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FLUID MECHANICS
Vapour Pressure and A substance in liquid or gaseous phase is referred to as fluid. They
Cavitation are capable of deforming continuously under the action of shear
stress, however small the shear stress may be.
Bulk Modulus &
In solid, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluid stress is
Compressibility
proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear stress is applied,
Isothermal Bulk a solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, where
Modulus as fluid never stops and approaches a constant rate of strain.
density of substance
=
density of some standard substance at a specified temp. (usually water at 4°C)
Weight of substance N
Specific weight or weight density = g unit is 3
Volume of substance m
N kN
water = 9810 3
= 9.81 , mercury =13.6 w
m m3
er
at
w B
High Pressure
Thus a rapidly expanding vapour pocket called cavity (because they lead to cavity formation) in the
liquid flow is formed.
Because of the flow, this pocket of vapour is usually swept away from the point A where it originated
to a point B of high pressure.
Because of the high pressure at B, the cavity collapses (or, the bubbles burst). This process of
formation & collapsing of cavity is called cavitation.
Cavitation generates annoying vibrations and noise and causes damage to equipment [because it
causes erosion, surface pitting and fatigue failure].
Vapour pressure increases with temperature. Hence at higher temperature, chances of
cavitation is more ie., there is greater chance that pressure in fluid flow may fall below vapour
pressure.
Liquid with high vapour pressure evaporates readily and are known as volatile liquid. Mercury
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Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 3
has very low vapour pressure. Hence it can be used in pressure measuring equipments
so that it can measure even low pressures without evaporating.
Vapour Pressure of water at various temperatures is given below:
Temprature Vapour pressure of water in kPa
10C 1.23
20C 2.34
100C 101.3 1 atm
150C 475.8
Note that if temp is 100°C, vapour pressure of water becomes 1 atm. i.e., becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure, thus boiling starts.
BULK MODULUS & COMPRESSIBILITY
If original pressure is P in a liquid mass and its volume is V and increase in pressure dP causes
change in volume dV then
dP
Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = –
/ V
dV
stress P
[analogous to = Young’s modulus of elasticity]
strain
Unit of K will be that of pressure.
dP dP P
K
dV d
V
P
dP
RT
d T Cons tan t
dP
KT = RT P .
d
for isothermal condition in an ideal gas, KT = P
i.e. Isothermal bulk modulus pressure
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4 Chapter-1 : Properties of Fluid
P = C
dP
= C (–1)
d
dP
KA = = C = P
d
NOTE In case of liquid, effect of compressibility is neglected. However, in some case like
water hammer pressure conditon, compressibility can be taken into account.
Example 1 : If 1 m head of water = 10 kPa and 1 atm = 100 kPa, vapour pressure of water at 20°C
= 2.5 kPa, at what negative head of water, vapourisation will start.
Solution–1 : We know that
Vapourisation will start, when vapour pressure > Abs pressure
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Pgauge
2.5 > 100 + (10 × x) [where x = head of water]
10 x –97.5
x 9.75m head of water
x 9.75m head of water
Vapourisation will start when negative head of water is greater than 9.75 m
Below this vapourisation will not start.
Example 2 : The bulk modulus of water is 210×104 kN/m2. What pressure is required to reduce the
volume of water in a closed container by 2%; Also show that the increase in mass
density because of the reduction in volume by 2% will be 2% only.
dp
Solution–2 : From the definition of bulk modulus of elasticity k = ...(I)
dV
For 2% reduction in volume V
dV = 0.02 ...(II)
V
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Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 5
dP
210 × 104 kN/m2 = 0.02
dP = 42,000 kN/m2
dP = 42 MN/m2
thus additional pressure required to reduce the volume in closed container by 2% is 42
MN/m2
d dV
For constant mass in the closed contaner = = – (– 2%) = 2%
V
thus reduction in volume by 2% will lead to increase in mass density by 2%.
Example 3 : The air in an automobile tyre with a volume of 0.015 m3 is at 30ºC and 140 kPa.
Determine the amount of air that must be added to increase the pressure to 210 kPa.
Assume atm. pressure to be 100 kPa and temperature and volume to remain constant,
assuming Ideal gas equation.
Solution–3 : Since volume & temp. is constant hence mass added = 2 1 V
P2 P1 (P2 P1 ) V
= V =
RT RT RT
Initial absolute pressure = P1 = (140 + 100) = 240 kPa
Final absolute pressure = P2 = 210 + 100 = 310 kPa
We know that P1 = 1 RT
P2 = 2 RT
P1 1
[at constant Temperature]
P2 2
P 310
2 1 1
P
1 240
P1 240 240
Kg / m3
RT R (273 30) 303R
310 240
Mass added = (2– 1) V = V [ Ra = 0.287]
303R
70 70 0.015
= 0.015 kg = = 0.01207 kg.
303R 303 0.287
Example 4 : A pump is used to transport water to a higher reservoir. If the water temp is 30°C [sat
vapour pressure at 30°C = 4.25 kPa]. Determine the lowest pressure that can exist in
the pump without cavitation.
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6 Chapter-1 : Properties of Fluid
Solution–4 : For no cavitation absolute pressure should be more than vapour pressure in saturation
process.
Minimum pressure in pump = 4.25 kPa.
Example 5 : Calculate the percentage change in density of gas if it is compressed isothermally from
1000 atm to 1001 atm.
Solution–5 : We know that from ideal gas-equation
P = RT ...(i)
dP = (RT) ...(ii)
dP d
=
P
Percentage increase in pressure = percentage increase in density (for isothermal
condition)
1001 1000
= 100 = 0.1%
1000
Example 6 : The density of sea water at free surface where pressure in 98 KPa is approx. 1030 kg/
m3. Taking bulk modulus of elasticity of sea water to be 2.34 × 109 N/m2 (assume
constant) and dp = g dz, where dP = change in pressure, dz = increase in depth,
determine the density and pressure at a depth of 2500 m. Disregard the effect of
temperature.
Solution–6 : We know that bulk modulus of elasticity
dp dp
K = ...(i) z
dv d
v
We also have dp = g dz ...(ii)
From (i) & (ii)
g dz 2g dz
K =
d d
z
d gdz
2 = K
0 0
1 1 gz
=
0 K
1 gz 1
=
0 K
1
=
1 gz
K
0
At z = 2500
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Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 7
1
=
1 9.81 2500
1030 2.34 109
= 1041.24 kg/m3 ...(III)
P Z Z
1
1 gdz
dP = g dz = 0
gz
P0 0 K
0
1 gz
Put =
0 K
g K
dz = d dz = d
K g
1/ 0 gz/K gz
Kg d 1/ 0
K
P – P0 = g
= K log
1/ 0
1/ 0
1 1 gz
P – P0 = K log log
0 0 K
1
P –P0 = K log
0gz
1
K
At z = 2500 m.
1
P = P0 + K log
0 gz
1
K
1
= 98 KPa + 2.34 × 109loge 103 KPa
1030 9.81 2500
1
2.34 109
= (0.098 + 25.398) MPa [P = 25.50 MPa]
7
Example 7 : An empirical pressure-density relation for water in P / Pa 3001 / a – 3000 where
suffix ‘a’ refers to atmospheric conditions. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity and
compressibility of water at 5 atmospheric pressure.
7
P
Solution–7 : = 3001 – 3000 ...(I)
Pa a
dP 3001 7 6 d dP 3001 7 6 Pa
= ...(II)
Pa 7a d 7a
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