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DR/ABDULMAJEED ABDULRAZAG
STUDENT/ LOAI KHALIFA
ID/IBB058
7. Application Layer
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
1. Physical Layer
The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics at each layer. Basically, layers 7 through 4 deal with end to end communications between data source and destinations,
while layers 3 to 1 deal with communications between network devices. On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers
(layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The
highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer and the data link layer
are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the wires, for example) and is responsible for
placing data on the medium.
Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and operations
Encodes and decodes data; encrypts and decrypts data; compresses and decompresses data
Frames packets
Application Layer
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) application layer includes the
functionalities specified in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) application, presentation,
and session layers. The TCP/IP application layer provides applications such as remote file
systems, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) clients, and Web browsers with access to the network
communications subsystem. This layer also includes a number of utility protocols, such as
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS), which aid in
managing and increasing usability of TCP/IP networks. In addition to Windows components,
the application layer also encompasses custom applications.
2-PHYSICAL LAYER:
The basic hardware needed to set up online communications is:
• a computer
• a modem
• a telephone line.
The overall speed of online communication is governed by the speed of the modem and the
speed of the communications link.
An ordinary telephone line is the cheapest but not the fastest link. An ISDN line has a greater
bandwidth and will send data much faster.
Modem
A modem (MOdulator/DEModulator) converts the data from your computer from digital form
(O’s and l’s) into analogue or wave form so that it can be sent over the telephone line. This is
because the telephone line was originally designed for speech.
1. analog
o Continuously variable signal.
o Small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful.
o Lot of errors with noise over long distance.
o Used for phone call: A certain number of errors may not matter much
with speech.
2. digital
o Only n values (e.g. just 2 values).
o Small fluctuations in the signal are not meaningful. Analog signal is
quantised. Any signal close to a particular value will be interpreted as
that value.
o Less errors with noise over long distance.
o Used for computer data: A single bit wrong would be disaster
o
Data Transmission from one point to another is either transmitted in parrallel or in serial.
This is dependant on the type of carrier or media used. Serial transmission only requires a
single “wire” or line where as parallel transmission will require more for example 8.
Following Diagram illustrates the Conversion of Serial data to Parallel
Microwave is similar to radio waves. Due to the earths curvature and as microwaves travel in
straight lines, microwaves stations can not be 30 miles apart. This is one key reason why you
may experience no reception on your cell phones; you may be out of reach from a
transmitter /receiver.
Hence the need for many receivers/transmitters in a small geographical area (Cells)