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Annotated Bibliographies for Module 2

#1: Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 77-91). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.

This section focuses on the input of information and what occurs when it enters the brain.
The two major “inputs” are visual and audio material. Neither of them can stay in the brain
on their own; they need to be processed in the working memory. However, if these bits of
information, or cues, are missed by the learner, then it can lead to poor performance. It is
important to use cues to channel the attention of the learner. For example, this can be seen
on text with colors/fonts, or even auditory signals to attract the learners attention to the
teacher. Furthermore, the learner is more successful if they perceive the meaning of the
task to be significant.

Also, if certain task can become automatic than learner can spread their attention to other
sections of the task. In turn, this lowers frustration levels when working on problems. But
this varies amongst individuals. This would explain why your third grade teacher made you
memorize your multiplication facts; prior knowledge helps the learner succeed. Moreover,
the way the data is organized and contextualized, in combination with past experience, can
affect the way the learner perceives the material (p. 84). The working memory can only
store 7± bits of information (p. 86). Instructors need to be aware of this and give the learner
ample time to encode. This way the information is moved to long term memory because it
is deemed meaningful. This occurs through repetition and encoding. Encoding integrates
new material with schema. The way the information is organized makes it more meaningful
to the learner. This would explain the importance of teaching tools like Thinking Maps.
These tools help the learner get more organized.

#2: Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.

In this passage Baddeley sums up the working memory process. The working memory
contains 3 parts; central executive, visuospatial sketch pad, and the phonological loop.
While there is some debate in how the working memory functions, essentially the
phonological loop temporarily stores verbal input and the visuospatial sketchpad stores
visual images. Meanwhile the central executive manipulates that data. The primary function
seems to be the ability to “temporarily store information as part of the performance of
complex cognitive task” (p. 559). Meaning, the working memory must act as a system in
order to coordinate incoming data and multiple processes at the same time. Learners with
that ability to use their working memory at high level seem to be more successful. The
research shows there is a high correlation between reasoning skills and working memory
capacity (p. 557).

I found that the information derived from analyzing the phonological loop was extremely
important to educators. While the loop can only “hold” these sounds for 1-2 seconds, the
data suggest that short term phonological storage yields to long term phonological learning
(p. 558). This is important because it appears that the phonological loop is important to
acquire vocabulary.
The irrelevant speech effect was particular interesting. Schools, businesses, and workplace
are creating a more open environment that contain collaboration spaces. In these
environments it is possible to hear a lot of extraneous noises. This effect shows that loud
noises do not pose a disruption when the learner had to recall data (p. 558). However,
spoken words did prove to be an issue. This implies that these collaboration spaces, where
multiple groups may be talking, are not necessary best suited for learning.

#3: Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our
capacity for processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81.

Miller is able to put a lot of research together so that the reader can tell that the human
brain is limited in both absolute judgment and immediate memory. The brain is not able to
receive, process, or remember large quantities of information (p. 12). However, when the
brain was able to chunk information together, the ability to recall information improved. This
process is called recoding. This process is determined by the fashion in which the learner
organized the material. Miller states the “recoding is an extremely powerful weapon for
increasing the amount of information we can deal with” (p. 11). Therefore, instructors cannot
give learners more than 7 bits of information or they become overloaded. Now, if the
information is recoded into chunks of information the learner will be able to process more
information. Furthermore, when the instructions were given in advance the judgments of
the learner became more accurate (p. 8).

Educators can often run short of time during a lesson and then shorten the lesson by
removing the reflection time. However, this suggest that the reflection time is the most
important. It is here where students have the opportunity to recode the information learned.
This recoding, which is usually verbal, allows the learner to decipher the information and
store it. The way the learner recodes varies greatly by individuals. But the point is they are
able to retrieve that information when they need; otherwise, it may not be stored at all.
Moreover, it appears that breaks in the lesson to give the learner an opportunity to recode
would be beneficial as well.

#4: Kalyuga, S. (2010). Schema acquisition and sources of cognitive load. In J.L. Plass, R.
Moreno, & R. Brünken, Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 48-64). New York: Cambridge.

Kalyunga examines the sources of acquiring schema and the effects that certain cognitive
loads can have. Schema is stored in long term memory and plays a critical role in how we
learn (p. 48). However, if there is no schema present then there are random processes that
occur in order to find patterns, or some connection to the new information. Direct instruction
would benefit the learner in this case. If the learner is considered and expert than they
there could be multiple schema strung together. Experts have the ability to chunk incoming
information. The more familiar they are with the concept, the bigger the chunks of
information. This gives the working memory the ability to process more data. Moreover, if
the learner has previously built schema, some of the information might already be
“automated”. Meaning, the learner does not need to think about that bit of information and
concentrate on the unfamiliar part and “enable transfer and learning” to occur (p. 50).
Again, this decreases the stress on the working memory.

Kalyunga also echoed Mayer’s Coherence Principle stating that extraneous information has
a negative effect. However, in the past I only considered extraneous information if it was
immediately present in the text/graphic. Kalyunga points out that extraneous information
can be multiple things (i.e.-written/verbal instructions).

The implication of this is that instructors need to really hone in on the design element of
their lesson. The level of schema that the learner possess is an important starting point.
This can seem like a monumental task for any classroom teacher. This is why differentiated
instruction and scaffolding are critical to learner achievement. Differentiated instruction can
provided direct instruction for novices (p. 57), problem solving that triggers previous schema
for intermediate learners, while designed activities can be used to activate past schema of
experts (p. 58).

#5 (additional): Honoré, N., & Noël, M. (2017). Impact of Working Memory Training
Targeting the Central Executive on Kindergarteners’ Numerical Skills. Journal of Education
and Training Studies, 5(5), 131. doi:10.11114/jets.v5i5.2131

I chose this article because I wanted to know more about working memory in younger
populations. This is a research paper that is trying to determine if training effects the
working memory in Kindergarten students. Research has shown that “the stronger
association between the CE and numerical and arithmetical skills reinforces the importance
of using a training program focusing on the CE to impact arithmetic” (p. 139). So, it is
believed if you can strengthen the CE, then learners will be more successful in math related
skills. Previous studies have shown positive results, as well as insignificant results. Here,
students were taught visual encoding based strategies as part of the experimental group.

After the training sessions were over, the students were tested and there was a significant
difference of the working memory in the groups that were provided training. Also, there was
no significant difference in the control group. This suggest that these (at least some)
strategies were effective.

Interestingly though, the students were tested 6 months later (and in first grade now). In
both groups, there was no significant effect. With the exclusion of a strategy (called
categospan) that was geared toward the central executive, there were no other long term
effects for these strategies in any group. The authors suggest to show children multiple
strategies (p. 140). Then, maybe they could pick a strategy that would work best for them.
Therefore, long term effects may still be possible.

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