius
adopting a pose of victory, something
he claimed but never quite achieved
in his Marcomannic Wars.
of the central government, and the
emperor relinquished active
control of government to the
eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by
Dou Xian, regent for the 12-year-
old emperor Lingdi (r. 168–89),
to have the eunuchs massacred
failed—the plot was betrayed
and Dou Xian was forced to
commit suicide. Several hundred
of Dou Xian’s supporters were
executed and, with its enemies
now dead, the eunuch faction
was able to exercise power
almost unopposed.
ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN
PERU between 100 and 200. From
their bases in the Peruvian
valleys of Moche, Chicama, and
Virú, these people spread to
dominate almost the whole
northern coastline. A warlike
people, they sacrificed those
whom they captured to their
deities, including Al Apaec
(“the decapitator”). They were
skilled workers in gold and their
pottery has an extraordinarily
realistic quality.
The Roman Empire was in
crisis in 170—the
Marcomanni and Quadi had
occupied parts of northern Italy,
and an invasion by the Iazyges
and Costobocci had overun large
parts of the Balkans. The Romans
trapped the Marcomanni as they
returned across the Danube and
killed many of them. The Quadi
sued for peace later in 171, but
the Marcommani remained
recalcitrant, forcing a new
offensive in 172. The forces of
Marcus Aurelius could never
quite strike the killer blow,
and by 175 the war had
reached a
stalemate.
In May that
year, rumors that
Marcus Aurelius
Moche stirrup jar
This jar has a typical
Moche “stirrup” attached
to the back of it. The
realism of the paddling
figure is characteristic of
the culture’s ceramics.
THE GERMANIC TRIBES
The Romans had faced Germanic tribes ever since they had
reached the Rhine at the time of Julius Caesar. German groups
across the Danube, such as the Quadi and Marcomanni, proved
troublesome in the 2nd century, but by the late 3rd century new
and more dangerous confederations of Germanic tribes arose,
such as the Franks, Alamanns, and Goths, who overran much of
the Roman Empire by the mid-5th century.
had died while on campaign governor of Cappadocia, whom he
prompted a revolt by Avidius had fought alongside during
Cassius, the governor of Syria. the Parthian War.
Avidius was declared emperor in As Martius’s army approached,
Egypt, and received support in the loyalty of the usurper’s troops
Arabia, as well as in his own wavered, and in July Avidius
province of Syria. Critically, Cassius was murdered by a
however, he failed to disaffected centurion, putting an
secure the support of end to his short-lived but
Martius Verus, the dangerous rebellion. There
were suggestions that Marcus’s
wife Faustina encouraged
Avidius, as she feared for her
husband’s health and worried
her own son Commodus was
unfit to rule.
Free from the distraction of
Avidius’s revolt, Marcus
Aurelius returned to the
Danube in 177. In the winter
of 179–80, the Roman army
occupied positions deep across
the Danube, and it looked as
if Marcus might be able to
create two new Roman
provinces—Marcomannia
and Samartia. However,
Marcus was old and
tired—he died in March
180. His son Commodus
brought the war to a rapid
conclusion, allowing him to
return to Rome.

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83
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700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

Gold dolphin earrings decorative Plumb line

Earrings adorned with female head This bronze weighted
animal-head motifs were plumb line was attached
especially popular in the to a groma, an instrument
eastern Roman empire. used by the Romans to
This pair bears a symbol survey straight lines.
of the sea god Neptune.

Precious necklace
This necklace, made up
of gold and red garnets,
seems to form the shape
of a spectacular fruit tree.

garnet shaped like

a fruit or berry

Bone pin
This flat, thin blade or pin is topped bronze
gold in the form by a female head, an ornamental weight
of a leaf touch for an otherwise humdrum
household item.
cart carrying
worshipers

ANCIENT ROME
THE ROMANS SPREAD A RICH MATERIAL CULTURE THROUGHOUT THEIR VAST EMPIRE

As Roman political control steadily expanded outside Italy, in its wake came
Bronze dividers and foot rule
the Roman way of life. Roman surveyors laid out new cities, local elites took Dividers allowed engineers to
up Roman practices, and the masses attended gladiatorial spectacles. On copy scale plans or models at
twice or half their size—the
a domestic level, Roman fashions in clothing and accessories also spread. gap between the lower points
is always twice that between
the upper points. The rule,
Although many of the territories that the Romans conquered initially resisted, the populations of central which was one Roman foot
these provinces, particularly the former ruling classes, gradually adopted many Roman customs. pivot long (11¾ in/29.6 cm), folded
for easy carrying.
Influential men became Roman citizens, towns were given new public buildings such as baths and
courthouses, Roman legionary garrisons were established in strategic places, and new trade routes
brought luxury goods from Rome. As a result, similar Roman artifacts have been found across Europe,
metal crest to
the Middle East, and North Africa, dating from around the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE. deflect blows

head of
Oceanus
lower
cursive point
letter forms

Ocean baths Wooden tablet

The most important Roman
baths were adorned with
lavish mosaics, such as
this one of Oceanus, the
ocean god, from Sabratha
in Libya.
This type of tablet, made from
very thin wood, was used by
the Roman military for foot rule
everyday letters and record-
keeping. This one was found
at Vindolanda in England.

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ANCIENT ROME

Procession bowl
This lekane, a type of shallow
dish, is decorated with
a scene of half-man,
half-goat satyrs
in a procession in
honor of Bacchus,
the god of wine.

modern-
looking grater

flask
containing oil
Ancient grater
Cheese played an important
part in the Roman diet. Graters strigil for
such as this one were invented scraping
to allow cheese to be used as
a topping on other foodstuffs.
Amphora Bathing tools
The Romans transported liquid At the baths, a Roman’s skin
goods such as oil and wine was oiled and then scraped to
in amphoras, a type of large, remove sweat and dirt. A ring
double-handled storage jar. was used to transport the tools.
Short sword
The Roman military sword, or gladius, had a
short blade—ideal for attacks at close range. short blade
It was used by soldiers and some gladiators. ivory grip

satyr carrying
cymbals

Military javelin
Each Roman legionary carried two of these pila (javelins). long iron handle shaped for
The javelin’s iron head was designed to break off on shank throwing
impact to prevent an opponent throwing it back.

Imperial coins
Coins bearing the head of the Latin
current emperor (here Augustus text
and Claudius) acted as powerful
propaganda tools across the
empire, showing even the masses
an image of their ruler.

Proof of citizenship
Noncitizens who served 25 years
in the Roman army were awarded
citizenship and given bronze
diplomas such as this one to
record the grant.

extended
neck-plate

Sling pellets
Roman legionaries normally
relied on their swords, but
auxiliary light infantry used
other weapons to devastating
effect, such as these metal
gridded visor sling pellets.
to protect face
small size would
have offered little
protection

Gladiator helmet Bronze gladiator shield

Roman gladiators bore a variety of arms
and armor. This sort of helmet was
worn by a Thracian, a type of gladiator
whose equipment was modeled on
that of ancient Thracian warriors.
Thracian gladiators—a class of lightly
armed gladiator—carried lightweight,
round shields such as this one for
defense, and a scimitar, with a short,
curved blade, to attack their opponents.

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181–192 193–211

In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow The Severan arch in Leptis Magna (in modern Libya) commemorates a visit
to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion. by the North African emperor to his home town.

IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT Commodus (r. 180–92), Marcus ,,BE HARMONIOUS WITH

caused by the corruption of the
eunuchs at the court of Han
Emperor Lindi (r. 168–89) and a
succession of natural disasters
led to the outbreak in 184 of a
major insurrection, named the
Yellow Turban revolt for the
color of its supporters’ headgear.
Up to 400,000 rebels swept
westward towards the capital.
Another uprising fueled by the
Five Pecks of Rice sect then
succeeded in taking over Sichuan
in the southwest. Although the
Yellow Turbans had been largely
crushed by early 185, the control
of the Han emperor was ever
weakening. After Lingdi died in
189, he was replaced by his
younger half-brother Xiandi
(r. 189–220) but he never exercised
real power. Instead, control of the
empire fell to Han general Cao
Cao, who contended for 30 years
with a series of rival warlords,
notably Liu Bei in the southwest
and Sun Quan in the south.
Aurelius’s son, was the first
Roman emperor to succeed his
father for 90 years, but he proved
to be a disastrous choice. In 182,
after an assassination attempt on
him, apparently organized by his
sister Lucilla, Commodus became
increasingly despotic. Many
senators who were implicated in
the plot were executed and control
of the government fell into the
hands of Tigidius Perennis, the
praetorian prefect (the
commander of the imperial
bodyguard). There were minor
wars in Britain and in Dacia (much
of modern Romania), but in 185
Perennis was suspected of a plot
to make his own son emperor and
was executed by his troops.
Commodus increasingly devoted
himself to fighting in the arena as
a gladiator, while the imperial
chamberlain Cleander dominated
government and sold public offices
to the highest bidder. The man in
charge of the grain supply,
,,
EACH OTHER, ENRICH
THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE
ALL OTHERS…
Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian
Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211
IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF his reign was short, as almost
COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax immediately the frontier armies JULIA DOMNA (170–217)
(126–93), the prefect of the city, rebelled: the army on the Danube
was declared emperor, but he was proclaimed Septimius Severus The daughter of a Syrian high
murdered after three months. This (c. 145–211) emperor, while the priest, Julia Domna married
was followed by rival claimants to Syrian legions raised their Septimius Severus in 187. A
the throne engaging in an auction commander Pescennius Niger prophecy had predicted that
outside the praetorian camp to (c. 135–94) to the imperial throne. she would wed an emperor,
decide who would be emperor. Severus reached Rome first and, and so it turned out. Forceful
Didius Julianus (133–93) won, but after granting the title of Caesar and intelligent, she failed to
(junior emperor) to Clodius mediate between her sons
Money offered to each Albinus, governor of Britain, he Caracalla and Geta after
soldier by Didius Julianus turned east where, in spring 194, their father’s death and to
his armies defeated Niger at the prevent Geta’s murder. When
Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus Caracalla was killed, she
stayed in the east and in 195 deliberately starved herself

18
Papirius Dionysius, engineered a
shortage that led to Cleander’s
downfall. This did not result in a
more stable government, as his
replacement only lasted a short
time before being murdered.
Commodus increasingly identified
himself with Hercules (the Greek
hero) and renamed Rome after
himself—colonia Commodiana.
THE AGE At the end of 192, the praetorian
AT WHICH prefect Laetus was convinced that
Commodus was planning to have
COMMODUS
him killed and on New Year’s Day
BECAME SOLE 193 took the initiative and had the
emperor poisoned and, when that
EMPEROR did not work, strangled.
25,000 attacked the Parthian Empire. But
he was forced to return west to
to death in protest, a move
that rallied support for the
SESTERCES
deal with Albinus, who had remaining Severan family.
revolted, and who was killed near
Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France)
in 197. Severus then returned to but they soon broke the peace and
20,000 Parthia, this time occupying the a new campaign was launched in
SESTERCES capital Ctesiphon in 197. He 210. Severus was by now very ill,
pushed the line of Roman control and his son Caracalla took over.
toward the Tigris and created the In February 211 Severus died in
new province of Mesopotamia. Eboracum (modern York, England)
Money offered to each soldier Trouble in Britain brought the
aging emperor to the province in
and handed succession jointly to
sons Caracalla and Geta. After the
by Flavius Sulpicianus
Buying loyalty 208. A large-scale Roman Scottish war, both rushed back to
The larger bribes offered to the
troops by Didius Julianus meant that
advance forced the Caledonians
and Maetae north of the provincial
Rome, but their joint rule was
short-lived: Caracalla had Geta
he won the auction to be emperor. frontier to come to terms in 209, murdered in December 211.

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212–230

A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of

Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans.

2,000
IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED which citizenship was granted to Arch of Caracalla
BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began almost all free males in the Originally the arch
to shrink after the death of King empire. After a successful was topped by a
Kanishka in 140, and particularly campaign on the Rhine (in 213), figure of the
emperor riding in a
severe territorial losses were Caracalla ventured further afield, chariot. It stands in
suffered under Huvishka arriving in Egypt in 215. For some THE NUMBER Volubilis, the main
(r. 160–90). Kushan rule finally unknown reason, he became town of Roman
collapsed under Vasudeva enraged and ordered the OF BATHERS Mauretania Tingitana
(r. 190–225) when Persian invaders massacre of the citizens of (in modern Morocco).
swept through northwestern Alexandria. The next year he THAT COULD
India. Although Kushan kings
continued to rule a much-reduced
launched an invasion of Parthia.
His praetorian prefect Opellius
USE THE BATHS divided into two
realm for a further century, their
influence was purely local and
Macrinus came to suspect that
Caracalla wanted him dead, so he
OF CARACALLA when Vologeses
VI’s brother set
their heyday was at an end. persuaded a disaffected soldier to himself up as a
In Rome, Caracalla’s murder the emperor. After to the Severan family, and a revolt rival king,
government was unpopular. Caracalla’s murder, the army broke out in Syria, which aimed Artabanus V; and a further Persia was temporarily weakened
Among his measures was the declared Macrinus emperor. to put Elagabalus (203–22), Roman invasion in 216 ravaged by a civil war, the Sasanians
Antonine Constitution of 212, by There was much residual loyalty grandson of Julia Domna’s sister much of the province of Media. proved to be much tougher
Julia Maesa, on the throne. Taking advantage of this disorder, adversaries to the Romans than
Macrinus lost support and in June the ruler of the southwestern the Parthians ever had been.
218 he fled to Cappadocia, where province of Pars, Ardashir, In China in 220, Cao Cao’s son
he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus expanded his territory and finally Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate.
adopted as his heir his cousin defeated Artabanus V c. 224. Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei,
Alexianus. When the two fell Ardashir I was then declared king and Sun Quan would each declare
out in 222, the army backed (r. 224–42) as the first ruler of himself emperor. The Han dynasty
Alexianus and Elagabalus the Sasanian dynasty. Although and China’s unity were at an end.
was murdered. Alexianus
Black Sea
became Emperor Cau

Ca
cas
us

sp
Alexander Severus Byzantium

ia n
(Constantinople)
at age 13. ARMENIA Balkh

h
s

S ea
R O MA N EMP IR E Merv BACTRIA Ku
In Persia, Parthian rule du Taxila
Antioch Nishapur Hi n Kabul
had been weakened, Cyprus Barbalissus Ecbatana KHURASAN
both by plague and by Mediterranean Dura Europos Jalula
Sea SYRIA ASURISTAN Nehavend SASANI AN
the effects of successive Damascus Seleucia Ctesiphon
Babylon Susa EM PI RE
MESHAN KHUZISTAN
Roman invasions. In 207, Alexandria Jerusalem Dhu Qar FARS
L a Al Qadisiya Persepolis
the kingdom had been khm
ids
KERMAN
Pe

Arabian MAKRAN
rs

ia
Peninsula n
Gul
f
Bronze diploma BAHRAIN Arabian Sea
MAZUN
Diplomas were issued to
auxiliary soldiers in the The Sasanian Empire in Persia
Roman army, granting After rapidly acquiring the former
KEY
them citizenship. This Parthian Empire, the Sasanians
practice ceased after the fought a series of wars with the Sasanian Empire at greatest extent
Antonine Constitution. Romans over control of Mesopotamia. East Roman Empire in 3rd century

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87
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231–244 245–260

25
THE NUMBER OF
ROMAN EMPERORS
THAT RULED
BETWEEN
235 AND 284

Roman emperor Gordian III A mural of St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian
succeeded his father and grandfather. persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian.

IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF Africa proclaimed the province’s PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF in disarray and Shapur’s armies
G O B I D ES ERT
THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was elderly governor as Emperor RENEWED STRENGTH under advanced as far as Iconium
followed by 350 years of instability. Gordian I, but he was quickly and Shapur I (r. 241–72). In 244, he (modern Konya, Turkey).
WEI Yellow
The Three Kingdoms period brutally put down. The Senate Chang’an Luoyang Sea won a decisive battle against The western part of the Roman
(220–80) saw China divided into the declared Maximinus deposed and Jiankang
Gordian III at Misiche near Empire also faced increasing
Wei kingdom of the north; (initially proposed Pupienus and Balbinus Chengdu Ctesiphon. Shortly after, Gordian pressure. The Romans suffered
SHU WU
under Wei Wendi (r. 220–26); the as candidates. Popular sentiment HAN III was killed and replaced by his invasions of Dacia (much of
Shu Han kingdom in the west favored Gordian I’s grandson Taiwan army commander Philip (or Philip modern Romania) by the Carpi
whose first ruler was Shu Han “the Arab”). Philip made peace people from c. 214. The Carpi,
South
Xuande (r. 221–23); and the China with Shapur but had to pay a large together with a new group, the
Hainan Sea
southern Wu kingdom under Wu ransom to escape Sasanian Goths, took part in a raid across
Wudi (r. 222–52). Wei Wendi was a territory. His successors broke the Danube in 239–40. In 248,
KEY
capable ruler, but his successors the terms of the agreement, so in Emperor Philip withdrew an
Wei, 220–225 Wu, 222–280
struggled to contain attacks by 256 Shapur I invaded Syria and annual tribute he had been
Shu Han, 221–263
northern tribesmen. captured the towns of Antioch and paying the Carpi and the Goths,
In 235, the Roman China under the Three Kingdoms Europos Dura. Valerian, who by prompting them to pour into
emperor Alexander Although the Wei kingdom faced the then was emperor (r. 253–60), Moesia (modern Bulgaria). Philip
Severus and his greatest challenges among the three soon retook Antioch. In 260, he fell sent Quintus Decius to deal with
mother Julia Mamaea kingdoms, it would eventually into a trap and was imprisoned the invasion; he was so successful
were murdered by conquer the Wu and the Shu Han. by Shapur. The Romans were left that his troops declared him
mutinous troops, emperor. Early in 249, Decius
putting an end to the Gordian III (r. 238–44), so all marched to Rome and defeated
Relief of Shapur I
Severan dynasty. The three briefly shared the and killed Philip. Hearing of the
In this relief, Shapur I triumphs over
uprising’s ringleader, throne. Balbinus and the Roman emperors Gordian III and Roman civil war, the Goths
Maximinus Thrax Pupienus were Valerian. After Valerian’s capture, invaded again, causing Decius to
(r. 235–38), an officer from killed soon after, Shapur is said to have used him as a return to the Balkans in 250.
a humble background, was leaving Gordian III footstool for mounting his horse. Under their warleader Cniva, the
proclaimed emperor, but he to rule alone. His
spent most of his reign raising six-year reign briefly
funds to reward his troops for restored some semblance of
their support. This time marks stability to the empire, but
the start of a period of “military he was killed while leading an
anarchy” in which Rome had invasion of Persia in 243–44.
dozens of emperors, most of them Compounding the Roman
short-lived rulers who were Empire’s difficulties was the
raised up by the frontier armies appearance of barbarian
and just as quickly deposed and confederacies among
killed. A rebellion in 238 in North the Germanic peoples
of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers.
Art from the Three Kingdoms
Principal among these
High artistic achievements, such as
this fine statue, were a feature of the were the Alemanni. In
late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220 213, Caracalla campaigned
did not result in an equivalent against them; by 260 they
decline in China’s artistic output. were able to invade Italy itself.

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261–275

The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants
who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city.

VALERIAN’S CAPTURE BY THE
PERSIANS in 260 proved
disastrous for the western part of
the Roman Empire as well as the
east. Valerian’s son Gallienus
(r. 260–68), struggling to contain
an invasion of Italy by the
Germanic Iuthungi had no
resources to reinforce the Rhine
frontier, which was being
SHAPUR I (d.272) breached by Alemmanic and
Frankish raiders. The Governor
Shapur’s early leadership of Germania Inferior, Marcus
experience came in a role Postumus, revolted and killed
assisting his father, Ardashir, Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who
in mopping up support for had been left in charge of Gaul and
the Parthian Arsacid dynasty.
Shapur’s defeats of Gordian
The Gallic Empire
III in 244 and of Valerian in Postumus began the Gallic Empire
260 established a temporary in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain,
Persian dominance in Syria and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the
and Mesopotamia. He used last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain.
the many Roman prisoners
captured in 256 at Antioch to
build the new town of Veh
Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s KEY
town, better than Antioch”). Gallic Empire under
Postumus, 260–68
Germany. Postumus declared
himself emperor, but unlike
previous usurpers did not march
on Rome, instead setting up a
separate Gallic Empire; this
initially controlled Britain, Spain,
parts of western Germany, and
Gaul. He established a form of
government that mirrored that of
the official empire, complete with
its own Senate. In 269, Postumus
was murdered by his own troops
and replaced by his praetorian
prefect Victorinus. Gallienus—
faced with Gothic invasions and
the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra
in the east—was never strong
enough to put an end to the Gallic
Empire. In 268 he was murdered
by the army and replaced by
Claudius II Gothicus (r. 268–70),
who was too busy fighting in the
North
Eburacum
Sea
BRITANNIA
S a xo ns
F b a rd
ra
nks
Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only
under Aurelian (r. 270–74) was
the Roman Empire strong enough,
and by then the Gallic Empire was
weakened, with its last ruler,
Tetricus (r. 270–74), facing splits in
the army. In 274, Tetricus was
captured near Châlons, and the
Gallic Empire was reabsorbed.
In the east, a serious challenge
to Roman rule emerged after 260.
The city of Palmyra (in Syria)
proved Rome’s only reliable ally
against the Sasanian advances of
Persia. Its ruler Septimius
Odaenathus (c. 220–67) received a
number of Roman titles, including
Sepulchral relief from Palmyra
Corrector Totius Orientis (“Marshal
The Palmyrenes buried their dead
of the entire East”), and invaded with exquisite and realistic personal
the Sasanian Empire in 262 and portrayals; the dead were interred in
266. Odaenathus died in 267; and tower tombs outside the city.
his wife Zenobia (r. 267–73)
created an empire of her own. By In China, Yuandi (r. 260–64)
269, her armies had taken Syria restored Wei’s fortunes by
and Egypt, and in 271 she declared conquering the Shu Han. But
her son Vaballathus emperor. soon after he was overthrown by
Lom Aurelian marched east and soon one of his own generals, Sima
s rolled back the Palmyrene gains, Yuan, who founded the Western

Gallic Empire under Colonia Agrippina nd ians besieging Palmyra in spring 272. Jin dynasty and took the title
rg u
Alem

Goths ravaged the province of Tetricus, 270–74 Mogontiacum Bu Zenobia was captured while trying Wudi (r. 265–89). His armies
Durocortorum M a rc o m an n i
Moesia, laying siege to the main Roman Empire, 260 to escape, and Palmyra was crushed and annexed the Wu
an

Augusta Iut
ni

town of Nicopolis (modern Treverorum hun

gi sacked in 273 when it tried to kingdom in 280, thus briefly
Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign GA LLI A throw off Roman rule again. reuniting China.
Lugdunum
went badly for the Romans, ending Burdigala P
Vienna
,,
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in defeat and Decius’s death at the Mediolanum

N

YOU DEMAND MY SURRENDER

VIENNENSIS
NO

Battle of Abrittus in 251.

I T

Ravenna
NI

In Japan, the Yamato kingdom

AS THOUGH YOU WERE NOT AWARE
HISPANIA Narbo
Emerita
A

,,
A

emerged on the plain of Nara (in Augusta Tarraco

THAT CLEOPATRA PREFERRED TO

Corsica
L

central Japan) around 250. Its A

I

r es Rome
Corduba
Balea
rulers were interred in large burial
mounds, and its armies conquered
Gades
Tingis
Sardinia
Tarentum
DIE A QUEEN RATHER THAN
most of central Japan. Much of Caesarea
Medit
erra
nea
n S
REMAIN ALIVE.
what is known comes from M A U R E TA N I A ea
Chinese sources, who name the Carthage
Syracuse Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to Aurelian Augustus
Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko. from Historia Augusta c. 375–400

I y
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89
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

276–283 284–300
,,
,,
PROBUS WAS ALMOST A
SECOND HANNIBAL BECAUSE OF
HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WARFARE…
Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in
De Caesaribus, c. 360

The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán (near modern Mexico City) was built some time after 200 at one end of
the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end.

IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF
THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, Wudi
(r. 265–89), was a strong ruler who
secured trade routes to the West
and built a bridge over the Yellow
River to improve communications.
However, the wars of the Three
Kingdoms period (see 231–244)
had impoverished the state and
as the tax burden rose, many
peasants fled to landowners for
protection, resulting in the rise of
private armies.
In the Roman Empire, Emperor
Aurelian—who was murdered in
275—was followed by two
Jin sitting bear sculpture
The first half of the Jin dynasty
under Wudi gave China a
period of comparative
peace and stability,
which allowed the
arts to flourish.
short-lived emperors—Tacitus
and Florianus—before Probus
took power in 276. Within two
years, Probus had defeated the
Goths on the Danube and pushed
back the Franks from the Rhine.
A planned campaign against
Persia was frustrated in 281 by
the revolt of two usurpers in the
West: Bonosus and Proculus.
Despite his military successes, in
282 Probus was murdered by his
own troops, who were resentful
at being forced to work on civil
engineering projects near
Sirmium (in modern Serbia).
IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA
MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the
former commander of the
imperial bodyguard, Emperor
Diocletian (r. 284–305). In 285,
he defeated Carinus (the then
emperor of the Western Empire)
and started a radical
reorganization of the empire,
reforming the army, and
subdividing provinces. The
challenges on the frontier were
too great to be faced alone; in 285,
he appointed Maximian (250–310)
to rule alongside him, first as
Caesar (junior emperor) then as
Augustus (senior emperor). Other
problems with Britain’s break
from the empire under Carausius
in 286 convinced Diocletian that
more changes were necessary. In
293, he and Maximian appointed
two Caesars: Constantius
Chlorus (r. 293–306) to assist Persian frieze
Diocletian in the Western Empire The Paikuli frieze celebrates the to the Romans. He launched a
and Galerius (r. 293–311) to be victories of Narseh in Armenia and major invasion in 296, defeating
Maximian’s junior in the East. This justifies his deposition of the Caesar Galerius in 297. The
predecessor Vahram III.
tetrarchy (four emperor system) next year, however, Galerius
enjoyed early successes in Britain smashed Narseh’s army in
(296) and in Egypt (298). In 294, After the death of Shapur I in Armenia and captured the Persian
Diocletian reformed the coinage, 272 Persia faced a period of ruler’s family. Galerius marched
reissuing new bronze and silver political instability. In 293, as far as Ctesiphon, which he
coins, and in 301 he issued an Narseh (r. 293–302) ascended to captured in 298. Narseh was
Edict on Maximum Prices to try the Persian throne. He resolved to forced to make peace (Treaty of
to curb rising inflation. Unlike his recover land in Armenia and Nisibis). Persia remained at peace
other measures, this one failed. Mesopotamia that had been lost with the Romans for 40 years.

12
In the Valley of Mexico, the city of
Teotihuacán reached the peak of
SQUARE its power around 300. Its main

MILES
street—the Avenue of the
Dead—ran between the Pyramid
THE AREA OF of the Moon and the Ciudadela

TEOTIHUACAN CITY (which may have been the palace

of the ruler) and was lined with the
AT ITS PEAK residences of the lords of the city.

ls ed r es
es pe a lar de niz r an
s
om fter ex aul, in hin er ec mur ga owe e e oin a)
b
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90
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

301–319

This early 16th-century fresco of the Battle of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle,
the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in a dream predicting his victory.

SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S In 311, Galerius died and over the Eastern provinces. The
AND 260S, THE CHRISTIAN Maximin became Augustus in alliance between Constantine and
COMMUNITY had experienced the East. He ordered renewed Licinius broke down in 316; they
some 40 years of tranquillity in
the Roman Empire. All this 75,000 measures against Christians.
Constantine, meanwhile, invaded
patched up a peace in 317, and for
six years the Roman Empire
changed in 303 when Diocletian MAXENTIUS Italy and in October 312 defeated relapsed into an uneasy calm.
issued an edict ordering the and killed Maxentius at the Battle In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi
destruction of churches and the of Milvian Bridge. Before the (r. 290–306) was mentally disabled
handing over and burning of battle, Constantine is said to have and so a succession of regents
Christian books. A sterner edict
followed, calling for the arrest of
50,000 dreamed of the Chi-Rho symbol
and ordered his troops to mark it
contended for imperial control.
Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r. 307–12)
CONSTANTINE
Christian clergy, and one in 304 on their shields. invited the northern Xiongnu
ordered that all Christians offer Licinius and Constantine met at tribesmen to help him against
a sacrifice to the pagan gods. Mediolanum (modern Milan) in the competing Chinese factions,
Devout Christians could not 313, where they agreed to share but they took him prisoner. The
Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge
accede to these demands, and power and issued the Edict of last Western Jin emperor Mindi
Maxentius’s forces outnumbered
many of them were martyred. those of Constantine, but his Milan, which granted toleration to (r. 313–16) saw the Xiongnu sack
Chi-Rho symbol
In 304, Diocletian fell seriously army became trapped between all forms of worship, in effect the capital of Chang’an (modern The monogram of Chi-Rho, the first
ill, and in 305 he announced that Constantine’s men and the river. legalizing Christianity. Licinius Xi’an); the Jin moved south, where two letters of Christ’s name in
he and Maximian would abdicate. then turned East and defeated Yuandi (r. 317–23) became the Greek, became an important early
Constantius Chlorus and (Galerius’s army colleague). The Maximin Daia, securing control first Eastern Jin emperor in 317. symbol of Christianity.
Galerius would take over as new tetrarchy soon unraveled.
Augusti, while the new Caesars Constantius died in Eboracum
were to be Maximinus (Galerius’s (modern York, England) in July Colonia EUROPE Caspian
Londinium Agrippina
nephew) and Flavius Severus 306 and the troops there Sea
proclaimed his son Constantine Augusta
Treverorum
the new Augustus. By October, Black Sea
Aguontum Poetovio Amisus
Maxentius (r. 306–12), the son of ATL ANTIC Augustodunum Aquileia Sirmium Sinope
Lugdunum Neocaesarea
Maximian, was crowned emperor OCEAN Mediolanum Chalcedon Amasia
Vienna Ravenna Salonae Constantinople Caesarea
Burdigala Valentia Nicomedia Cappadociae
in Rome. Severus was killed trying Nemausus Pisa
Florentia Philippi Nyssa
Stobi Nicaea Edessa
to retake Rome from Maxentius, Biterrae Massilia Rome Thessalonica Troas Cyzicus
Anazarbus
Tarsus
and Maximian restored himself to Barcino Neapolis Nicopolis
Sardes
Ephesus
Hierapolis Antioch Dura-Europos
Myra Seleucia Palmyra
the position of Augustus. In 308, Athens Miletus
Salamis Tripolis
Carales Rhegium Corinth Cos Paphos Damascus
the Conference of Carnuntum Messina Rhodes Tyre Berytus
Corduba Carthago Hippo Syracusa Sidon
was called to settle the disputes, Nova Regius Carthage Jerusalem
Hispalis a
presided over by Diocletian, who Tipasa M e d i t e r r a n e a n Se Bethlehem
Illiberris Melita Petra
Tingis Sicca Veneria
came out of retirement. Ptolemais Cyrene
Alexandria

Constantine accepted a demotion Leptis Magna

Palace of Diocletian
Diocletian built the great palace at
Split, Croatia, for his retirement
after his abdication in 305. Here,
he tended his cabbages.
to Caesar in the West, with
Licinius as Augustus (r. 308–24), AFRICA Coptus
while Maximin Daia became
Galerius’s Caesar in the East Early spread of Christianity
(r. 310–13). This new arrangement Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there
was no more succesful than were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern KEY
the old one. Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province of Africa (Tunisia). Areas strongly Christian by 325

n:
s t in ius ut
in ila s
ina Jin s
ian te ou ent t f M ffirm us le ria t
let rice mpt n ica to ks ax tis ks o s of o o Ch ie nd ha
c
io s p tte n of cut
i o d
ab ian nd a
re ; M he
a a
on re tat wh u dict ne a ligio is so sty ern tern 6) d exa ine t
i a s l
1 D hi a tio ing rse ian im s a m r b ire y t 1D b s ns 3 E nt re us n h e
dy nort t W 13–
1 A tr e
of doc ivin
30 ues n an infla inn c pe let Max leriu the wa Emp or b of a 31 hism over stia s to 31 nsta m of icini n
s i
is ict trol g
e ni c
io s a ce v i l r ion si sc rica Chri ifice s to Co edo ip. L ster Jin ns ; las i (r. 3 ius ard lly d
3 B tia ns 5 D rce e; G pla Ci an mpe rd ss Per d 6 o
31 and gnu ind
r
8 A rw fu t
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7 m
30 e Ro ed e Gu
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to i e u 9A rI th de man ecut wo ler o Em ab Xion or M u ies f C
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a lik nti th clar rian 30 apu a o rs n to e r p o
of do nsta e to m eR e ru ma p n
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u
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30 Chi f or f Six 439 tiu n; hi lare s e ck
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akd nd pe r 0 6 n i an y th
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Co 31 91
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320–330 331–355
,,
,,
IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER
SOMETIMES LOSES ITS FORCE... IN
CONSTANTIUS IT BECAME MORE VIOLENT.
Ammianus Marcellinus (d. c. 330) writing on the character of the Emperor
Constantius II in The Later Roman Empire

It was largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicaea
(depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there.

CHANDRAGUPTA I ASCENDED TO
THE THRONE of a small kingdom
in the western Ganges Plain in
320. Through an advantageous
marriage to Princess Kumaradevi
of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty
and by conquest, he expanded his
realm to include most of the
Having taken up the cause of
Christianity in 313, the Roman
Emperor Constantine (r. 280–337)
found that Christians themselves
were far from united in doctrine
or organization. Constantine
called a church council at Nicaea
in western Asia Minor in 325 to
8
governed the Eastern Empire. Augustodunum in southern Gaul
Their reigns began with a (modern Autun, France) and
massacre at Constantinople in Constans was killed. Distracted
which almost all of their father’s by a war against Persia,
other male relatives were killed in Constantius II tolerated the
order to remove any possible upstart initially, but in 351 he
rivals. Constantine II, who was the moved against him. Since
THE NUMBER eldest, tried to assert his seniority, Constantius II had no heir, he

central Ganges, from Magadha
(in southern Bihar) to Prayaga (in
Uttar Pradesh). His descendants,
the Guptas, ruled northern India
for almost 150 years.
establish (and impose) orthodoxy
in the face of a division over
Arianism (the theology of Arius,
who held that Jesus Christ was
subordinate to God the Father). As
well as Constantine, about 300
church leaders attended, and
Arius’s views were condemned.
OF TYPES OF
but died during an invasion of promoted his cousin Gallus—one
Italy in 340. Constans then took of the few survivors of the
PURE-GOLD control of the entire Western
Empire, where he was faced with
massacre of 337—to the rank of
Caesar in 351 and left him in
COINS ISSUED a series of hard-fought campaigns charge in the East, while he
BY SAMUDRA- against Frankish invaders in
Gaul, and problems in Britain,
campaigned against Magnentius
in the West. Magnentius’s army
GUPTA which led him to visit the far-flung was defeated at Mursa (in

14
THE NUMBER OF
DISTRICTS IN
CONSTANTINOPLE
After defeating Licinius (r. 308–
24) in 324, Constantine founded
a new capital for the Eastern
Roman Empire at the ancient city
of Byzantium, strategically sited
between Europe and Asia. He
demolished pagan temples and
built new churches, such as Hagia
Sophia, providing public buildings
to rival those of Rome. The city of
The Column of Constantine
The sole surviving monument from Constantinople (modern Istanbul)
the forum that Constantine built for was publicly dedicated on April 2,
his new city is this column, which 330. It was the seat of the Eastern
sits in central Istanbul today. Emperors for over 1,000 years.
province (the last undisputed present-day Croatia); Italy and
IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA (r. 335– Roman Emperor to do so) in 343. North Africa were rapidly
75) SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER Disputes between the two recovered, and in 353 Magnentius
Chandragupta I as ruler of the surviving brothers, particularly committed suicide in Gaul.
Gupta domains in northern India. one over the status of Athanasius, For the next seven years
An inscription he set up in Bishop of Alexandria (whom Constantius II ruled the empire
Prayaga survives, recounting a Constantius II had exiled, but alone, mainly preoccupied with
series of campaigns he fought in Constans wanted restored), Frankish incursions into Gaul, the
Uttar Pradesh and Mathura, soured all relations between revolt of the usurper Silvanus in
both of which were annexed to the them. In 350, a senior military 355, and a series of church
Gupta kingdom. He also made officer, Magnentius, revolted at councils that sought to resolve
conquests down the east coast of doctrinal disputes (Constantius II
India, as far as Madras, and favored Arianism over the
subdued West Bengal as well as traditional orthodoxy).
parts of Rajasthan and the In the end, Gallus proved too
Punjab. Various other regions ambitious and in 354 he was
acknowledged his suzerainty, deposed and executed.
making him the most powerful Constantius II turned instead to
Indian ruler since the Mauryas. Gallus’s brother Julian, a studious
Constantine died in 337, having youth with a penchant for pagan
accepted Christian baptism only philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s
on his deathbed. He had made no revolt, Julian was despatched to
definite provision for succession, Gaul as Caesar, where he proved
leaving his sons to divide the surprisingly effective at combating
empire between them: Frankish raiders.
Gold Gupta coin
Constantine II (r. 337–40) held Many Gupta coins contain images
Spain, Gaul, and Britain; of horses, a possible reference to
Constans (r. 337–50) ruled Italy, the ritual horse sacrifice performed
and Constantius II (r. 337–61) by some Gupta rulers.

, r d
ion ing pir
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

356–360

The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of

ruins in the Mayan world.

IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF Shapur II hunts a stag began to push across the Rhine,
AKSUM became one of the Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish and in the early 350s they overran
earliest states to embrace silver items depicting themselves part of the Rhine frontier,
Christianity outside the Roman hunting wild beasts as a display occupying some old Roman
Empire. The Syrian Christian of their royal power. fortresses. Caesar Julian
missionary Frumentius engaged in a series of campaigns
converted the king, palace complexes set in a against the Franks (356–59) and
Ezana (r. 320–60) to central “acropolis.” The drove them from most of the
Monophysitism (a Mayans developed a territory they had taken.
doctrine emphasizing hieroglyphic form of In the East, conflict broke
a single nature of writing that survives on out again between the Romans
Christ, the divine). many of the stelae and the Persians, under Shapur
A letter from (carved stone slabs) II (r. 309–79), who took advantage
Constantius II to they set up to of the political turmoil in the
Ezana in 357 has commemorate Roman Empire in the 350s. In
survived, urging important events; in 359, Shapur II advanced farther
Ezana to shift his Tikal the first such west and took the great Roman
allegiance to dated monument is fortress of Amida (modern
Arianism and to from 292. The first Diyarbakir, Turkey). Other towns
replace Frumentius named king of Tikal is were captured and their
with an Arian bishop— Siyaj Chan K’awiil I populations deported to Persia,
evidence that the (c. 305), and by the reign of threatening the Roman position
Roman emperors took Chak Tok Ich’aak I (r. 360– in the East.
seriously the religious 78), Tikal was by far the
loyalties of their neighbors. largest and most powerful of
Ezana conducted military the Classic Maya cities.
campaigns beyond his borders; The Roman Empire faced
an inscription speaks of invasions on both its western and

6
its eastern borders in the 340s
and 350s. In the West, the Franks
o
xic N O R THER N MAYA
Me
f of
Gul
KEY Yucatan
expeditions against neighboring some time in 200–300, with Northern Maya
Peninsula

e an Se a
“Gaze, then the Agame, and the populations declining and Central Maya C EN TR AL
Siguene,” and it seems his MAYA
building activity ceasing. But the Southern Maya Palenque

ri bb
armies may have occupied Meroë region soon recovered, with the Tikal
Mayan site

Ca
city (in northern Sudan). Enriched emergence of a new phase in Trade route
Peten

SQUARE MILES
by such conquests and the control Maya civilization, the Classic
of trade from sub-Saharan Africa period (300–900), in which a
THE AREA and Arabia, Aksum would
dominate the region until the
series of powerful kingdoms
emerged. Their great urban Maya kingdoms SOUTHERN MAYA

OF THE CITY
PA

Classic Maya culture

7th century. centers, such as those at Tikal (in
CI

originated in lowland cities,

OF TIKAL,
IC
F

The pre-Classic Maya Guatemala) and Palenque (in such as Uaxactun and Tikal, OC
kingdoms of Guatemala and Mexico), are characterized by but spread to the highlands EA

c. 400
N
Mexico underwent a collapse huge pyramidal temples and and the Yucatán peninsula.

I II nd
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Bi sius exil tan ning ces les th ern h
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s o n
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6 a
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Co pro ian c
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Sa c 93
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

361–375 376–382

Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among The church of Hagia Eirene in

16
Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons. Istanbul was built by Constantine I.

IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN

DYNASTY (317–420) brought
comparative stability to the south
Constantius to meet
immediately. He
died in November
but he ceded key border
provinces to Persia, which
lost him popularity,
,, … THE
BARBARIANS,
of the country. Although many of
the emperors were short-lived,
361 as he was
finally marching
and he died (probably
murdered) within
[ARE] LIKE BEASTS
the bureaucracy in the southern west to deal with the months. An officer of the … BROKEN
capital of Nanjing functioned revolt. Now sole imperial bodyguard,
LOOSE… OVER

,,
efficiently and the period saw emperor, Julian Valentinian (r. 364–75), was
a cultural flowering. Artists such THE NUMBER immediately set about then raised to the throne, and THE VAST
as Gu Kaizhi (c. 345–406) painted
masterpieces such as the OF KINGDOMS
restoring the role of
paganism in the Roman
he selected his brother Valens
(r. 364–78) to be his co-ruler.
EXTENT…
Admonitions of the Instructress IN CHINA Empire, trying to Valentinian spent much of his OF COUNTRY.
to the Palace Ladies, as well as establish a kind of pagan reign along the Rhine dealing
producing works on the theory of FROM 304 orthodoxy and an official with Frankish and Alemannic Ammianus Marcellinus, on the
Gothic invasion of the Balkans c. 390
painting. Northern China, on the
other hand, was highly unstable,
TO 439 pagan hierarchy of priests
to counter Christianity’s
invaders. He died in 375 after
suffering some type of seizure,
divided between the Sixteen strengths. He reopened brought on by his anger at IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS
Kingdoms, most of them ruled by (under Xiaouwudi) would be pagan barbarian Quadi ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE
nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin forced to repel a major invasion temples, envoys thought to FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted
emperors alternated between a in the north of the country. and have insulted him. to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a
defensive stance towards the In the Roman Empire, Julian restored the The Western new nomadic group from Central
Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive was proclaimed Augustus by his right to sacrifice. Roman Asia, were at their rear, and the
campaigns, notably under Mudi troops in 360, so he was a direct In 363, Julian set Empire Goths feared being squeezed
(r. 345–61) who retook Sichuan challenge to Constantius. The out on a campaign was then between them and the imperial
and Luoyang. All these gains were threat from the Persians, who against Persia, subdivided between frontier. Emperor Valens did not
lost, however, under Emperor Aidi were advancing through Asia planning to punish Valentinian’s two sons wait for reinforcements before
(r. 362–65). In 383, the Eastern Jin Minor, was too great for its leader, Shapur II, Gratian (r. 375–83) and marching out to meet the Gothic
for his attacks on the Valentinian II (r. 375–92). army. On August 9, 378, near
JULIAN THE APOSTATE (331–63) empire in 359–60. He In the Eastern Empire, Adrianople, the Romans met the
reached Ctesiphon, Valens was forced to Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by
The nephew of Constantine I, but was then forced spend most of the early the temporary absence of the
Julian was educated as a to retreat up the 370s in Syria to contain Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but
Christian but c. 351 became a Tigris River. Being the Persian threat, but his army was surrounded by the
pagan under the influence of short of supplies, the growing trouble with returning barbarian horsemen.
Maximus of Ephesus. When Roman army barbarians along the Valens was killed and the Eastern
Julian unexpectedly became suffered constant Danube later forced him army destroyed, leaving the
emperor in 363, he tried to harassment from to turn to the Balkans. Balkans open to the Goths.
restore paganism in the the Persians and, in Gratian reacted by turning to
empire, including banning one such skirmish, Theodosius, a Spanish military
Christians from teaching Julian was killed. Sarmatian dagger officer, who he appointed as his
This dagger belonged to
literature. He became known The pagan reaction imperial colleague. For the next
the Sarmatians, a tribe
by Christian writers as “the was over. of Iranian origin who three years Theodosius patiently
Apostate” for his perceived On Julian’s death the specialized in horseback negotiated, bought off some
betrayal of Christianity. army chose Jovian fighting, and were defeated groups, and struck militarily
(r. 363–64) as emperor, by Valentinian I. where he could. In 382, the two

ins
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94 S C Gu
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

383–391 392–400
,,
,,
THE THICKER
THE HAY, THE EASIER
IT IS MOWED.
Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c. 400

St. Jerome (c. 347–420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive
translation of the Bible into Latin, c. 405.

sides agreed a truce, whereby the
Goths were allowed to settle in
the empire in return for providing
troops for the Roman army.
The Gupta Empire continued to
expand under Chandragupta II
(r. 375–415) in northern India.
He fought against the Sakas,
annexing much of northwestern
India. He also made an astute
marriage alliance that extended
his realm to the southwest.
IN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN
CITY OF TIKAL had reached the
peak of its influence in the late 4th
century. In 378, a foreign lord
called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city,
possibly from Teotihuacán. His
arrival, which may represent a
military conquest, led to the death
of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich’aak
and the destruction of most of
Tikal’s public monuments. Siyaj
Kak installed a new dynasty
on the throne of Tikal, possibly
drawn from the ruling house of
Teotihuacán, with Yax Nuun Ayiin
(“Curl Snout”; r. 379–404) as the
first ruler. Monuments depict him
in northern Mexican, rather than
Mayan, dress. Under his rule,
Tikal’s direct influence extended
some 30 miles (50 km) away.
In the Western Roman Empire,
Gratian had spent much of
his time since the Battle of
Adrianople (378) in northern
Italy, where he continued to
act against pagans in Rome,
St. Ambrose
A Roman nobleman by birth,
Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from
374 to 397. He exercised a powerful
influence over Theodosius I.
freed Theodosius to react when
Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In
August 388, he marched swiftly
into northern Italy, capturing
Maximus near Aquileia and
having him executed.
IN 392, VALENTINIAN II, WHO HAD western one. Although there was
CONTINUED TO RULE OVER ITALY, no clear intention to do so, this
was found hanged. His military split marked a permanent
commander Arbogast—suspected division; after 395 no one emperor
by some of Valentinian’s murder— ruled the whole empire again.
promptly made Flavius Eugenius, The Goths had taken part on
a middle-ranking official, Theodosius’s side at the Battle of
emperor. Theodosius refused to the Frigidus River and felt they
recognize Eugenius, and in 393 he had not been sufficiently rewarded
invaded Italy. To gain support in for their losses. In 395, they rose
the Senate—where paganism up, led by Alaric (r. 395–410).
was still strong—the Christian Despite an attempt by Stilicho
Eugenius revoked all of (c. 365–408), the half-Vandal
Theodosius’s anti-pagan laws. commander of the Western
But, in August 394, he was Roman army, to suppress them,
defeated by the Theodosian army the Goths escaped and marauded
at the Frigidus River near throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho
Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy moved against Alaric again in 397,
his rule as sole emperor long, but once more failed to defeat
dying in January 395. The empire him. A brief halt to the Gothic
was then divided between his two rampage came after Alaric’s
sons: the older, Arcadius, taking appointment by the Eastern
the eastern part and his younger Roman government to magister
brother, Honorius, taking the militum (a senior general).
North
Sea
BRITANNIA
Fr

Alem
ATL ANTIC

an
ordering the removal of the Altar As well as campaigning against ndians
rgu

ks
OCEAN Bu

an n
of Victory from the Senate House the Goths and Maximus, GALLIA Iuth
ung o ths
O s t ro g

i
i

ns
in 382. In 383, he led an army Theodosius was preoccupied with li

Iazyges
P ru

A la
G ep id a e He

hs
A
north to face an invasion of Gaul the imposition of Orthodox

t
VIENNENSIS

go
NO
I TA

si
by the Alemanni, but was then Christianity. He moved against Vi

NIA
HISPANIA Black Sea
Corsica

LI
THRACIA
faced with a revolt in Britain, the Arians, deposing the Bishop of eares Rome

A
Bal

MOE

EMP NIAN
Sardinia PO N TUS

IRE
where the legions declared their Constantinople in 380 and calling Byzantium

SI A
Med
ite (Constantinople)

A
commander Magnus Maximus a council in 381 in the capital, MAUR ET rr

SAS
ANIA a Sicilia ASIAN A
emperor. Many of Gratian’s which reaffirmed the anti-Arian
n

Be e

S
r be a n
Cyprus

IEN
commanders defected and in decisions of the Council of Nicaea rs S e a Creta
Syrian
LI

OR
August 383 he was captured and (see 325). He connived in the BY

bs
A Desert

Ara
S a
executed by Maximus, who had destruction of many pagan h

AE
a r a

GY
crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius, temples, including the great

Re
PT

d
US
fearful of trouble with Persia or temple of Serapis in Alexandria,

Se
Iron pillar of Delhi

This iron pillar at Qutb complex on
the outskirts of Delhi is said to have
been erected on the orders of
Chandragupta II.
a
a Gothic revolt in the Balkans if and in 391 he forbade all pagan Divided in two
he moved west, recognized sacrifices throughout the empire. KEY
The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and
Maximus as his colleague. A Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476, Eastern Roman Empire
peace with Persia in 386, however, its Western part would be overrun by barbarians. Western Roman Empire

s i
siu rn ns s d sh an ler
do aste tern sig give s an nsan I e r
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95
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants
700 BCE – 6 0 0 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

CLASSICAL TRADE

les
Se
FLOURISHING TRADE BETWEEN CONTINENTS A WORLD APART

op
BRITAIN

ti
North l
Ba

Pe
Sea
c
lti

lts
The growth of Roman power in the Mediterranean, the unification of China Ba

Ce
under the Qin and Han, and the establishment of the Parthian Empire in Iran E U R O P E
GERMANY
Augusta
created three large political blocs that provided stable conditions under

N
Treverorum

E A
which very long-distance trade routes could flourish. GAUL Aquileia
M A
R O lps N
DACIA

O C
Massilia A Byzantium
The expansion of Han power westward in the that lay on them were able to exact heavy tolls E
M THRACE
2nd century BCE brought the Chinese into contact from merchants, which they used to build IBERIA Rome P
Ostia I

T I C
with new powers they called An-hsi (Persia) and spectacular public monuments. R
E
Li-chien (Rome). A Chinese embassy reached the Farther west, in the Mediterranean, expensive
Carthage
court of Mithridates II of Parthia around 115 BCE. In goods such as fine wine were carried by sea; Gades Caesarea

A N
GREECE
the wake of diplomats came merchants, carrying in general land transportation was expensive, Tingis M
ed Crete
the Chinese silk for which both Parthia and Rome and bulky, low-value products tended to be NIA ins ite
E TA u n t a

A T L
UR o rra
had an insatiable appetite. The main Silk Route produced and consumed locally. M A M nean Sea
s Leptis
la
ran from China through Central Asia, down into At Magna Cyrene
Sijilmassa

8,000
Persia and then across Roman-controlled Syria
toward the ports of the Mediterranean. Garam
ante

s
A thriving trade also spanned the Indian Ocean, s Alexandria

er
S a
MILES a r

rb
transporting spices from the East Indies and h a

Be
EGYP T
southern India to ports in Africa and southern Murzuk

Arabia; from here a land route led up through

THE LENGTH OF THE Ahaggar

Petra, in present-day Jordan, to Syria. Control of TRADE ROUTE FROM Tamanrasset

these trade routes was very lucrative, and towns CHANG’AN TO ROME Tibesti

S
A F R I C A
a h
ROMAN TRADE e l
The expansion of the Roman Empire to cover much of Europe, C h a d i
a n s
western Asia, and North Africa created largely peaceful conditions
in which both internal and external trade could flourish.

Amomum

Balsam of Judea

Cardamom

Cinnamon (uncultivated)
S
SL

AL
AV

A R S-
IM

Cassia (Chinese cinnamon)

W AS
E

E
IN
AN
S

GL
E

Daphnitis FOO
D ES
(high-grade cinnamon) SPIC
Malabathrum
(finest cinnamon leaf)
Frankincense (first quality) C OT D OLI
SIL
K TON GOL VE O
IL
Ginger
SE

SILVER
I VO
EN

Myrrh (Ethiopian) The price of spice

RY
INC

According to the Roman author Pliny, the finest

Nard (Indian)
grade of spices such as cinnamon could fetch
Nutmeg 300 denarii a Roman pound (12 oz/340 g), which
was nearly enough to purchase a male slave. Roman imports Roman exports
Pepper The Romans imported huge quantities The Romans paid for their imports
of raw materials, including luxury with precious metal and coins, and
0 50 100 150 200 250 250 300 350 400 450 500 goods such as gold and ivory and exported products such as wine
PRICE IN DENARII cheaper goods such as food. and glassware.

96
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S J
e A
(E a o P
as f
t

A
Ja ea
Lake

pa )
S

N
Baikal

n
KOR
a EA
i
Ye
r A u l lo
w
e n
n g

Se
b I i o i

a
X

Ea
b
i o Kaifeng

st
Ura

P
G
S S

Ch
Alt a i Mo untains Hangzhou

A
Wuwei
l Mou

ina
Luoyang
A

C
Anxi Ningbo
Chang’an
Kitai
R IA

Sea

I
A Hankou
n
NG

F
tains

Lake U
Balkhash DZ Turfan Jiaohei Dunhuang

I
Fuzhou
Kuldja

C
n
h
a NG HAN Quanzhou
S K IA Chengdu
IN n
Aksu S a k a

O
n
I A E M P IR E P

ie
H M
T Aral a t h
kl r

C
Y FERGHANA il

T
se
C t i a n s Sea To c h a r i Ta
De ip
S m a an Kashgar Nanhai

E
s Plateau p
a r n s
Yarkand (Guang-
zhou)
i
S Kunming
i a TRANSOXIANA

A
of Tibet

n
BOSPORAN Khotan
n

e
KINGDOM I r a Pa

N
Is
Marakanda mirs Cattigara
Panticapaeum K

la
(Kerch) C U
S SOGDIANA Tibetans
a

nd
H
A Bactra sh
sp

Caucasus N u s

s
a Sea
Merv
H i m a l a y a
ia

E K
M Taxila
n

Black Sea
u

ARMENIA P Begram Ch
Se

nd

I R BACTRIA
Trapezus Pataliputra Mon a
a

Hi

E Nalanda -Kh
me

m
Alexandria

th Chin
Hecatompylos Areion Mathura MAGADHA rp Moluccas

s
PA R T H I A eo
AS IA M INOR PAHLAVAS Tamluk ple
Thaton
I r anian
Kandahar
t r
Bay of s
Ecbatana
ese

Ctesiphon Plateau
Antioch Bengal Oc Eo

l a y s
Thar D

Za

NA
gro P e r s i a i a

Sou
Tyre s M SHAKAS d

HA
Cyprus
ount
Damascus ains I n

VA

s
Persepolis Barbaricon Ce
SYRIA Babylon leb

M a
HA
Charax Barygaza Andaman

i e
er
P

Jerusalem sia (Broach) Islands

es
Trang

A-ME G
Gaza n Asabon

d
Gu Masulipatam B o r ne o
lf Mandagora M

n
Petra a

I
SATAVAHANAS la

MAH
Gerra Nicobar ys
Islands
Myos Hormus Ommana
Java
Poduca Sea
Arabian S u t
m s
Leucecome Peninsula Arabian PA CH
O LA a
t r E a
Berenice ND a
A r a b s YA Colchi
Sea Taprobane va
Zenobia Muziris Ja
R
e
d

I N D I A N O C E A N
S

Dongola a
e

Sana
Cana
KUSH YEM E N Socotra
Meroe Adulis
Emporion
Aksum Aden
de n World trade
of A Aromata Trade routes c.1 CE criss-crossed the whole
AKSUM Gulf HAN TRADE
Sennar Avalites of the classical world. The means of
transport used depended on location— The establishment of Chinese control in Central Asia
Horn of Bactrian camels were used in Central Asia, from the late 3rd century BCE opened up a series of
Ethiopian A frica while horses, bullocks, and yaks were used routes through Persia to the Mediterranean, which
Highlands elsewhere. Maritime trade was also
extensive—there was an active trading became collectively known as the Silk Route. However, it
Maji network around the Indian Ocean. also involved the Han emperors in continuous and costly
Sarapion
Juba defense of their new territories.
Kushites

30,000
25,000
QUANTITY

20,000 SILK
HO S
KEY 15,000 RS
ICE
ES
SP
Roman Empire 10,000
and client states 5000
Han Empire 0
50 40 30 20 10 0
PRECIOUS

Trade routes Goods traded

STONES

YEAR (BCE)
Roman gold olive oil LACQUERWARE
Trans–Saharan silver amber KEY
(rudimentary route) tin precious Silk floss Silk fabric
Indian Ocean tortoiseshell stones (catties) (pieces)

ivory silk Han imports Han exports

Silk Route
clothing Buying safety The Han valued spices as much as Knowledge of silk in China
China animals
incense
To guarantee security on their frontiers the Romans did, but they also sent goes back to at least 2600 BCE,
East Africa horses and along trade routes, the Han were trade expeditions to Ferghana in but under the Han it became
slaves
Amber grain forced to pay large bribes in silk to Central Asia in search of what a staple export item, alongside
spices barbarian groups such as the Hsiung-nu. they called “heavenly horses.” lacquerware.
Incense
timber
Other
(rudimentary route) wine

97
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401–423 424–433
,, SO THE VANDALS, HAVING

,,
WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE
ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE
IT THEIR OWN...
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from
History of the Wars, III iv 1, c. 500–550

Around 200 stone heads decorated Tiwanaku’s Semi-Subterranean Temple. They may represent
the group that founded the city—their flat headdresses denote high status.

ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD On the other side of the
EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN Mediterranean in 429, Boniface,
SECURE IN 400, within a decade it 401 had gone on to sack a number the Roman Governor of North
had suffered a series of disasters. of cities before moving southwest Africa, revolted against his
Gothic raids in 401 and again in into Aquitania and then crossing long-term adversary Aëtius, and
405 ravaged northern Italy. Then the Pyrenees into Spain, where called on the Siling Vandals for
on the last day of 406, hordes of they occupied large swaths of help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric
Vandals, joined by two other Roman territory. In 416–18, (r. 428–77), crossed over the
barbarian groups, the Alans and the Roman army commander Straits of Gibraltar with—it was
Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine Constantius persuaded the said—80,000 of his people and, far
near Mainz, sacked Treveri Visigoths under Wallia (r. 415– from helping Boniface, swiftly
(modern Trier, Germany) and 18) to invade Spain. There he occupied most of North Africa. In
Remi (modern Reims, France), smashed the Alans and the Siling 435, he made a treaty with the
and forced their way southwest Vandals, but allowed some of Romans, recognizing his
until they reached the Pyrenees. them to settle in southern Spain occupation of Mauretania
Meanwhile, the armies of Visigoths ride on Rome and left the Asing Vandals and (modern Algeria and Morocco).
Britain had raised up a series commander Stilicho persuaded Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was Sueves in possession of Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his
of usurpers as emperor from 406. the Senate to agree to pay Alaric particularly shocking, as it was the northwestern Spain. Wallia was warriors captured Carthage, the
The last of these, Constantine III a huge bribe in exchange for first time the city had fallen since the rewarded with official possession Roman capital there, and set up
(r. 407–11), took most of the leaving the city, but there seems Gauls took it in 390 BCE. of much of southwestern Spain. an independent Vandal kingdom.
remaining Roman troops in Britain to have been a coup d’état and
and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, Stilicho was overthrown and of Lake Titicaca (on the border
North
aiming to seize the throne from the killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus, between modern Peru and Sea
then head of the Western Roman the prefect of Rome, declared Bolivia), reached its greatest EUROPE
Empire, Honorius. Although he emperor in an attempt to seize size in the 5th century, covering
was defeated and captured at Arles the initiative, but all negotiations an area some 3 sq miles (8 sq km)
KINGDOM OF THE
in 412, native leaders in Britain had failed. So, on August 24, 410, the in extent. Its central area BURGUNDIANS
EMPIRE OF
THE HUNS
already expelled the last Roman Visigoths entered Rome and contained a lavish series of Bay of
officials there in 410—probably in subjected it to a three-day sack. ceremonial buildings and Biscay
Black Sea

Ca
revenge for their abandonment by The event shook the entire Roman temples. These included the

spi
Rome

an S
Constantinople
Constantine’s legion. Britain was world, but Alaric was unable to Semi-Subterranean Temple,
ROMAN

ea
now independent from Rome. secure domination over Italy, as decorated with stone heads of Tolentum EMPIRE
Carthage
In 408, Alaric (r. c. 395–410), he died later the same year. humans and supernatural beings,
leader of the Visigoths, invaded In South America, the city of and structures such as the Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN
EMPIRE
Italy once more. The Roman Tiwanaku, 15 miles (25 km) south massive and beautifully decorated
Gateway of the Sun. These AFRICA
were erected by a major pre-
Ransom demands Columbian culture that The barbarian
Pepper
Alaric initially asked dominated the Altiplano (flat invasions KEY
for a huge ransom in high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia, Barbarian groups Roman Empire Burgundians
Gold
return for leaving and whose influence extended took more and more Sasanian Empire Franks
Rome in 410. Even Roman territory in the
Silver
when he moderated into northern Bolivia. first half of the 5th Huns Jutes, Angles, Saxons

his demands, the century, leaving the Goths Irish

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 Senate refused, and Western emperors Alans Picts
POUNDS so the city was sacked. virtually powerless. Vandals, Alans, Sueves

e ls, ly III nd t
s ad da s e ta le
gg e a y a
oth c inv s an th om ru g sI ian ru ifac ac
i g i e V
f es III Go ck R Pe in e i n
nt st
f t
i s a r s h ly o v e s in in , us ad e he it o S n m
1 V Al tal
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s
de Sue int
o
n tin a of ’
ric d s
a
s om a inv forc rt t ale e We tra rica 31 Bo pre s
40 der rn I h r a
t ar e l a n ve re n s ; V S 9– en su nd
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6 H an de
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s Af 42 twe for urt e eath
un rthe til ou Co his ain 41 tur 1S k nI cu the ët nis up ate r in cr rth
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40 igot ap 42 th H ing t ohn
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Vis pe man ex le in es rthw 0 M m ick wi end er J Jo s e Va r in Ro Bon
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er Vul of th rC ri au an ; a
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40 sla U cla rm s i s, into aga e 1
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l
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40 eves vad sie 5K ro th as em nua C do s h t i as vis c. mis nde 3 A ng o
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98 Al
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434–450

A colorful Buddhist mural from the Yungang caves, which were begun
under the Northern Wei c. 450.

THE EASTERN JIN DYNASTY IN (r. 418–51) occupied sections of ,,THE WORLD IS PASSING

,,
CHINA HAD ENDED IN 420, with the Mediterranean shore of Gaul,
Gongi’s abdication. His successor,
Song Wudi (r. 420–22), a former
before they were pushed back
southwest in 430. Around this time AWAY… LOSING ITS
fisherman, had risen to become a
general and founded the Liu Song
a new group of barbarians, the
Huns, began to menace the
GRIP, THE WORLD IS
dynasty. He strengthened the
southern kingdom’s northern
empire. This nomadic group from
Central Asia, whose pressure from
SHORT OF BREATH.
borders against the barbarian the rear on the Goths had been
St. Augustine of Hippo, theologian and philosopher, from Sermons 81, 8
tribes, but under his son Wendi indirectly responsible for the crisis
(r. 424–53), the northerners of 378 in the Balkans, had since
captured Luoyang in 424 before, moved farther west. In 424, the defeated and thereafter confined to the very end, when he had Aëtius,
some 25 years later, besieging the Roman general Aëtius recruited a a region to the northwest of Italy. the Western Empire’s last effective
Liu Song capital of Nanking. force of Huns to help him bolster These were all just temporary general, murdered.
Although Song Wudi had the cause of John, a usurper successes, however, as the area The barbarians who settled on
strengthened the central raised up at Rome after the death controlled by the Western Roman the former Roman territories
bureaucracy, the growing power of Honorius in 423. Aëtius emperors was diminishing began gradually to establish
and wealth of the Buddhist and continued to use the Huns into the steadily. The loss of almost all of kingdoms of their own, notably FLAVIUS AËTIUS
Daoist monasteries weakened late 420s to secure his power base North Africa to the Vandals in the Franks in northern Gaul and (c. 395–454)
the economic basis of the state. and his appointment as patrician 429–39 (and of Sicily in 440), the Visigoths in southwest Gaul
Wendi’s successors were weak (the most senior post in the late of northern Gaul to the Franks and Spain. In Britain, the situation Born of nobility in Moesia
and by 479 the Liu Song Roman Empire) in 429. In 435, by 450, of southwest Gaul to the was rather different, since the (modern Bulgaria), Aëtius
were overthrown by the he was able to call on Visigoths after 418, and of all province had rebelled against spent time from 408 in the
short-lived Qi dynasty them to aid an attack save a few isolated outposts in Rome rather than being subject to royal court of the Huns. He
(479–502). on the Burgundians Spain by the 430s meant the barbarian conquest. In a bygone used these contacts to gain
Meanwhile, in who had raided remaining strongholds in Italy era, the Roman army might have influence and rose to further
northern China, across the lower and southeastern Gaul could not been expected to reassert its prominence in the late 420s.
the Sixteen Rhine; these provide enough tax revenue to control there, but with the empire The deaths of patricians Felix
Kingdoms had were soundly support armies to reconquer the increasingly dependent on (in 430) and Boniface (in 433)
been united lost provinces. The long reign of barbarian troops fighting under left him with unrivaled
under the Toba Wei (a group of Valentinian III (r. 425–55) in the their own commanders, there was dominance. He shored up the
Turkic nomads), who founded Western Roman Empire virtually no army left to retake it. empire’s position, and in 451
the Northern Wei dynasty did not provide any The Britons were left to their he scored a notable victory
(386–534). The Northern Wei stability as he own devices. It seems that some against Attila the Hun. In 454
ruled over northern China, ascended to the Roman institutions survived for a he was murdered by
until its split into two in the throne as a child while; in 429 Bishop Germanus Valentinian III himself.
early 6th century following a and never of Auxerre visited the island and
revolt against the imposition of asserted found men bearing Roman titles.
Chinese dress and language on himself until But barbarian raiders—attracted Aëtius, appealing for
the Wei nomads. by the weak British defenses and aid. No reply was sent to these
In Europe, the Western Roman the lack of a central political “groans of the Britons.” and
Northern Wei horse
Empire continued to lose ground, authority to counter them—came within a few years the Angle,
The art of the Northern Wei
as barbarians occupied more and often evoked their nomadic in increasing numbers. Around Saxon, and Jutish raiders began
more of its territory. In the 420s the origins, as in this beautiful 446, the leading men of Britain to occupy parts of the former
Visigoths under Theodoric terra-cotta horse. addressed a desperate letter to Roman province.

at ius f
fe t h of s eo
de dos his itis cil pt he 0
45 enc cán far aw
s
un he
o f dd o nd s and Br un acce m, t ist c. dr
n o an u a d e t n , a o fl u ua s ca Peru
4H fT e tio de, le g of
B on nd
m
a gin gla dia al l rn ve 9 C us itis hr In otih es a ala z
43 my o rac ca o i er ed al
a m of be En un ri ge ha 4 4 hes hys at C Te etch tem Na m ph
ar n Th bli n C nc tin nt und at N ois gion ns ern rg pe a rti to axon and t Ep nop e th le, 50 fro gly rt
Pu sia reco nflic pire e a o
ax uth
u m
6 B d i are
o d en str Gua . 4 ple etro dese
II i 8 o o
0 C s f ain 4 D l re ei 9 V ai o S ist Mo ctrin ing re c
43 eod t to of co Em 4 4 die s pl 4 4 cia rn W 5 S so 4 4 ante eva 4 4 ler, s tw eng in K as o
pe eat p s in
Th emp ion man 4 4 in ru ited s, H ettle do s a s natu
stu nge offi rthe c. ttle gr Gen
ha ine gr ture
att nfus Ro Ga No se in inv der to s pic
co s in lea rsa div
law Ho

, th on ao
s e, ing wi
d
ian ag l k icily lli i iH f lan ds
nd uns rth an a a ty ging be We s Cu ect o i py
g u H n a om a d
an s S tre led rica
e
t r ern m til
a f
o hit We cu rlan me
ur by ma e C R ric 0 V ade ns ow Af his th for At d ath rc rn s c
s o the m ies
;
6 B ed Ro ice ur of Af dd Nor t re De in a the form
43 feat g in serv apt est rth 4 4 , inv c sig ackn orth u t s d er e an te 0 a nk Ne e So s II d him
c u No ri II 6 B ns oi un rac bu a or re r in th r
de htin ls nq ric N 5
4 ), m 0F siu ds ro
da co ise ise n I ver 4 4 agai Da ns Th tri ire 1
N ive
at 45 to do ee pe
fig an ing Ga Ga inia le o Hu ade avy Emp  38 str c. up eo succ Em
9 V
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43 mpl V h a m m 45 arci ast
co t r o ad M as E
ex fr 99
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451–465 466–500

In this undated painting Attila the Hun is shown with his army—he is said to have The baptism of Clovis the first: Clovis’s baptism made him an easier diplomatic
been turned aside from sacking Rome only by the pleas of Pope Leo I. partner for the eastern Roman Empire than his Arian neighbors.

,,[HUNS] TOOK CAPTIVE IN 456, THE VISIGOTHS, repeated elsewhere in the Roman

THE CHURCHES AND
SLEW THE MONKS
AND MAIDENS.
Callinicus, disciple of Hypatius, from Life of Saint Hypatius, c. 450
IN JAPAN, THE 5TH CENTURY SAW
THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT and
expansion of the Yamato state.
Complex irrigation systems began
to appear, and rulers built ever
larger burial mounds, such as the
1,600 ft- (486 m-) long Nintoku
mound. Ojin founded a new line
of kings, who exercised firmer
control over Japan’s main islands
from a royal center in the
Kawachi-Izumi area. Yamato
,,
encouraged by the western Empire, and the area of imperial
Roman emperor Avitus, had
invaded the Iberian Peninsula.
control shrank to little more than
Italy. Anthemius (r. 467–472) tried
The Visigothic king Theoderic
II (r. 453–66) defeated the
to recover some ground, but an
expeditionary force against
Suevic ruler Rechiarius, who
was threatening the Roman
Vandal-controlled North Africa in
468 ended in disaster. In Gaul,
province of Tarraconensis, Euric conquered almost all
and the remaining Sueves remaining Roman territory in the
retreated. Theoderic took south by 475. In 472, Anthemius
overseas contacts became more most of Spain for himself, but was overthrown by Gundobad, a
extensive, with ten diplomatic left the Romans parts of the Burgundian. Gundobad placed
missions visiting China between east coast. This policy was Olybrius (r. 472) and Glycerius
421 and 478, and increasing reversed by his successor (r. 473–74) on the throne in quick
Yamato interference in civil wars Euric (r. 466–84), who overran succession, but, despairing of the
between the Korean states of Clay bear figurine the remaining Roman territories empire’s frailty, he then left for
Clay haniwa figurines have been
Paekche, Silla, and Koguryo. in the late 470s. By the time of Burgundy. The last embers of the
a feature of rich Japanese burials
The Sasanian Persian Empire since the earliest times. The large Alaric II (r. 484–507) the Visigothic empire were contested in 475–76,
came under pressure from burial mounds of Yamato rulers kingdom encompassed almost all between Julius Nepos and
eastern nomadic groups in the contain huge quantities of them. of Spain, as well as Aquitaine and Romulus Augustulus, the son of
later 5th century. The Hephthalite Provence in southern Gaul. Orestes, commander of the
Huns moved into Bactria early in Undaunted, Attila invaded Italy in The situation in Spain was Roman army. Feeling that the
the century, and were a particular 452, but turned back short of

A ns
Sa ng lo
KINGDOM OF THE

s
threat to the Sasanians, but a Rome. Attila died after his

xo n
ito
KINGDOM OF BURGUNDIANS

Br
famine during the reign of Peroz wedding feast in 453, and his sons THE FRANKS Sl a v s KINGDOM OF
THE OSTROGOTHS
(457–84) caused them to move began a civil war that led to the .49
6

534
507
KINGDOM OF c
THE SUEVES A lemanni Lo KINGDOM OF THE GEPIDS
west again. In 469 Peroz suffered Hunnish empire falling apart. mbards
PS
AL

HS
a terrible defeat at the hands of Following the death of the Bas
que
s OT C au c a s u s
the Hephthalites. He was Roman general Aëtius in 454, IS
IG 508 B l ac k S e a
EV

5 37
captured, and only released after real power in the western KINGDOM OF TH 53
5

–5
540
0

4
leaving his son as a hostage. In Roman Empire was exercised by
55

533

535
4

EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

SASANIAN
484, Peroz sought revenge in a series of barbarian kingmakers, 540 EMPIRE
Ber 533
a new campaign against the such as Ricimer, the leader of the be rs
Atlas Mo untains Med
Hephthalites, but was defeated Roman army in Italy. In 457, KINGDOM iterr a
nean Sea
OF THE Lakhmids
and killed. Ricimer placed Majorian on the VANDALS
Ghassanids
Having demanded, and been imperial throne. When Majorian
refused, the hand in marriage of became too independent-minded,

Re
AFRICA

d
Honoria, the sister of Roman Ricimer replaced him with

Pope Leo I
The illustration on this manuscript
shows Pope Leo I, an Italian
aristocrat, persuading Attila the Hun
not to attack Rome.
Se
a
Emperor Valentinian III in 450, the Libius Severus (r. 461–65), who
he later had poisoned. Deprived Barbarian kingdoms in Europe C. 500
Hunnish king Attila (see 401–450) KEY
By 500, most of the former western Roman
marched into Gaul. He was of effective leadership, the Empire was divided among several principal Byzantine reconquests
defeated near Châlons by an army Roman Empire lost more of its barbarian successor states: the Vandals in Frankish expansion
of Romans under Aëtius and Gallic territories to the Visigoths North Africa, the Visigoths in Spain and Ostrogothic expanision
Goths under Theodoric. and Franks. southern Gaul, and the Ostrogoths in Italy. Sasanian expansion

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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

interests of the Germanic Italy, led by Odoacer. He resolved Odoacer ruled as king of Italy, but the loyalty of the old Roman
barbarians in the army were being this by commissioning the king of the legitimacy of his rule was aristocracy. In 497, the eastern
ignored, Orestes’s deputy, the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, to always questionable. In 489, an emperor Anastasius I recognized
Odoacer, revolted and deposed topple Odoacer in 489. By 500, the invasion by Theodoric’s Theodoric’s right to govern Italy,
Romulus in September 476. He eastern Roman Empire under Ostrogoths led to a four-year providing him with a secure base
did not appoint a new emperor, Anastasius (r. 492–518) was in standoff, with Odoacer blockading to consolidate his rule and extend
claiming that he ruled Italy on little danger of the implosion that himself inside the old imperial it into Gaul.
behalf of the eastern emperor had erased its western capital of Ravenna. After the In northwestern Gaul the Franks
Zeno (r. 474–91). This marked counterpart just 25 years earlier. murder of Odoacer in 493, had emerged as a threat
the end of the Roman Empire The western Roman Empire Theodoric established a regime in the late 4th century, and by the
in the west after 500 years. was replaced by a series of in which the continuation of 460s they were carving out a
However, in the east the Roman Germanic successor Roman administrative kingdom under Childeric. His THEODORIC THE GREAT
Empire survived. The long reign states. practices won successor Clovis (r. 481–511) (454–526)
of Theodosius II (408–50) had transformed that kingdom,
strengthened its position, and defeating Syagrius, ruler of a Son of Thiudmir, a king of the
after 400 the eastern empire had Roman enclave around Soissons, Ostrogoths, Theodoric spent
not had to face such direct threats and expanding along the Rhine at 11 years as a Roman hostage,
from Huns, Goths, Vandals, the expense of the Alamans in to guarantee the good
Alamanns, Burgundians, the 490s. In 507, he defeated behavior of his father. He
and Franks as the west. the Visigoths at the Battle returned home to become
Marcian (r. 450–57) of Vouillé and drove king of the Ostrogoths in 471,
had consolidated the them out of most of and for the next 17 years
eastern empire’s southwestern Gaul. In alternately allied with and
finances, leaving a the late 490s or early attacked Roman territories
surplus of 100,000 500s, Clovis in the Balkans. In 493,
pounds of gold at converted to Theodoric became the first
his death. Leo I Catholic Ostrogothic king of Italy. His
(r. 457–74) fended Christianity, rule was generally pro-
off residual setting him apart Roman, and he was buried in
Gothic threats to from other this Roman-style mausoleum.
the Balkans, and barbarian rulers
even made an who were mostly
attempt to Arians (members Saxons, and Jutes) settled in
recover North of an alternative Britain. The arrival of the Saxons
Africa in 468. Christian church). has been dated to 449, when they
Zeno (474–91) In Britain, the were invited by the British king
faced the challenge expulsion of Roman Vortigern. Seven years later, they
of the new officials had been revolted and set up a kingdom in
Germanic rulers of followed by a period in Kent. Aelle founded a kingdom in
which petty kingdoms Sussex around 477 and Cerdic, in
vied for power. These Wessex (around modern
Saxon brooch
kingdoms were vulnerable Hampshire), by 495. A British
Anglo-Saxon art in the
5th century valued abstract to coastal raiders, and, late in victory at Mons Badonicus around
geometric patterns, as seen the 5th century, groups of 500 stemmed the Saxon tide, but
on this brooch. Germanic barbarians (Angles, the respite was short-lived.

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101
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

501–526 527–540

These 6th-century ivory panels show Emperor Anastasius. He amassed a vast financial This 6th-century mosaic, from the curch of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, depicts
surplus, which his successors spent on expanding the Eastern Roman Empire. Emperor Justinian with his retinue of officials, guards, and clergy.

IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
(generally called the Byzantine
Empire from about this date),
Anastasius (r. 491–518) faced
difficulties in the Balkans, as new
groups, including the Bulgars,
pressed southward across the
Danube between 493 and 502.
More serious were problems on
the eastern frontier, where the
Persians insisted on Byzantine
financial subsidies to pay for the
defense of strategic passes in the
Caucasus against barbarian
incursions. In 502, the Persian
ruler Kavadh began a war over
the issue; the slow Byzantine
reaction allowed him to capture
Amida as well as several towns in
Armenia. Byzantine forces retook
Amida in 505, and Kavadh—
preoccupied with a Hepthalite
invasion in the east—agreed a
truce, which lasted until 527.
Anastasius was almost 60 when
he became emperor in 491, and
his place on the throne was only
secured by his marriage in 492 to
Ariadne, widow of his predecessor
Zeno. Almost immediately Zeno’s
brother Longinus revolted, and it
took six years for Anastasius to
subdue Longinus’s home area of
Isauria (in western Asia Minor).
Anastasius gained popularity by
abolishing the chrysargyron
tax for traders and craftsmen.
Prosperity continued and over his
reign his treasury amassed a
surplus of 320,000 pounds of gold.
He also implemented monetary
reforms in 498 and 512 aimed at
stabilizing the currency, which had
suffered successive debasements
in the 5th century. In religious
army officer, Vitalian, in Thrace in
513. Anastasius left no clear heir,
and on his death Justin (r. 518–27),
head of the palace guard, seized
the throne. Justin was of humble
origins and relied heavily on his
nephew Justinian. He restored
red Chalcedonian Christianity and
enamel developed good relations with the
Ostrogoths of Italy and the
Vandals of North Africa. Abroad,
his reign was generally peaceful,
apart from a minor campaign
against Persia in early 527.
In Gaul, Clovis, king of the
Franks, had defeated Syagrius,
ruler of a Roman enclave near
Soissons, in 486, followed by the
Alamanns and the Thuringians in
491. The Visigothic kingdom in
southwestern Gaul was his next
target, and it collapsed after a
major Frankish victory at Vouillé
Frankish fibula brooch
Fibula brooches were practical as in 507. Clovis’s marriage to Clotilde,
well as decorative, being used to daughter of the Burgundian king
fasten clothes.This brooch is Chilperic, led him to convert to
decorated with the heads of birds. Catholic Christianity in the 490s,
and he maintained cordial
terms Anastasius’s reign was less relations with the Byzantine
tranquil, as he was a follower of emperor Anastasius, who gave
Monophysite Christianity, which him the title of consul c. 508. Near
held that Christ had only a single the end of his reign, Clovis added
divine nature and did not combine several previously independent
human and divine in his person. Frankish domains to his kingdom,
At first, Anastasius supported notably that of the Ripuarian
Zeno’s Henotikon—an “act of Franks. On his death in 511,
union” issued in 482 that tried to Clovis’s kingdom was divided
broker a compromise between among his four sons—Theuderic,
supporters of the orthodox creed Childebert, Chlodomir, and
(established at the Council of Chlothar. This tradition of
Chalcedon in 452) and the subdivision would weaken the
Monophysites. However, later his Merovingian dynasty, as the
attitude became more pro- descendants of Clovis were known.
Monophysite, which led to serious The Merovingians ruled Francia
rioting in 512, and the revolt of an (France) until the 8th century.
THE REIGN OF THE BYZANTINE
EMPEROR JUSTINIAN (r. 527–65)
began with important reforms. In
528, he commissioned a new law
code to replace the confusion he
had inherited. The new code, the
Codex Justinianus, came into
force in 529 (revised in 534). An
enthusiastic builder, Justinian
ordered the building of the great
THEODORA (C.500–548)
Theodora, who Justinian
married in 525, had once been
a prostitute and the mistress
of Hecebolus, the governor of
Libya Pentapolis. After the
death of his adoptive mother,
Empress Lucipina (who had
opposed their relationship),
Justinian had the law changed
in 524 to allow him to marry
Theodora. Theodora became
a forceful empress, stiffening
Justinian’s resolve during the
Nika revolt and acting as the
protector of Monophysite
Christians—she was one
herself—during times of
persecution.
church of Hagia Sophia in 534.
The greatest challenge to his rule
came in 532, when rioting among
the Blue and Green chariot-racing
factions got out of hand and
turned into the Nika Revolt. The
uprising almost caused Justinian
to flee Constantinople, and its
suppression killed 30,000 rebels.
With his throne secure, Justinian
looked abroad. In 533 he sent an
army under Belisarius to
Vandal-controlled North Africa,
where Gelimer had deposed King
Hilderic, a Byzantine ally. On
September 13, Belisarius defeated
Gelimer’s army at Ad Decimum,
just outside Carthage, and Vandal
resistance collapsed. Carthage
was occupied and Gelimer was
sent as a captive to Constantinople.
The rapid conquest of the Vandal
kingdom encouraged Justinian to
intervene in Italy. An excuse was
provided by the murder in April
535 of his friend Amalasuintha,
the Ostrogothic queen. Belisarius
launched a strike against Italy in
535, landing on Sicily with 7,000
troops. Sicily was secured by the
end of 535, and Belisarius moved
into southern Italy early in 536. He
took Naples after a three-week
siege, causing the Ostrogothic
king, Vitigis, to retreat northward.
On December 9, 536, in a symbolic
restoration of the empire’s lost
provinces, the Byzantine army
occupied Rome. Rome was soon
besieged by Goths. Belisarius
finally took the Ostrogothic capital
of Ravenna in 540. Suspicions that
he planned to become emperor
led to his recall, encouraging more
Ostrogothic resistance.

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102
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 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

541–550
,,THE PLAGUE FELL UPON THE

,,
WHOLE WORLD... NOT A SINGLE
MAN IN THE WHOLE ROMAN
EMPIRE COULD ESCAPE…
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from Secret History, c. 550

Argentorate
THE LATTER PART OF JUSTINIAN’S
Franks REIGN lacked the achievements of
Geneva
Burdigala its first half. A serious outbreak of
Slavs
Tolosa Arelate
Ravenna Black Sea
plague, probably bubonic plague,
Naissus
Barcino 537–40 Rome 53 Adrianople began in Egypt in 540 and caused
Tolosa 5
537–40 Constaninople
widespread mortalities, robbing
0

Persians
Carthago Sardinia
7-4

Thessalonica
Nova 554 the empire of desperately needed
53

Tingi Athenae
Sicily manpower. Tax revenues fell,
53

Carthage Antioch
3

Med further weakening the

iterra Cyprus
533 nean Sea administration, and
Cyrene prices rose, leading to
AFRICA Alexandria
the passing of laws in
544 to reduce inflation.
KEY Further outbreaks of
Justinian’s reconquests
Vandal Italy fell to Justinian’s armies in 533, but it
Byzantine Empire, 527 plague occurred in the
was devastated by the 20-year war needed to take Justinian’s reconquests 6th and 7th centuries,
it. An attempted Byzantine reconquest of Spain Byzantine campaigns sapping the vitality of
foundered, capturing only a few coastal areas. Battle the Byzantine Empire.
In Italy, the Ostrogoths
Persia entered a new period of and their followers to serve by made rapid advances
greatness under Khusrau I paying salaries. Khusrau after the departure of
(r. 531–79), who came to the captured Antioch in 540, forcing Belisarius. Their new
throne at a time when the Justinian to pay 5,000 pounds of king, Totila, secured the
Mazdakites—a populist religious gold to regain it. He attacked area north of the Po
movement—had caused serious again, in 544, but a siege of River, and in 542 took
social tensions. Khusrau Edessa failed and so he made a control of much of
reformed the tax system and truce. A further Byzantine– central Italy. Belisarius
established a new army, Persian war (546–51) resulted was recalled to retrieve
encouraging poorer nobles in a 50-year peace. the situation in 544, but
Justinian starved him of

,,TO ME, AND TO MANY

OTHERS, THESE TWO
resources and Rome
fell in 546. Although the
Byzantines retook Rome
in 547, it fell once more
to Totila in 550. Justinian

SEEMED NOT TO BE sent two huge armies under

,,
Artabanes and Narses to finish
HUMAN BEINGS, BUT off the Goths. Artabanes entered
Ravenna in June 552, and in July
Ostrogothic brooch
This gold and enamel
VERITABLE DEMONS… Narses defeated Totila at the
Battle of Busta Gallorum in the
brooch demonstrates
the high level of

VAMPIRES. Apennines. Totila later died of his

wounds. There was still some
workmanship in the
Ostrogothic kingdom
of Italy. Its eagle
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, on Justinian and Empress Theodora, Ostrogoth resistance, but the imagery may indicate
from Secret History, c. 550 war in Italy was effectively over. Roman influence.

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103
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551–567 568–588
,,WHEN JUSTIN HAD HEARD THESE EVENTS... HE HAD

,,
NO HEALTHY OR SANE THOUGHTS… HE FELL INTO A
MENTAL DISORDER AND MADNESS AND AFTERWARD
HAD NO UNDERSTANDING OF EVENTS.
Evagrius Scholasticus, scholar and aide to Gregory of Antioch, on Justin II’s
reaction on the fall of Dara to the Persians, from Ecclesiastical History c. 595

The 13th-century Iona Abbey (pictured) was built on the site of the original

7
monastery founded by St. Columba when he arrived on Iona in 563.

MEROVINGIAN FRANCIA (FRANCE)

HAD BEEN DIVIDED into separate
kingdoms on the death of Clovis in
511 (see 501–526). Despite this,
Frankish power continued to grow.
By 558, Chlothar I (511–61), who
ruled the area of Francia around
Soissons, had absorbed the
Rheims kingdom and the region
around Paris after their rulers
died. This left Chlothar as the sole
Merovingian ruler of Francia for
three years, until his death in 561.
Francia was once again divided,
with Charibert I receiving Paris,
Guntram getting Orléans, Sigibert
Rheims, and Chilperic Soissons.
It was not until 613 that the
Frankish kingdom was reunited
under Chlothar II (r. 613–29).
Ajanta cave art
The Ajanta caves, a Buddhist holy
site in Maharashtra, India,
experienced a second major phase
of use during the 6th century.
Ireland had been converted to
Christianity by Patrick (d. 461) in
the mid-5th century and a strong
monastic tradition took hold
there. From the 6th century, Irish
monks began conducting missions
abroad. In 563, Columba
(c. 520–97) set up the abbey of
Iona on an island off Scotland’s
western coast. Iona became a
center of Irish-influenced
monasticism, which extended into
northern England, Scotland, and
Francia with the foundation of the
monastic center at Luxeuil in 590.
The Gupta Empire fell apart
after the reign of Vishnugupta
(r. 540–50); and northern India
split into a number of regional
kingdoms. A minor branch of the
Guptas ruled Magadha, but they
were swept aside by the Maukharis
of Kanauj. The region fell to the
Vardhana king Harsha, who
established an empire in the
early 7th century.
JAPAN’S SOGA FAMILY CAME TO
PROMINENCE IN 540, when Soga
no Iname was made chief
minister. Emperor Bidatsu’s
death in 585 led to a succession
dispute, from which Iname’s
grandson Yomei emerged
successful. The next emperor,
Sushun (r.586–93), had
a Soga mother, reinforcing the
family’s dominance. When Sushun
was assassinated in 593, he was
succeeded by another Soga,
Bidatsu’s widow Suiko (r. 593–
628), Suiko’s reign saw the start of
the Asuka Enlightenment, and
was a time of great confidence in
foreign affairs, state support for
Buddhism, and flourishing arts.
In 572, the Byzantine emperor
Justin II (r. 565–78) went to war
with Persia after he refused to pay
a tribute due under the terms of
Justinian’s 50-year peace deal (see
527–540). In 573, Persia struck
back, invading Syria and taking the
THE NUMBER OF YEARS
THE “ENDLESS PEACE”
OF 532 BETWEEN THE
BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND
PERSIA LASTED
fortress of Dara. On hearing this,
Justin went insane. His wife took
power, and had to agree a
humiliating peace with Persia.
In 567, the Lombards, who had
settled in the former Roman
province of Pannonia (Hungary),
destroyed the Gepids and then,
under Alboin (reign c. 560–72),
moved southwest into Italy, where
the Byzantine authorities were too
weak to resist them. In 568–69 they
occupied the plain of the Po River
and set up dukes in major cities.
By 572, when Pavia fell to them,
they had founded duchies as far
south as Benevento. Attempted
Byzantine counterattacks in 575
were a disaster. Under Agilulf
(r. 590–616) the Lombard kingdom
consolidated; the Byzantines were
limited to small territories around
Rome, Naples, and Ravenna.
Under Khan Bayan (r.c. 562–82),
the Avars—nomadic horsemen
from the northern Caucasus—
exploited the vacuum left by the
departure of the Lombards to
carve out a vast territory
around modern Austria. Their
conquest of a number of Byzantine
towns prompted Emperor Maurice
(r. 582–602) into a successful
campaign to dislodge them.

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104
Centre of Academic Solutions & Training, Lahore. 0332-4191070
 Distributed by Prof Shafaat Yar Khan for CSS Aspirants

589–599

,,
Painted c. 581–618, this fresco is from China’s Dunhuang caves, in a strategic

IN 581, YIANG JIAN, A GENERAL OF

THE ZHOU RULERS of northern
China, rebelled and took the
throne for himself as the emperor
,,
Silk Road oasis. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art.

NOT ANGLES,
BUT ANGELS.
Wendi (r. 581–604). In 589, he
invaded southern China. His
Pope Gregory I, on seeing Anglo-Saxon slaves
forces rapidly overcame those of at a market in Rome
the last Chen emperor, Hou Zhu.
Wendi was now the country’s
sole ruler and the first emperor that allowed vessels to travel
of the Sui dynasty; after three 1,240 miles (2,000 km) from
centuries of division, China was Hangzhuo in the southeast to the
finally united. Wendi disarmed northeastern provinces around
private armies and established Beijing, via Luoyang in eastern
agricultural colonies along central China. Austere, strict, and
China’s frontiers to strengthen occasionally violent, Wendi seemed
central control in remote areas. to have set the Sui dynasty on firm
He implemented a major land foundations; in the end, it lasted
reform that increased the only 14 years after his death,
number of households liable to when it was replaced by the Tang.
the land tax from 4 million in 589, In 582, Emperor Maurice
to almost 9 million in 606. Wendi succeeded Tiberius II (r. 578–82)
also extended the country’s canal as the Byzantine emperor. He had
system to form a “Grand Canal” been commander of the palace
POPE GREGORY I (590–604)
From 572 to 574 Gregory I was
prefect of Rome, and only
became a monk on his father’s
death. A man of great ability
and energy, he was involved in
resistance to the Lombards
in Italy in the early part of his
papacy, but he maintained good
relations with the Merovingians
in Francia and the Visigothic
rulers of Spain. Relations with
the Byzantine emperor Maurice
broke down over the use of the
title “ecumenical patriarch” by
the Bishop of Constantinople,
which Gregory viewed as a
challenge to his authority.
In the Balkans, the Slavs—a
non-Germanic people referred to
as “Sclaveni” in contemporary
sources—seem to have arrived
dependent on Kent—also
converted, but the infant English
Church would suffer a series of
setbacks before the last Anglo-
north of the Danube in the early to Saxon kingdoms became Christian
mid-6th century. When the Avars in the late 7th century.
moved into the region in c. 559 the
Slavs were pushed farther south.
By the end of the 6th century,
guard and then of the war against Slavic groups had settled as far
the Persians from 578. Tiberius’s south as northern Greece, the
overspending and ineffective Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic,
campaigns against the Persians, and Macedonia, as well as in
Lombards, and Avars had emptied those areas of Bulgaria, Bohemia,
the imperial treasury, leaving Moravia, Serbia, and Croatia
Maurice facing an immediate where the great Slav
financial crisis. His subsequent kingdoms of the Middle
economizing led to mutinies by Ages would later arise.
the eastern army in 588 and by In 596, Pope
that of the Balkans in 593. Maurice Gregory I sent a
made his father Paul head of the mission to Britain
Senate and his brother-in-law to revive
Philippicus head of the palace Christianity,
guard; such nepotism further following the
increased his unpopularity. invasions by pagan
In 584, Maurice renewed the Anglo-Saxons in the
war with Persia, appointing 5th and early
Philippicus to oversee it. The new 6th centuries. The
commander attacked Arzanene, missionaries set out
but his campaign was disrupted under Augustine, a
by the defection of the Ghassanid former prior of a
Arabs—former allies alienated by monastery in Rome,
the arrest of their king, al-Mundhir. and arrived in Kent
The mutiny of the eastern troops the following year.
in 588 caused Byzantine efforts to Their reception was
stall further, and in 589 they lost reasonably warm as
the city of Martyropolis (in Bertha, the wife of
present-day Turkey) to the the Kentish king
Persians. The Byzantines were Aethelberht, was
saved by the outbreak of a civil already Christian.
war in Persia; the involvement of a After Aethelberht was baptized
Sui dynasty figurine
Byzantine army in the restoration a Christian, Augustine was able to This figure depicting a trader on a
of one Persian claimant, establish a church in Canterbury. camel emphasizes China’s continuing
Chosroes II, led to the recovery King Saebert of Essex and King concern with commerce along the
of Martyropolis and Dara in 592. Sigebert of East Anglia—both Silk Road through Central Asia.

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