EM.ES.

15 Mechanical Engineering ‫ مختبر الميكانيك الهندسي‬41

Lab.

Experiment.(1)
The determination of the resultant of two forces (or more)

Introduction
Many of the quantities that you will encounter in physics are vector
quantities having both a magnitude and a direction. In this lap different
methods will be used in determine the addition of vectors .With the most
practical being analytically i.e the mathematical method. When summing
vectors .there is one vector whose magnitude and direction. Can be used to
replace all of the combined vectors and it is called the resultant. The
resultant has a counterpart vector with equal magnitude but opposite in
direction. This vector is called the equilibrant . The equilibrant is aptly
named since when added to the vector sum it brings the vector sum to a state
of equilibrium.

Theory
According to Newton's second law, the change in the motion of an
object is determined by the net, external force acting on the object,
i.e.,
∑
………………………………………….…. (1)
Where m and a are the mass of the object and the acceleration of the object
respectively. There exists a single force R .which when exerted on the same
object will produce the same acceleration a , i.e R=ma if
R=∑
……………………………………………………………….(2)
The force R is called the resultant (or sum) of all the individual forces
Fi acting on the object.
A set of forces is said to be concurrent if their ''lines of action'' all pass
through a common point. (See a standard text for a more complete
treatment.) If a set of concurrent forces act on an object, the object can be
made to be in equilibrium (a=0) by the application of an additional force to
the object. This additional force . The
one that a condition of equilibrium to
exist. Is called the equilibrium. E.

Note that
E+R=0 , or

E = -R

You shall use three methods to

determine the equilibrant for sets of
forces.

Experimental Analysis of Forces

Shown to the right is a Force table.

Strings are attached to a center ring and placed over a pulley. A mass is
placed on

the string' free and to produce a downward force and redirected over the
pulley to the center ring .For the forces to be concurrent the ''lines of action''
of the strings must run through the center pin of the table and the center pin
can be thought of as the origin of the coordinate system .The pulleys can be
positioned at the necessary angles to create forces at any given angle . After
all the forces to be added are placed. The equilibrant can be determined by
placing another force at an angle and mass that will center the ring on the
pin. This force is the experimental equilibrant.
Graphical Analysis of Vectors

The purpose of graphical analysis of vectors is to give an idea of the

magnitude and direction of a resultant or equilibrant. If one were given two
vectors a=150@0˚ and b=225@145˚and drew them as shown in Figure 2 (a)
the magnitude or direction

Of the resultant or equilibrant is not obvious. However the tip to tail method
used in Figure 2(b) plainly gives an idea of the magnitude and direction for
either the resultant or as shown in the figure the equilibrant. The magnitude
or direction of the vectors a and b were not altered only the placement of
where vector b was changed and with vectors this is allowable as long as the
vectors magnitude and direction remains unaltered.
b

E b

a a

(a) (b)

Figure 2

It is important to pay attention to the quadrant to which the vector Points. A vector
pointing towards the fourth quadrant as the vector E does in Figure 2 b would have an
angle greater than 270˚ but Less than 360˚.

Procedure
It is important to realize that you are evaluating sets of forces by three
different methods. The results of any method should only be used to
compare results to the other methods not as part of the solution to the other
methods.
Concentrate in acquiring the experimental data first for each data table ,the n
move on to the graphical. The analytical portion can be performed outside of
the lab.
Experimental
1. Using the masses and angles indicated in the data table for part 1; place
pulleys at the indicated angles and route a string over the pulley.
2. Suspend masses from the string equal to what is given in the data table
,remember that the hanger is 50 grams.

3. To resolve the equilibrant experimentally use one of the free strings and
pull on it and find the direction which will center the ring about the pin.
Place a pulley at this angle route the string over the pulley and suspend a
mass hanger from the string.

4. Slowly add mass to the weight hanger, after adding a mass to the hanger
pull on the string to center the ring about the pin and release, equilibrium is
achieved when the ring remains stationary after the string is released.

5. Repeat these steps for each data table.

Graphical
1. A plain sheet of paper can be used. A Cartesian coordinate system is not
necessary. To determine the equilibrant graphically, first select a scale to
draw by i.e 1cm=100gm-wt.
2. The tip to tail method is explained in the theory portion of this unit and
shown in figure -2(b). You will draw one graphical representation for the
forces given in each data table. The angle of each vector is measured in
respect to the horizontal and its magnitude drawn to the selected scale.

3. When using the tip to tail method, the equilibrant is the vector drawn from
the tip of the last force to the tail of the first… The magnitude is determined
by measuring the equilibrant with the ruler and multiplying by the scale
factor that was chosen.

4. Use the protractor to measure the angle of the equilibrant in respect to the
horizontal. This can be upon the thickness of the drawn lines.

Analytical
1. The theory section discusses using mathematical analysis to analytically
determine the resultant but is in the opposite direction i.e.θR+180˚
 Data Sheet 1
PART 1 Tow Vectors at a Right Angle

Resultant

Forces(gm-wt) Experimental Graphical Analytical

(gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees

F1 300 <0˚

F2 650<90˚

PART 2 - Tow vector

Resultant

Forces(gm-wt) Experimental Graphical Analytical

(gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees

F1 650 <30˚

F2 600<160˚

PART -3

Resultant

Forces(gm-wt) Experimental Graphical Analytical

(gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees (gm-wt) degrees

F1 400 <0˚

F2 650<120˚

F3 300< 230◦
Mathematical Analysis of Vectors
An analytical method to evaluate vectors will be discuss below. The
equilibrant of the two vectors a and b, which was measured graphically in
Figure – 2, can be broken done into their rectangular x and y components.
When the + x-axis is assigned as the 0˚ direction and the angle θ, is
measured from the horizontal in the counter clockwise direction then

ax=a cosθ and ay=a sinθ ax=150 cos0 ay=150 sin0

bx=b cosθ and by=b sinθ bx=225 cos145 by=225 sin145

Next sum all the x-components together and sum all the y-components.

Rx=ax+bx Ry=ay+by

Rx=ax+bx =150cos0+225cos145=150+(-)184.3=(-)34.31

Ry=ay+by=150sin0+225sin145=0+129.1=129.1

The magnitude and angle of the resultant are then found by using equations
[5] and [6] .

R
= √( ) ( ) √( ) ( )

ΘR= ( ) ( ) ( )

The magnitude of the resultant is determined to be 133.58;however, the

angle given by a calculator can be confusing .Calculators will give angles
from 0 to ± 90 .To make any sense of the answer the calculator gives from
equation you must keep in mind the Cartesian coordinate system .A
positive y value and a negative x value indicate that the vector points into
the ǁ quadrant .The vectors angle therefore will be greater than 90
measured counter-clockwise from the +x-axis. To determine the correct
angle from the negative angle given by the calculator one must go clockwise
from the –x-axis, so that 180 - 75 =150 as measured from the +x-axis.

The equilibrant vector , E ,has the same magnitude as the resultant R but its
direction is in the opposite direction (θ±180 ) where 0 ≤θ≤ 360 .
The parallelogram method
We will apply in our experiment some of the technique that used by
adding vectors in order to get the resultant.
-Forces are drawn with suitable graph scale.
-As shown in Fig (3) two vectors A and B and the angle between both of
them.
-To determine the resultant, Complete the parallelogram. For both of the
vectors and magnitude of R could be found by using cos. law.
= +

B R

The signal is for using the angle which A

subtracted from 180˚.
Fig.3
(complementary corner angle)

The direction of the resultant R could be found by using sin law:

The object of this laboratory session is to experimentally and graphically

measure the equilibrant and compare them with calculated expectations.

.1. It important in the experimental work that follows that the

strings tied to the ring exert forces on the ring that are directed
perpendicular to the ring.

2. The magnitude of all the forces in this lab session should be

expressed in units of gram weights (gm-wt). One gm-wt is the
weight of an object with a mass of 1 gram.
 Experiment No. (2)
The determination of Friction Coefficient between two
surfaces
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to measure frictional force coefficients
for an object sliding across a surface . also we explore and test the model (
theory ) of constant frictional coefficient.
1 4 3

mg 2

Fig.1

Equipment
1. Sloping surface
2. weight (mass)
3. smart pulley w/ clamp
4. friction block (mass M)
5. angle fixed
Introduction
If you think of friction at all , you probably consider it to be an energy –
wasting . It convert useful energy into heat it slow and eventually stops all
motion . But the fact is you could not live without friction .You couldn’t
walk or drive a car , you couldn’t eat with a frok , you couldn’t pick up
anything unless you could somehow get your hand under it and even if you
could hold a pencil or pen , you couldn’t write on paper.
So friction is vitally useful to you . sure it wastes energy , reduces a
machines efficiency ,
Wears out its moving parts , and creates heat , but it also allows your hands
to grip objects and it provides traction between your shoes (or tires) and the
ground .
The nature of friction is quite complicated , but its effect is straightforward .
in the study of the motion of objects , you treat friction as a force between
two adjoining surfaces . unlike inertia which resists any changes in an
objects motion the friction resist putting it in motion . if the object is made
to move anyway , friction resists keeping it in motion .
A frictional force, like all forces is a vector quantity. Its magnitude depends
on (a) the material of the two objects or substances are made of . (b) The
smoothness of their surfaces , and (c) how tightly they are being pressed
together is direction is always opposite to (a) the component of the applied
vector velocity of an object if it is moving . In this experiment you will
examine the “laws of friction “between two solid objects in contact, and
determine the coefficients of friction between their adjacent surfaces.
Theory
We use the word friction to describe the resisting force that arises when
we slide, or attempt to slide, a solid object on a solid surface . In machinery ,
the adjoining surface may slide back .And forth in a straight line or may
rotate like an axle in a bearing. We use a different word .
 Drag , to describe the resisting force that ,arises when a solid object
moves through a fluid (a liquid or a gas ). This is what causes a boat , a
raindrop , or a parachutist to have a maximum speed ( when the applied force
equals the drag force) or what causes a parachutist to have a maximum speed
(when the applied force equals the drag force ) or what causes a spacecraft
re-entering the atmosphere to heat up . In this experiment , you will
investigate the friction between a solid object and a solid surface .
The frictional force is always directed parallel to the surface between the
objects. Experiments have shown that the magnitude of the frictional force
depends on the materials the objects are made of on how smooth or rough
the surfaces in contact are , and on the magnitude of the force pressing the
objects together . This “pressing together “force is called the normal force
because it is always normal to the surface.
Counter to what you might suppose, the frictional force does not depend
on either the area of contact between the objects or the relative speed
between them , as long as the speed isn’t too great . The relationship
between the frictional force and the normal force is expressed by the linear
equation:
Ff = µ FN
………………………………………………………………………………..(1)
Where the Greek letter µ (mu) is a dimensionless constant of proportionality
called the coefficient of friction, Ff is the frictional force , and FN is the
normal force .
You everyday experience tells you that are two different kinds of friction. A
force of static friction occurs when two objects are at rest relative to each
other and you attempt to make one of them slide over the other one. This
static frictional force arises to oppose any applied force trying to cause
motion along the surface of contact. (Fig .2)
 w

Fr P

FN

Fig.2

The most familiar example of static friction is walking. The friction

between the soles and the ground prevents your shoe from sliding when you
push your foot backward against the ground. The forward reaction force
(Newton is third law ) of the ground against your foot is the force that causes
your body to move forward. If the coefficient of friction between shoe and
ground is too low , such as when the ground is covered with ice , you foot
dose indeed slide when you push backward on the ground , and you don’t
walk. The magnitude of this frictional force is related to the magnitude of the
normal force by the equation.
Ff ≤ µs FN
…………………………………………………………………………………………(2)
Where µs is the coefficient of static friction between the materials of the two
surfaces . The meaning of the inequality in this relationship is that the static
frictional force is a vector that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
to the applied force . The frictional force increases as the applied force
increases from zero up to a maximum value given by µs FN . If the applied
force exceeds this value , then the surfaces begin to move relative to one
another .

Another kind of friction occurs when the two surfaces in contact are moving
relative to each other. The kinetic frictional force is also characterized by a
proportionality constant this time called the coefficient of kinetic friction .
The kinetic frictional force is therefore given by:
Ff = µk FN
Note that in general µk < µs for any two materials.
 The coefficient of friction between two surfaces is primarily related to
their roughness. Even a surface that appears to be smooth can actually look
quite rough when examined under a microscope as in Figure 2 . When you
place a flat-bottomed block of wood on a flat aluminum track , the
microscopic peaks and valleys in the bottom surface of the block tend to
interlock with those in the track below , like two sheets of sandpaper placed
face to face when you attempt to slide the block on the track , the interlocked
micro-irregularities of the two surface oppose the force that you apply ,
giving rise to the static frictional force .

Fig .3

Note that as long as at least one micro-peak remains locked in place ,the
block cannot slide. Thus , to a good approximation, the static frictional force
does not depend on the contact area between the surfaces. To free the locked
surfaces without breaking off the micro-irregularities, you must raise the
block over the bumps, overcoming the force pressing the block against the
track . If the track is horizontal ,this force is simply equal to the block’s
weight . However , if the track is inclined at an angle as shown in Figure (4)
,only the component of the block’s weight that is perpendicular to the track
(mg cos )contributes to the force pressing them together. From Newton’s
third law, you can see that this normal component of its weight is equal to
the normal force.
FN direction of motion

Fr
Mg sinϴ

Mg cosϴ mg
ϴ

Fig.4
 Therefore, to avoid confusing , always use the normal force rather
than the weight to calculate frictional forces ,even when the surface is
horizontal and the normal force is equal to the weight.
Figure (4) includes a free-body diagram of the forces acting on the block.
The block’s weight, mg , has been replaced by its two components : mg sin
parallel to the ramp and mg cos normal to the ramp. If the block is in
equilibrium, either at rest or sliding with constant velocity , the net force on
the block must equal zero . The only way a vector can be zero is for each
component to be zero ;so FN=mg cos and Ff = mg sin . For the block at
rest, Ff is the kinetic frictional force.
You can solve for the coefficient of static friction. As long as the block is
stationary, Ff increases with mg sin as the ramp is elevated .Maximum
static friction occurs when the elevation angle is enough to break the static
friction and cause the block to slide .So you can write:
( ) ( )
µs= = (max)
( )
…………………………………………………… (4)
similarly , you can solve for the coefficient of kinetic friction. If the block
is sliding at constant velocity ,then it is also in equilibrium and :
µs= = …
…………………………………..(5)

Using similar methods ,you can find the coefficients of friction for a block
sliding on a horizontal track. Referring to Fig. (5) , m1 is the mass of the
sliding block and m2 is the hanging mass. The weight of the hanging mass
exerts a tension T on the sliding block which depends on m1, m2, and the
angle θ at which the track is inclined. If m2 is sufficiently large, calculated
from these values ; µs Mg = mg

µs = m/M …………………………………………..…….(6)
 FN

Ff M1 F = mg

F W = m1 g m2

Fig.(5)

Direction of motion

N T

Mg sinϴ

Fr
Mg Mg cosϴ mg

Fig (6)

If the block mass (M) set on inclined surface with (ϴ) angle as shown
in the fig (5) , the static frictional coefficient can be calculated from these
values:

Mg sinϴ + Fr =mg
Mg sin ϴ +µs . Mg cosϴ = mg

µs = ( m / Mgcosϴ ) - tanϴ

If the block mass (M) sliding down word when release weight (m)
…fig(5) in this moment we can find the resultant of the forces acting on the
block and determine the static frictional coefficient by equation :

Mg sinϴ - Fr = mg

Fr = µs . Mgcosϴ dividing by ( Mgcosϴ)

µs = tanϴ - ( m / M cosϴ)

Procedure

Determination of µk and µs (equilibrium)

1) Use cleaning solution and paper towels to thoroughly clean the track's
surface where the block will slide.

2) Weight the wood block and record its mass mb in table 2.

3) Use the rod clamp and ring stand to raise one end of the track such that its
surface is at an incline. The angle of inclination can be adjusted by raising
and lowering this end of the track.

4) place the block on its wood surface at the high end of the track as shown
in Figure 5.

5) Adjust the block of inclination θs so that block just begins to slide without
an initial push. Try to avoid any sharp bumping or jarring of the block by
raising and lowering the track as gently as possible.

6) Record this angle θs in Table 2.Calculate and record µs.

7) Place the block on the track, and adjust the angle of inclination θK so that,
with an initial push, the block slides down the trck with a constant velocity.
8) Record this angle θK in Table 2. Calculate and record µk .

9) Place additional mass ms on top of the block , and record the new total
mass mb + mw in table (2) . Repeat steps 4-8 and record your results in table
2 .Calculate the percent difference between the values of µs and µk found
using different masses.
Weight the ϴs µs θK µk
block(mb)
1.
2.
3.

mb + mw ϴs µs θK µk
1.
2.
3.

Table (2)
 Experiment No. (3)
Centroids and center of gravity

Purpose of experiment : determination and calculation of centroids to some

shapes

INTRODUCTION
A body of weight (w) is supported by a string attached at A , as shown
in figure (1) . The only external forces acting on the body are it‫׳‬s weight and
the reaction exerted by the string .Equilibrium of the body can exits only if
these two forces are equal , opposite , and collinear .The line of action of the
weight w can be determined , therefore by the line of action of the support.
Let the body be supported in a new position by the string nose attached
to B .The body will shift its position so that the line of action of the weight is
again collinear with the string .Thus two positions of the line of action of the
weight are determined experimentally .The intersection of these positions of
the line of action determines a point which is defined as the center of gravity
of the body , this is the point through which the action line of the weight
always passes.

From the above discussion it is apparent that the problem of locating the
center of gravity of the body acts.

B
c.g

Figure (1)

Center of gravity of a flat plate

 The analytical location of the center of gravity is simply an application of
the principle of moments ; that is , the moment of the resultant is equal to the
moment sum of its parts. As an example , consider the flat plate of irregular
section shown in figure (2). A pictorial as well as front and side views is
shown divides the plate into small elements having weight W1,W2 , etc. ,
which act at the center of each element. These gravity forces from a parallel
force system , the resultant of which is the total weight W of the plate.

w1 W

z w2

c.g

y x

0 x

z x2 x1

x x

x1 x2

w1 w2 w2 w1

0,y
W 0, x w
y

Figure (2) coordinates of the center of gravity

Let the coordinates of each elemental weight be (x1 , y1) , ( x2 , y2 ),

etc.., and coordinates of the resultant weight be ( x , y ) , as shown in fig(2).
Note the use of the bar sign. In this book the coordinates of a resultant – be it
force, weight , or area- are always distinguished by a bar sign . The
coordinates are read as “ bar x ,” etc. Taking moments of the weights about
the Y axis , we get: w

w x = w1x1 + w2x2 + ………..= ∑ wi xi …………….(a)

With respect to the X axis , we have ;

w y = w1y1 + w2y2 + ………. = ∑ wi yi …………….(b)

These equations merely state that the moment of a weight W about an axis is
equal to the moment sum of its elemental weight.

IMPORTANCE OF CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF AREA

In subsequent work on strength of materials , the student will find the

location of centroid of an area of great important . for example , he will learn
that in order to produce uniform stress distribution, the loads must be placed
so that the line of action of their resultant coincides with the centroids of the
cross section of the member. The position of the centroid of an area is also
important for determining the location of the neutral axis in the bending of
beams, for in strength of materials it is shown that the neutral axis line zero
stress ) passes through the centroid of the cross section of the beam.
An axis passing through the centroid of an area is known as centroidal
axis . the next chapter , which deals with moments of inertia , will make
clear the great importance of the position of centroidal axes of area . many
other instances of their importance will come to the students attention in his
engineering studies.
Of equal importance to the position of a centroid is the moment of an
area. We recall that the moment of an area with respect to an axis was
defined as the product of the area multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from its centroid to the axis . In dynamics, the moment of area is used to
determine the displacement of a body subjected to variable forces . In
strength of materials , it is used to determine shearing stresses in beams. In
addition , the moment of an area is extensively used for determining the
 deflection of beams by the area-moment method. These instances, as well as
many others that the student will encounter, should indicate the importance
of a permanent, not a temporary, knowledge of centroids and moments of
area.
‫جدول بعض المساحات المنتظمة وأبعاد مركز ثقلها‬
shapes A X Y

y
0
c
r or 0.424r
y
x

r x C
y
Or 0.424 r Or 0.424 r

0
r

c x Or 0.424 r

x
 shapes A X Y
Y b

b.h 1/2 b ½h
H h
C
X

h 0 1/3 h
c

h b/3 h/3
c

b
y

r
x x 0 0
 Experiment No. (4)
The Centroid of combination area

To find the centroid of combination areas we have to discovering the

moment of area of each parts of the body as the equation below;

∑
X=
∑

∑
Y=
∑

A X Y AX AY

Part mm2 Mm Mm mm3 mm3

Total
Example:

Find The Centroid of combination area as request

y
r = 1.5 cm

4 cm
2
x
4 cm 4 cm

‫مثــال‬

A X Y AX

cm2 cm cm cm3
Part AY

Cm3

1 16 2 2 32 32

2 8 - 1.333 1.333 -10.666 10.664

_
3 7.068 2 2 - 14.136 - 14.136

Total 16.932 7.196 28.528

X= = 0.425 cm

Y= = 1.684 cm