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Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology

A report on
CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE
Under subject of
DESIGN ENGINEERING – 1A (3130008)

B. E. II, Semester – III

(Chemical Engineering)

Submitted by:
GROUP ID: 199517

Sr. No. Name Enrollment No.

1 PARTH GANDHI 180420105013
2 KRINA VAGHANI 180420105061

GUIDED BY:
PROF. SHIREEN SINGH

Academic Year
(2019-2020)
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SARVAJANIK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project work embodied in this report Entitled “Carbon Capture And Storage”
was carried out by Parth Gandhi(180420105013), Krina Vaghani(180420105061) studying at
“Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology” for partial fulfillment of the subject Design
Engineering- 1A.This project work has been carried out under my guidance and supervision and
it is up to my satisfaction.

Date:
Place: Scet, Surat.

Prof. Shireen Singh (Prof) Dr. Swati Sharma

(Faculty Guide) (Head of the Department)

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Sr. Content Page No.

No.
1. Abstract 4
2. Introduction 5
3. Literature Survey 6
4. Canvases 12
5. Chapter 1. Capture of the CO2 18
6. Chapter 2. CO2 Transportation 19
7. Chapter 3. CO2 Storage 20
8. Chapter 4. Industrial usage of CO2 22
9. Chapter 5. Process Flowsheet 23
10. Chapter 6. Amine Volatility 26
11. Future Work 27
12. Conclusion 29
13. References 30
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Abstract

Ever since industrialization occurred, there has been an increase in the burning of fossil
fuels to meet the high energy demands. The use of such fuels causes emission of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases which lead to global warming. Such a warming
may have a highly injurious impact to life on Earth. One way to alleviate this is to reduce
the use of such fuels. An alternative method is to capture and store the emitted CO2 to
stop it from polluting the atmosphere. This is known as carbon capture and storage. This
study discusses the methods and economics associated with the same.

Keywords:
Carbon Capture by Scrubbing
Absorption
Storage
Transportation
Development of Amine Scrubbing
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Introduction

Most industries and power stations today are dependent upon the exploitation of fossil
fuels, i.e. coal, oil and natural gas to meet their demands. While these energy sources
are able to meet the needs to a large extent, they have various problems associated with
them. The aforesaid fuels are all hydrocarbons and primarily release carbon dioxide (CO 2)
on combustion.
Apart from CO2, these fuels are also known to emit other gases such as methane, oxides
of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, to name a few. These gases, which
allow the incoming solar radiation to pass through but do not allow the trapped heat to
escape, are known as greenhouse gases (GHGs). These gases, in the right proportions
are necessary for human survival on planet Earth. However, their excessive release
causes rise of temperatures on Earth. This process is known as global warming.
Over the last 100 years, global mean surface temperature has increased by 0.74 ±
0.18°C. Moreover, the rate of warming over the last 50 years (0.13 ± 0.02°C per decade)
is double that over the last 100 years (0.07 ± 0.02°C per decade). Figure 1 shows this
warming very effectively. This rise is alarming as it could lead to widespread melting of
polar ice-caps which might result in submerging of low-lying areas.
This crisis can be solved by reducing the current energy thrust on fossil fuels and shifting
to unconventional sources of energy. However, such sources have a high establishment
cost, are location-dependent and their pricing has not been competitive enough. Hence,
if we are to meet the 8–9% economic growth, drastic cuts in fossil fuel usage cannot be
considered feasible.Nevertheless, efforts to reduce CO2 emissions have been
undertaken. The maximum potential to reduce is present in five sectors, viz. power,
energy-intensive industry, transport and habitats, forestry and agriculture. It is a myth that
these reductions are low cost. However, according to the MARKAL model, the
undiscounted incremental energy system costs are US$ 800 billion and the undiscounted
energy system costs are in excess of US$ 1 trillion for CO2 reduction of 30% (ref. 2). Even
then, these reductions may not prove to be enough given the harm that human civilization
has already caused to the Earth.
• Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) techniques which remove CO2 from the
atmosphere, which involve several methods including enhancing CO2 sinks, the use of
biomass for carbon sequestration, use of natural weathering processes to reduce CO 2 in
air, etc.
• Solar radiation management (SRM) techniques that reflect a small percentage of
the Sun’s light and heat back into space
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Figure . An international comparison between human development index and per-capita

energy consumption (in KgoE).
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Literature Survey

The environmental and economic sustainability of carbon

capture and storage.
Hardisty PE, et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011.
For carbon capture and storage (CCS) to be a truly effective option in our efforts to
mitigate climate change, it must be sustainable. That means that CCS must deliver
consistent environmental and social benefits which exceed its costs of capital, energy
and operation; it must be protective of the environment and human health over the long
term; and it must be suitable for deployment on a significant scale.
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Minimization of water consumption under uncertainty for a

pulverized coal power plant.
Salazar JM, et al. Environ Sci Technol. 2011.
Coal-fired power plants are large water consumers. Water consumption in thermoelectric
generation is strongly associated with evaporation losses and makeup streams on cooling
and contaminant removal systems. Thus, minimization of water consumption requires
optimal operating conditions and parameters, while fulfilling the environmental
constraints. Several uncertainties affect the operation of the plants, and this work studies
those associated with weather. Air conditions (temperature and humidity) were included
as uncertain factors for pulverized coal (PC) power plants. Optimization under uncertainty
for these large-scale complex processes with black-box models cannot be solved with
conventional stochastic programming algorithms because of the large computational
expense. Employment of the novel better optimization of nonlinear uncertain systems
(BONUS) algorithm, dramatically decreased the computational requirements of the
stochastic optimization. Operating conditions including reactor temperatures and
pressures; reactant ratios and conditions; and steam flow rates and conditions were
calculated to obtain the minimum water consumption under the above-mentioned
uncertainties. Reductions of up to 6.3% in water consumption were obtained for the fall
season when process variables were set to optimal values. Additionally, the proposed
methodology allowed the analysis of other performance parameters like gas emissions
and cycle efficiency which were also improve.
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Reducing the energy penalty costs of postcombustion CCS

systems with amine-storage.
Patiño-Echeverri D, et al. Environ Sci Technol. 2012.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can significantly reduce the amount of CO 2 emitted
from coal-fired power plants but its operation significantly reduces the plant's net electrical
output and decreases profits, especially during times of high electricity prices. An amine-
based CCS system can be modified adding amine-storage to allow postponing 92% of all
its energy consumption to times of lower electricity prices, and in this way has the potential
to effectively reduce the cost of CO2 capture by reducing the costs of the forgone
electricity sales. However adding amine-storage to a CCS system implies a significant
capital cost that will be outweighed by the price-arbitrage revenue only if the difference
between low and high electricity prices is substantial. In this paper we find a threshold for
the variability in electricity prices that make the benefits from electricity price arbitrage
outweigh the capital costs of amine-storage. We then look at wholesale electricity markets
in the Eastern Interconnect of the United States to determine profitability of amine-storage
systems in this region. Using hourly electricity price data from years 2007 and 2008 we
find that amine storage may be cost-effective in areas with high price variability.
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A Technical, Economic, and Environmental Assessment of

Amine-Based CO2 Capture Technology for Power Plant
Greenhouse Gas Control
Rao AB, et al. Environ Sci Technol. 2002.
Capture and sequestration of CO2 from fossil fuel power plants is gaining widespread
interest as a potential method of controlling greenhouse gas emissions. Performance and
cost models of an amine (MEA)-based CO2 absorption system for postcombustion flue
gas applications have been developed and integrated with an existing power plant
modeling framework that includes multipollutant control technologies for other regulated
emissions. The integrated model has been applied to study the feasibility and cost of
carbon capture and sequestration at both new and existing coal-burning power plants.
The cost of carbon avoidance was shown to depend strongly on assumptions about the
reference plant design, details of the CO2 capture system design, interactions with other
pollution control systems, and method of CO2 storage. The CO2 avoidance cost for retrofit
systems was found to be generally higher than for new plants, mainly because of the
higher energy penalty resulting from less efficient heat integration as well as site-specific
difficulties typically encountered in retrofit applica tions. For all cases, a small reduction
in CO2 capture cost was afforded by the SO2 emission trading credits generated by
amine-based capture systems. Efforts are underway to model a broader suite of carbon
capture and sequestration technologies for more comprehensive assessments in the
context of multipollutant environmental management.
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The cost of carbon capture and storage for natural gas

combined cycle power plants.
Rubin ES, et al. Environ Sci Technol. 2012.
This paper examines the cost of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) for natural gas combined
cycle (NGCC) power plants. Existing studies employ a broad range of assumptions and
lack a consistent costing method. This study takes a more systematic approach to
analyze plants with an amine-based postcombustion CCS system with 90% CO2 capture.
We employ sensitivity analyses together with a probabilistic analysis to quantify costs for
plants with and without CCS under uncertainty or variability in key parameters. Results
for new baseload plants indicate a likely increase in levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of
$20-32/MWh (constant 2007$) or $22-40/MWh in current dollars. A risk premium for
plants with CCS increases these ranges to $23-39/MWh and $25-46/MWh, respectively.
Based on current cost estimates, our analysis further shows that a policy to encourage
CCS at new NGCC plants via an emission tax or carbon price requires (at 95%
confidence) a price of at least $125/t CO2 to ensure NGCC-CCS is cheaper than a plant
without CCS. Higher costs are found for nonbaseload plants and CCS retrofits.
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Implications of the recent reductions in natural gas prices for

emissions of CO2 from the US power sector.
Lu X, et al. Environ Sci Technol. 2012.
CO2 emissions from the US power sector decreased by 8.76% in 2009 relative to 2008
contributing to a decrease over this period of 6.59% in overall US emissions of
greenhouse gases. An econometric model, tuned to data reported for regional generation
of US electricity, is used to diagnose factors responsible for the 2009 decrease. More
than half of the reduction is attributed to a shift from generation of power using coal to
gas driven by a recent decrease in gas prices in response to the increase in production
from shale. An important result of the model is that, when the cost differential for
generation using gas rather than coal falls below 2-3 cents/kWh, less efficient coal fired
plants are displaced by more efficient natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) generation
alternatives. Costs for generation using NGCC decreased by close to 4 cents/kWh in
2009 relative to 2008 ensuring that generation of electricity using gas was competitive
with coal in 2009 in contrast to the situation in 2008 when gas prices were much higher.
A modest price on carbon could contribute to additional switching from coal to gas with
further savings in CO2 emissions.
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Canvases

1. AEIOU SUMMARY

In this canvas we study of environment , Interaction , Objects , Activities And User. In

environment, We covered the Reuse of waste carbon dioxide & Reduce the global
Warming & also Covered Reduce of Green House Effects. And it is also define the users.
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2. Product Development Canvas

First we Define the purpose of our project. In this we covered “ Provide the healthy & cool
environment. After that we define our product experience and product function. Our main
components are Sodium Hydroxide , Lithium Hydroxide , Amine as a scrubber & minarals.
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3. Emphathy Canvas

In this canvas we know about our project. For the different reviews we conclude that it is
useful for society. Or on bad stories we define how we work on it. It is useful for writer to
help in his future work.
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4. Ideation Canvas

In Ideation Canvas we explained Activities like Scrubbing, etc. Also give a Situation And
Location. In Props we use pipe lines, CO2 Purifier, Trim cooler, Absorber.
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5. Mind Mapping Canvas

This canvas highlight our whole project work included Product Functions, Components
etc.
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6. Prototype

This prototype canvas shows the flow-process of the topic.

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Chapter 1. Capture of the CO2 :

The first step of CCS is to separate CO2 from other gaseous substances since the
chimney smoke in power-plants contains only 10–12% CO2. This process is known as
carbon capture. Technologically, this is considered to be the most difficult part of the entire
CCS mechanism. Also, carbon capture happens to be an expensive process as per the
current developments. Capturing CO2 can be achieved using three following methods.

Post-combustion separation:
This involves chemical adsorption of the gas in a solvent. For instance, certain amines
such as monoethanolamine or ammonia (using the chilled ammonia process) can be used
as solvent . Fuel gas is passed through the solvent at relatively low temperatures of about
40– 50°C and then the CO2 is obtained by regeneration of the solvent at temperatures of
more than 100°C. The energy penalty for this method is regeneration of the solvent.

Oxy-fuel separation:
Oxyfuel separation is the scientifically most advanced way of CO 2 capture. Whenever a
fuel such as coal, oil or natural gas is burnt in air, the emitted CO2 combines with other
components of air including nitrogen whose composition in air is about 78%. The oxyfuel
separation method thus involves filling of the entire combustion chamber with almost-pure
oxygen and hence the emission obtained is almost entirely CO2. This is done using an air
separation unit (ASU), which works on the cryogenic principle. The energy penalty in this
method is in the working of the ASU .

Pre-combustion separation:
Pre-combustion separation involves gasification of the fuel such as coal. The fuel is
reacted with steam so as to convert it to carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This mixture is
known as synthesis gas (syngas) mixture.
C + H2O → CO + H2
Carbon Steam Carbon monoxide Hydrogen This mixture is then again reacted with
steam to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen in a reaction known as the ‘water-gas shift’
reaction.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Carbon monoxide Steam Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Carbon dioxide so formed is captured
and the hydrogen obtained in the above two steps is used as a clean fuel. For further
reading on CO2 capture.
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Figure. Carbon Capture and Storage schematic.

Figure. Overview of CO2 Capture Process And System.

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Chapter 2. CO2 transport

After CO2 has been captured by any of the aforesaid methods, it needs to be transported
to the storage site. This can be done in several ways – pipelines, boats, railways or trucks.
It is suggested that the initial pilot projects may involve transportation through trucks or
boats, but it may prove to be costly when done on large-scale. Therefore, pipeline
transportation is considered to be most viable6. The pipelines used must be of good
quality as any compromise with it may lead to CO2 leak, which is discussed later. Of
course, carbon dioxide is not combustible like natural gas, which is rather inflammable.
So, CO2 transportation is more of an economic rather than a technological barrier.

The cost of the transition would increase

Achieving the ambitious emissions reductions of the CTS would require an additional
USD 9.7 trillion in investment in power generation, transformation and industry, above
that of the RTS. To achieve the same CO 2 emissions with limited availability of CO2
storage, this additional investment would need to increase by 40%, to USD 13.7 trillion.
Most of the additional investment in the LCS relative to the CTS would be in power
generation, with an additional USD 3.1 trillion needed to accommodate the increased
electricity demand from the industrial sector and for the production of synthetic
hydrocarbon fuels from electrolytic hydrogen. An additional USD 0.9 trillion in investment
would flow directly into the industrial and fuel transformation sectors. These investment
figures do not account for the economic losses associated with early retirement of existing
assets, including an estimated additional USD 1.8 trillion in lost revenue (on an
undiscounted basis) from coal-fired power generation retirement in the LCS compared
with the CTS.
With limited availability of CO2 storage, the marginal CO2 abatement cost in the power,
industrial and fuel transformation sectors would increase significantly compared with the
CTS. By 2060, the marginal abatement cost in the power sector and in fuel transformation
would approach USD 450/tCO2, compared with USD 250/tCO2 in the CTS. For industry,
the marginal abatement cost would double to around USD 500/tCO 2 in 2060 compared
with USD 250/tCO2 in the CTS. The higher marginal abatement costs in industry and fuel
transformation would shift mitigation efforts to other parts of the energy system.
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Chapter 3. CO2 storage

After the captured CO2 has been transported to a potential storage site, it needs to be
stored. The CO2 may be stored in geological formations or oceans. The choice of the
storage site depends upon the CO2 storage potential and cost-effectiveness. CO2 storage
in oceans was initially conceived as a possible option, but due to very high environmental
risks, it is no longer considered one.

Limiting the availability of CO2 storage would increase the

cost and complexity of the energy transition

Limiting availability of CO2 storage means that power generation with CO2 capture would
almost vanish in the LCS relative to the CTS, which has around 615 GW of CCUS
capacity attached to coal, gas and biomass facilities in 2060. Coal-fired power plants
would be phased out more rapidly in the LCS, at an average of 60 GW of capacity per
year in the period 2025–40 compared with an average of 45 GW per year in the CTS. The
earlier retirements would result in lost revenue of around USD 1.8 trillion between 2017
and 2060.

Limiting CO2 storage would drive new power demand

Even with strong efficiency measures, significant new investment would be

required in the power sector in the LCS, with an additional 6 130 terawatt hours
(TWh) of electricity generated in 2060 relative to the CTS (a 13% increase). This
would require additional generation capacity of 3 325 gigawatts (GW), which is
nearly half of the installed global capacity in 2017. Most of this increase in demand
would be driven by the industrial and fuel transformation sectors, in particular due
to greater reliance on electrolytic hydrogen. In 2060 in the LCS, around 9% of
global electricity generation would be used for the production of synthetic
hydrocarbon fuels, supported by dedicated, off-grid renewable electricity
generation.
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Limiting availability of CO2 storage means that power generation with CO2 capture
would almost vanish in the LCS relative to the CTS, which has around 615 GW of
CCUS capacity attached to coal, gas and biomass facilities in 2060. Coal-fired
power plants would be phased out more rapidly in the LCS, at an average of 60
GW of capacity per year in the period 2025–40 compared with an average of 45
GW per year in the CTS. The earlier retirements would result in lost revenue of
around USD 1.8 trillion between 2017 and 2060.
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Chapter 4. Industrial usage of CO2

Carbon dioxide is an important chemical for several industries and has numerous
industrial applications. In fact, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced coalbed
methane recovery (ECBM) are considered as industrial applications by many.
• Additional revenues which can result in more demonstration projects and accelerate the
reduction of technology costs, specifically those related to capture.
• CCS project delivery experience of addressing financial, environmental and regulatory
barriers.
• Public acceptance of technologies and projects.

Carbon capture would retain a role with increased CO2 use

In the LCS, almost 24 Gt CO2 would be captured from industry, fuel transformation
and power generation for storage and use in the period to 2060, representing
around 20% of the cumulative CO2 capture rate in the CTS. CO2 use would grow
by 77% in the LCS relative to the CTS, with 13.7 Gt CO2 used cumulatively for the
production of methanol, urea and synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. The use of CO 2 in
the LCS would be less than 13% of the CO2 stored in the CTS.
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Chapter 5. Process flowsheet

The process technology using 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) that has been evaluated
by NETL to give a baseline for the solvent scrubbing process can no longer be used as a
representative baseline for post-combustion capture. A number of vendors, including
Fluor and MHI have developed processes and completed evaluations that give energy
performances substantially better than that reported in the NETL analyses. Inaddition
,arecentpaperbyAhnetal.hasillustrated all the different types of flowsheet configurations
for the amine scrubbing.
Fig. gives an example of a second generation, optimised process for CO 2 capture by
amine scrubbing using 8 molal (m) piperazine (PZ). Compared to 30 wt% MEA it has
twice the rateof CO2 absorption, 1.8 times the intrinsicworking capacity, 5 to 10% lower
heat of absorption (a disadvantage), and a maximum stripper T/P of 150 C/8 bar.
In addition to the absorber, the process would probably include SO 2 polishing with
sodium alkali scrubbing and direct contact cooling of the flue gas before the PZ absorber.
It would also usually include a water wash and aerosol removal aer the absorber. Much
of this additional flue gas contacting could be incorporated into the same vessel as the
CO2 absorption.
Flowsheet:

Figure. Flow Process Sheet Of Carbon Capture

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Features of second-generation processes:

Absorber operating T and intercooling:

In processes relying upon temperature swing regeneration, the absorber should be
operated at as low a temperature as possible with the available heat sink to maximise the
rich and lean loading of the solvent. The design in Fig. includes removing heat to 40 C in
direct contact cooling of the inlet flue gas, intercooling in the middle of the absorber, and
trim cooling of the lean solvent feed to the absorber.

Rate of CO2 absorption, k’g :

Because the optimisation of the absorber design will require lower rich and lean loading
to achieve 90% CO2 removal with a reasonable amount of packing, the rate of CO 2
absorption is an important energy parameter of the solvent. A fast rate of CO 2 absorption
facilitates reversible absorber performance at high rich and lean loading that will minimise
energy use in an optimised system. CO2 typically absorbs by the process of diffusion with
fast reaction in the boundary layer. The normalised absorption flux of CO 2 (k’ g, mol m-2
Pa-1 ) is given approximately by:

K’g = Flux/PCO2 – P*CO2 = Kam(amine)DCO2/HCO2

K’g is a property of the amine, and not of the absorber contacting device. It can be measured in a
wetted wall column or similar device. The value of k’ g at an average loading is given for a number
of solvents in. Piperazine or piperazine derivatives provide the greatest values of k’ g. Secondary
or primary amines are usually necessary to provide an acceptable rate of CO 2 absorption. Tertiary
amines and hindered amines are usually too slow to be used by themselves. Several investigators
are developing carbonic anhydrase enzymes to catalyse the CO 2 kinetics in otherwise slower
solvents. Unfortunately they have not yet developed enzymes that are effective at elevated T
(>100 C). Furthermore, the enzymes are most effective in tertiary amines and carbonate solutions
with low heats of CO2 absorption. These systems will probably not be energetically competitive
with other second generation amine solvents that can be regenerated at 120 to 150 C.

Stripper operating T:
In processes relying upon temperature swing regeneration, the stripper should be operated at the
maximum temperature allowed by solvent degradation or by the available heat supply. This
maximises the pressure of the CO2 in the first stage of the compressor. Elevated stripper T also
reduces the ratio of water vapour to CO 2 in the simple stripper overhead. The example uses
reboiler conditions of 150 C and 8 bar.
Steam pressure should be reversibly reduced before it is used in the reboiler. In this example the
steam pressure is 6 bar and could be consistent with steam extracted between the intermediate
and low pressure turbine stages of a typical coal- fired power plant. The reboiler approach
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temperature should be minimised consistent with the tradeoff of reboiler capital cost and
equivalent work loss, typically 5 to 10 K. The equivalent work of the stripper and compressor
system should be estimated from the work value of the steam heat and the compressor work to
a final pressure (typically 150 bar) by equations such as those offered by Van Wagener (above).
Effective cross exchange between the cold rich and hot lean solvent eliminates much of the
energy cost of operating with a large solvent rate. Plate-and-frame exchangers appear to permit
an economic approach T of 5 K. A cold rich bypass41 can be used to address imbalance between
the heat capacities of the rich and lean streams. With a typical working capacity of 0.8 moleCO2
kg(H2O + amine) 1 and a heat capacity of 3.5 kJ K-1 kg(H2O + amine)-1 , the 5 K approach requires
only 22 kJheat mole CO2 -1 or 3.5 to 4.4 kJequivalent work mole CO2 -1 (with stripper at 120 to 150 C).

Advanced stripper configuration:

A number of stripper configurations are available to minimise the loss of heat as water vapour.
The interheated stripper is the best of these (Fig.) . Other configurations that work almost as well
include adiabatic flash with compression, cold rich by-pass , matrix, two-stage heated bash, and
multipressure. The interheated stripper uses 10 to 20% less energy than a simple stripper. With
an interheated stripper, less than 20% of the overhead vapour is water. Therefore, anhydrous
solvents or sorbents will not significantly reduce the heat requirement by avoiding the vaporisation
of water.

Reversible stripping:
When the lean loading (or solvent low rate) is optimised to minimise energy consumption, there
is a tradeoff of sensible heat loss at high solvent rate (high lean loading) and stripping steam use
at low solvent rate (low lean loading). With a close exchanger approach T (5 K), the stripper
typically only removes enough CO2 from the rich solvent to leave the maximum lean loading that
allows for adequate CO2 removal.40 An intercooled absorber using a solvent with a fast rate of
CO2 absorption (such as 8 m PZ) should be able to achieve 90% CO 2 removal with a lean loading
that gives an equilibrium CO2 partial pressure of 0.5 kPa at 40 C and a rich loading that gives an
equilibrium CO2 partial pressure of 5 kPa at 40 C.44 Therefore, the difference between the CO 2
loading at these rich (5 kPa CO2 at 40 C) and lean (0.5 kPa at 40 C) conditions will give a useful
estimate of the working capacity of the solution.
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Chapter 6. Amine volatility

Vapour losses , Because practical amines usually include at least two or more hydrophilic
groups such as amine, alcohol, or ether, residual amine volatility at the top of the stripper can be
managed to less than 1 ppm by a water wash. Nguyen measured amine volatility in water and
showed that two or more hydrophilic groups usually produce an amine volatility less than 100 ppm
at absorber lean conditions. In solutions loaded with CO 2, diamines such as piperazine are
substantially less volatile because of speciation to ions including protonated amine and
carbamate. Hindered amines and tertiary amines with methyl groups tend to have greater
volatility. Aliphatic monoamines without other polar groups have unacceptable volatility. Several
investigators68 have been developing systems with amino acids (partially neutralised by K+ )
which should be nonvolatile ions. Other vendors may be using amines such as
hydroethylpiperazine with three or more hydrophilic groups that have practically no volatility and
may not require a water wash.
Amine aerosols. Vapour amine may condense in the absorber on submicron hydrophilic aerosol
or particulate to produce small aerosol drops that are not removed by typical contacting internals
in the absorber or water wash.69 Several pilot plants have reported amine emissions as high as
200 ppm from pilot plants with 1 to 3 ppm SO 3 in the inlet flue gas.The resulting aerosol can be
effectively removed by a fibre filter mist eliminator with a pressure drop of 150 to 250 mmH2O.
Aker Clean Carbon and MHI claim solutions to this problem. This problem could also be
addressed by using an amine or amino acid with low or no volatility.
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Future Work

Carbon dioxide capture and efficient fixation in a dynamic

porous coordination polymer:

Abstract

Direct structural information of confined CO2 in a micropore is important for elucidating its
specific binding or activation mechanism. However, weak gas-binding ability and/or poor
sample crystallinity after guest exchange hindered the development of efficient materials
for CO2 incorporation, activation and conversion. Here, we present a dynamic porous
coordination polymer (PCP) material with local flexibility, in which the propeller-like
ligands rotate to permit CO2 trapping. This process can be characterized by X-ray
structural analysis. Owing to its high affinity towards CO2 and the confinement effect, the
PCP exhibits high catalytic activity, rapid transformation dynamics, even high size
selectivity to different substrates. Together with an excellent stability with turnover
numbers (TON) of up to 39,000 per Zn1.5 cluster of catalyst after 10 cycles for
CO2 cycloaddition to form value-added cyclic carbonates, these results demonstrate that
such distinctive structure is responsible for visual CO2 capture and size-selective
conversion.

Brief Introduction
Porous coordination polymers (PCPs) or metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are emerging
as a promising class of crystalline porous materials with wide applications, including gas
adsorption and storage and heterogeneous catalysis. PCPs therefore have an advantage
over other catalysts with respect to CO2 chemistry because of their integration of the
inherent sorptive behavior with the uniform Lewis/Brønsted acidic or basic active sites
endowed by their facile tunability and modular nature, as well as their ultra-high surface
area and heterogeneous nature. Furthermore, flexibility and softness in spatial and
electronic structures can provide a dynamic space that transforms in response to guest
trapping. Flexible structures usually have lower thermal stability than rigid structures in a
single network; however, this problem can be overcome by interpenetration. Despite this,
the location of CO2 molecules in an interpenetrated PCP crystal has not yet been
reported. PCPs also impose size-slective and shape-selective restrictions through readily
fine-tuned channels and pores, displaying a molecular sieving effect. Thus our aim is to
introduce local flexibility, so effectively that CO 2 are captured by size and shape-induced
fit, and also that all the reactants still possess degree of freedom for the coupling reaction.
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Here, we report the successful design of a two-fold interpenetrated framework, Zn-

DPA·2H2O (DPA = 4,4′,4″-tricarboxyltriphenylamine and (E)-1,2-di-(pyridin-4-
yl)diazene). Their propeller-like ligands 4,4′,4″- tricarboxyltriphenylamine undergo
rotational rearrangement in response to the release and capture of guest molecules,
resulting in slight changes of their channels. The PCP shows a high affinity towards
CO2 molecules, which is clearly verified by the single-crystal structure of the CO2-
adsorbed phases and its high catalytic efficiency and size selectivity with respect to
CO2 cycloaddition to epoxides.
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Conclusion
CCS is an important transition technology such that we minimize the CO 2 emissions and
at the same time develop renewable resources.

The development of CCS is necessary because availability of a larger number of

abatement options would mean greater ease in combating climate change.

CCS is largely regarded as the technology of the future, the knowledge of CCS should
not be restricted to scientists and professors, but also be shared with school and college
students through various invited talks, articles, exhibitions, etc.
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