Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

As one of the most widely consumed citrus fruits, Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. Ponkan

is known to have a number of dietary and medicinal values. In this work, we developed a

new method using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole

time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) for qualitative analysis and profiling

of chemical compositions in Ponkan peel methanol extract According to the

chromatography retention time, UV spectrum, and exact molecular weight and high energy

fragment ions combined with information from reference standards or literature, a total of

32 bioactive compounds were unambiguously identified or tentatively characterized in the

Ponkan peel extract. The compounds included 8 flavonoid-O-glycosides, 5 flavone-C-

glycosides, 1 dimethoxyflavone, 10 polymethoxyflavones and 8 other compounds. Among

these compounds, caffeoyl-glucose, dihydrophaseic acid glycosil ester, ferulic acid hexose,

luteolin-6,8-di-C-glucoside, luteolin-8-C-glucoside, narirutin 4′-glucoside, nomilinic acid

glucoside, isolimonic acid, dihydroxy-dimethoxyflavone, and 5,7,4′-trimethoxyflavone

were characterized for the first time in Ponkan peel to our knowledge. These results showed

the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS was a powerful tool to analyze the structures of chemical

compounds in Ponkan peel. And our data will provide useful information for further

evaluating the bioactivity of Ponkan peel and the utilization of Ponkan resource (Yang et

al., 2016).
 Making a good mosquito coil. 85g total of main ingredients will be used for making a

mosquito coil. 20g of starch and 10g of charcoal is also needed to make it. The ingredient

is needed to be cut and grind using scissors, knife or mortar and pestle. The ground

ingredients is sun dried for 2 days. Then, the 20g of starch, 10g of charcoal and 100ml of

water are mixed to the ground ingredients. The mixture is heated. The entire mixture needs

to thicken and will be cooled afterwards. 6x6 inches of metal sheet like the usual mosquito

coils. After the mixture is poured into the mould, the molded mixture is sun dried for 1 1/2

days. After drying, the coil will be removed from the molder (Ignacio, 2014).

Citrus limonoids (CLs) are a group of highly oxygenated terpenoid secondary

metabolites found mostly in the seeds, fruits and peel tissues of citrus fruits such as lemons,

limes, oranges, pumellos, grapefruits, bergamots, and mandarins. Represented by limonin,

the aglycones and glycosides of CLs have shown to display numerous pharmacological

activities including anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic and insecticidal

among others. In this review, the chemistry and pharmacology of CLs are systematically

scrutinised through the use of medicinal chemistry tools and structure-activity relationship

approach. Synthetic derivatives and other structurally-related limonoids from other sources

are include in the analysis. With the focus on literature in the past decade, the chemical

classification of CLs, their physico-chemical properties as drugs, their biosynthesis and

enzymatic modifications, possible ways of enhancing their biological activities through

structural modifications, their ligand efficiency metrics and systematic graphical radar plot

analysis to assess their developability as drugs are among those discussed in detail

(Gualdani, 2016).
 A central composite experimental design was used to evaluate the influence of pH,

extraction time and liquid:solid ratio on the yield and uronic acid content of the pectin from

ponkan peel. The response surface methodology showed that the yield is positively

influenced by lower pHs, longer extraction times and higher liquid: solid ratio, whereas the

uronic acid content decreases with increasing extraction time. The conditions that resulted

in the highest yield and highest uronic acid content were defined as pH 1.6, extraction time

of 100 min and liquid:solid ratio of 36 mL/g. The pectin obtained under these conditions

(PPOP) had an experimental yield of 25.6%, below the predicted theoretical value despite

the good fit of the model (R2 = 0.96) and the galacturonic acid content was 84.5%, in close

agreement with the predicted theoretical value. PPOP was composed mainly of a

homogalacturonan with degree of methyl esterification of 85.7% and a

rhamnogalacturonan I region mainly branched by galactans. In addition, PPOP had a very

low degree of acetylation (0.1%) and average molar mass of 80,650 g/mol, determined by

light scattering. The results showed that ponkan peel may be used as a source of citrus

pectin in the regions where this species is cultivated (Colodel et al.,2018).

Mosquito coils contain a mix of substances. Along with the products that deter

mosquito biting, there are also products that hold the coil together and enable it to smolder

slowly. Mosquito coils work in one of two ways. Those that contain insecticides will kill

(or at least “knock down”) mosquitoes, while those that contain aromatic substances (such

as citronella) will repel mosquitoes or reduce the likelihood they’ll bite. Mosquito coils

and their role in killing or repelling mosquitoes has been well studied. Despite differences
between the chemical constituents of products and the ways in which they are tested, they

will generally reduce the ability of mosquitoes to bite people (Webb, 2017).

There’s growing concern about the adverse health impacts associated with the burning

of mosquito coils and sticks indoors. The insecticide products used are generally

considered safe, but it’s the particulate matter produced from a smoldering mosquito coil

that poses the greatest risk. One study estimated the particulate matter produced from

burning one mosquito coil was equivalent to burning 75-137 cigarettes. This amount of

exposure poses a health risk, but there is a lack of clear evidence that the long-term

exposure to mosquito coil smoke increases the risk of more serious health impacts such as

lung cancer. In the face of this uncertainty, the key message should be to avoid prolonged

exposure, especially in enclosed spaces (Webb, 2017).

Dengue is an acute viral illness caused by RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae and

spread by Aedes mosquitoes. Presenting features may range from asymptomatic fever to

dreaded complications such as hemorrhagic fever and shock. A cute-onset high fever,

muscle and joint pain, myalgia, cutaneous rash, hemorrhagic episodes, and circulatory

shock are the commonly seen symptoms. Oral manifestations are rare in dengue infection;

however, some cases may have oral features as the only presenting manifestation. Early

and accurate diagnosis is critical to reduce mortality. Although dengue virus infections are

usually self-limiting, dengue infection has come up as a public health challenge in the

tropical and subtropical nations. This article provide a detailed overview on dengue virus

infections, varied clinical manifestations, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and prevention

and treatment. Dengue virus gains entry into the host organism through the skin following

an infected mosquito bite. Humoral, cellular, and innate host immune responses are
implicated in the progression of the illness and the more severe clinical signs occur

following the rapid clearance of the virus from the host organism. Hence, the most severe

clinical presentation during the infection course does not correlate with a high viral load.

Alterations in endothelial microvascular permeability and thromboregulatory mechanisms

lead to an increased loss of protein and plasma. Proposed theories suggest that endothelial

cell activation caused by monocytes, T-cells, the complement system, and various

inflammatory molecules mediate plasma leakage. Thrombocytopenia may be related to

alterations in megakaryocytopoiesis, manifested by infection of human hematopoietic cells

and compromised progenitor cell growth. This may cause platelet dysfunction, damage, or

depletion, leading to significant hemorrhages (Hasan et al.,2016).