UNIT – I INTRODUCTION

Vehicle population assessment in metropolitan cities

As the motor vehicle population in India continues to increase at an annual rate of

approximately 15%, air pollution related to vehicular emissions has become the focus of
attention, especially in large cities. There is an urgent need to identify the severity of this
pollution in India. Based on an investigation into vehicle service characteristics, this study used a
series of driving cycle tests of in-use motor vehicles for their emission factors in laboratories,
which indicated that CO and HC emission factors are 5-10 times higher, and NOx 2-5 times
higher, than levels in developed countries. The MOBILE5 model was adapted to the Indians
situation and used to calculate the emission of pollutants from motor vehicles. Results show that
vehicle emission is concentrated in major cities, such as Delhi, patna, qwalior,Raipur and
karachi. Motor vehicle emissions contribute a significant proportion of pollutants in those cities,
with contribution rates of CO and NOx greater than 80% and 40%, respectively, in Delhi and
Patna. Urban air quality is far worse than the national ambient air quality standard. In conclusion,
although India has a relatively small number of motor vehicles, most of them are concentrated
within metropolitan areas, and their emissions are closely related to urban air pollution problems
in large cities.

Figure: Trends in world wide vehicle

Contribution to pollution
POLLUTION:
The mixing of unwanted and undesirable substances into our surroundings that cause
undesirable effects on both living and non living things is known as pollution.

AIR POLLUTION:
Air pollution is defined as the addition of unwanted and undesirable things to our
atmosphere that have harmful effect upon our planned life.

Major sources of Air pollution:

1. Automotive Engines
2. Electrical power generating stations
3. Industrial and domestic fuel consumption
4. Refuse burning of industrial processing, wastes etc.,

Sources of Pollutants from Gasoline Engine:

 There are four possible sources of atmospheric pollution from a petrol engine powered
vehicle. They are
1. Fuel Tank
2. Carburettor
3. Crank case
4. Engine
The amount of pollutants contributed by the above mentioned sources are as follows.
a.. Fuel tank evaporative loss 5 to 10 % of HC
b. Carburettor evaporative loss 5 % of HC
c. Crank case blow by 20 to 35 % of HC
d. Tail Pipe exhaust 50 to 60 % of HC and
almost all Co and NOx

Emittant as a Pollutant:
An emittant is said to be a pollutant when it has some harmful effect upon our
surroundings.
The primary source of energy for our automotive vehicles is crude oil from underground
which typically contains varying amounts of sulphur. Much of the sulphur is removed during
refining of automotive fuels. Thus the final fuel is hydrocarbon with only a small amount of
sulphur. If we neglect sulphur and consider complete combustion, only water and carbon dioxide
would appear in the exhaust.
Water is not generally considered undesirable and therefore it is not considered as a
pollutant. Likewise carbon dioxide is also not considered as pollutant in earlier days. But due to
increase in global warming due to CO2 which is a green house gas, now a days CO2 is also
considered as unwanted one.
Then apart from this we get sulphur dioxide a pollutant which is a product of complete
combustion. Apart from this all the compounds currently considered as pollutants are the result
of imperfect or incomplete combustion.

Effects on human health and environment:

Pollutants Pollutant Effects

Unburned Hydro Carbons (UBHC) Photochemical Smog
Nitric Oxide Toxic , Photochemical Smog
Carbon monoxide Toxic
Lead compounds Toxic

Smoke combines with fog and forms a dense invisible layer in the atmosphere which is
known as Smog. The effect of Smog is that it reduces visibility.

Human health:
a. Unburned Hydro Carbons ( UBHC ):
The major sources of UBHC in an automobile are the engine exhaust, evaporative losses
from fuel system, blow by loss and scavenging in case of 2-stroke petrol engines.
Unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons in gaseous form combine with oxides of
nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog.
UBHC + NOx  Photochemical smog
The products of photochemical smog cause watering and burning of the eyes and affect
the respiratory system, especially when the respiratory system is marginal for other reasons.
 Some of the high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to be
carcinogenic in animals. Some of the unburned hydrocarbons also serve as particulate matter in
atmosphere.

b. Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide is formed during combustion in engine only when there is insufficient
supply of air. The main source is the engine exhaust.
The toxicity of carbon monoxide is well known. The hemoglobin the human blood which
carries oxygen to various parts of the body has great affinity towards carbon monoxide than for
oxygen. When a human is exposed to an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide, the oxygen
carrying capacity of the blood is reduced and results in the formation of carboxy hemoglobin.
Due to this the human is subjected to various ill effects and ultimately leads to death.
The toxic effects of carbon monoxide are dependent both on time and concentration as
shown in the diagram.
c. Oxides of Nitrogen ( NOx ) :
Oxides of nitrogen ( NO, NO2 , N2O2 etc) are formed at higher combustion temperature
present in engines and the engine exhaust is the major source.
Like carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen also tend to settle on the hemoglobin in blood.
Their most undesirable effect is their tendency to join with moisture in the lungs to form dilute
nitric acid. Because the amounts formed are minute and dilute, their effect is very small but over
a long period of time cam be cumulatively undesirable, especially when the respiratory problems
for other reasons are found.
Another effect is that, the oxides of nitrogen are also one of the essential component for
the formation of photochemical smog.
d. Sulphur dioxide:
Sulphur dioxide from automotive vehicle is very less when compared to that emitted by
burning coal. Sulphur dioxide combines with moisture in atmosphere and forms sulphuric acid at
higher temperatures. This comes to the earth as acid rain.
Much of the sulphur dioxide combines with other materials in the atmosphere and forms
sulphates which ultimately form particulate matter.

e. Particulates:
Particulate matter comes from hydrocarbons, lead additives and sulphur dioxide. If lead is
used with the fuel to control combustion almost 70% of the lead is airborne with the exhaust
gasses. In that 30% of the particulates rapidly settle to the ground while remaining remains in the
atmosphere. Lead is well known toxic compound
Particulates when inhaled or taken along with food leads to respiratory problems and other
infections.
Particulates when settle on the ground they spoil the nature of the object on which they
are settling. Lead, a particulate is a slow poison and ultimately leads to death.

Environment:
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects
of this:
Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass
through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.

 Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the
Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
 The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in
many ways.
 Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can
contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical
compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.
 Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the
species composition of ecosystems.
 Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry
out photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.
 Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in
the food web.
 Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.

global warming
Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of
greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from
deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type
of greenhouse effect.

The most significant greenhouse gas is actually water vapor, not something produced
directly by humankind in significant amounts. However, even slight increases in atmospheric
levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) can cause a substantial increase in temperature.

Why is this? There are two reasons: First, although the concentrations of these gases are not
nearly as large as that of oxygen and nitrogen (the main constituents of the atmosphere), neither
oxygen or nitrogen are greenhouse gases. This is because neither has more than two atoms per
molecule (i.e. their molecular forms are O2 and N2, respectively), and so they lack the internal
vibrational modes that molecules with more than two atoms have. Both water and CO2, for
example, have these "internal vibrational modes", and these vibrational modes can absorb and
reradiate infrared radiation, which causes the greenhouse effect.

Secondly, CO2 tends to remain in the atmosphere for a very long time (time scales in the
hundreds of years). Water vapor, on the other hand, can easily condense or evaporate, depending
on local conditions. Water vapor levels therefore tend to adjust quickly to the prevailing
conditions, such that the energy flows from the Sun and re-radiation from the Earth achieve a
balance. CO2 tends to remain fairly constant and therefore behave as a controlling factor, rather
than a reacting factor. More CO2 means that the balance occurs at higher temperatures and water
vapor levels.

Global Emissions by Gas

At the global scale, the key greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are:

 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Fossil fuel use is the primary source of CO2. The way in
which people use land is also an important source of CO2, especially when it involves
deforestation. CO2 can also be emitted from direct human-induced impacts on forestry
and other land use, such as through deforestation, land clearing for agriculture, and
degradation of soils. Likewise, land can also remove CO2from the atmosphere through
reforestation, improvement of soils, and other activities.
 Methane (CH4) - Agricultural activities, waste management, energy use, and biomass
burning all contribute to CH4 emissions.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O) - Agricultural activities, such as fertilizer use, are the primary
source of N2O emissions. Biomass burning also generates N2O.
 Fluorinated gases (F-gases) - Industrial processes, refrigeration, and the use of a
variety of consumer products contribute to emissions of F-gases, which include
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Black carbon is a solid particle or aerosol, not a gas, but it also contributes to warming of the
atmospher
Global Emissions by Economic Sector

Global greenhouse gas emissions can also be broken down by the economic activities that lead to
their production.

 Electricity and Heat Production (25% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions) -
The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single
source of global greenhouse gas emissions.
 Industry (21% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions
from industry primarily involve fossil fuels burned on-site at facilities for energy. This
sector also includes emissions from chemical, metallurgical, and mineral
transformation processes not associated with energy consumption and emissions from
waste management activities. (Note: Emissions from industrial electricity use are
excluded and are instead covered in the Electricity and Heat Production sector.)
 Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (24% of 2010 global greenhouse gas
emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector come mostly from agriculture
(cultivation of crops and livestock) and deforestation. This estimate does not include
the CO2 that ecosystems remove from the atmosphere by sequestering carbon in
biomass, dead organic matter and soils, which offset approximately 20% of emissions
from this sector.[2]
 Transportation (14% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas
emissions from this sector primarily involve fossil fuels burned for road, rail, air, and
marine transportation. Almost all (95%) of the world's transportation energy comes
from petroleum-based fuels, largely gasoline and diesel.
  Buildings (6% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions
from this sector arise from on-site energy generation and burning fuels for heat in
buildings or cooking in homes. (Note: Emissions from electricity use in buildings are
excluded and are instead covered in the Electricity and Heat Production sector.)
 Other Energy (10% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions) - This source of
greenhouse gas emissions refers to all emissions from the energy sector which are not
directly associated with electricity or heat production, such as fuel extraction, refining,
processing, and transportation.

Emissions by Country

In 2011, the top carbon dioxide (CO2) emitters were China, the United States, the European
Union, India, the Russian Federation, Japan, and Canada. These data include CO2emissions from
fossil fuel combustion, as well as cement manufacturing and gas flaring. Together, these sources
represent a large proportion of total global CO2 emissions.

Emissions and sinks related to changes in land use are not included in these estimates. However,
changes in land use can be important: estimates indicate that net global greenhouse gas emissions
from agriculture, forestry, and other land use were over 8 billion metric tons of
CO2 equivalent [2], or about 24% of total global greenhouse gas emissions.[3] In areas such as
the United States and Europe, changes in land use associated with human activities have the net
effect of absorbing CO2, partially offsetting the emissions from deforestation in other regions.
Types of Emission
common pollutants from vehicles are

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

These are created during combustion. Vehicle engines burn a small proportion of the nitrogen
that is present in the air plus nitrogen compounds found in vehicle fuels. Diesel engines
generally produce much larger amounts of NOx than gasoline engines due to the higher
combustion temperatures.

Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

Some of these tiny particles are formed during combustion (primary PM). Others are formed in
the atmosphere through chemical reactions between the various pollutants found in exhaust
(secondary PM). PM2.5 may contain many substances including metals, acids, carbon, and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Diesel engines emit far greater amounts of PM than do
gasoline engines.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are a large class of carbon-containing compounds. In vehicle exhaust, VOCs come from
unburned or partially-burned fuel. Additional VOC emissions come from evaporation of fuel
(particularly during refuelling). Gasoline engines emit a higher proportion of VOCs than diesel
engines, due to the greater volatility of the fuel.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

CO results from the incomplete combustion of vehicle fuels. Gasoline engines emit a higher
proportion of CO than diesel engines, due to the lower combustion temperature.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

SO2 is emitted from the combustion of sulphur contained in the fuel. Most SO 2 is from diesel
engines as diesel has much more sulphur than gasoline.

Air Toxics
Vehicles emit toxic air pollutants such as benzene, 1,3-butadiene, acrolein, formaldehyde and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Some of these components are VOCs, while others
are contained in particles.

Coolants
Older vehicles may have air conditioning systems using Freon, an ozone depleting substance,
as a refrigerant. This Freon could be emitted through leaks, or during repairs. Newer vehicles
use non-ozone-depleting coolant. The coolants in newer vehicles are still pollutants as they act
as greenhouse gases.
Other emissions
The production, distribution, storage and marketing of transport fuels also cause air pollution
emissions. An example is the emission of hydrocarbon vapours during refuelling of vehicles.

transient operational effects on pollution.

The transient operation of turbocharged diesel engines can prove quite demanding in
terms of engine response, systems reliability and exhaust emissions. It is a daily encountered
situation that drastically differentiates the engine operation from the respective steady-state
conditions, requiring careful and detailed study and experimentation. On the other hand,
depleting reserves and growing prices of crude oil, as well as gradually stricter emission
regulations and greenhouse gas concerns have led to an ever-increasing effort to develop
alternative fuel sources, with particular emphasis on biofuels that possess the added benefit of
being renewable. In this regard, and particularly for the transport sector, biodiesel has emerged
as a very promising solution.
The target of the present work is to review the literature regarding the effects of diesel-
biodiesel blends on the regulated exhaust emissions of diesel engines operating under transient
conditions (acceleration, load increase, starting and transient cycles). The analysis focuses on all
regulated pollutants, i.e. particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and unburned
hydrocarbons; results are also presented for combustion noise